ENGR0011
L03
THE GENETIC ENGINEERING OF ALGAE TO PRODUCE A MORE
EFFICIENT BIOFUEL
Taylor Shippling (trs67@pitt.edu)
As society evolves, so too must the way in which it is
powered. Thus, genetic engineers must continue to pursue
the modification of algae to yield a more efficient biofuel.
This is my position because I believe that, with more
research and more work, algae fuel can provide an efficient
source of renewable energy in the future. Genetic
engineering has the capability of making the fuel even more
efficient, and thus it is an option that should not be
overlooked. To understand why genetic engineers should
continue to improve algae-based biofuel, we must look at
why algae-based biofuel is a preferable form of alternative
energy, the relevant technology used in the genetic
engineering of algae for fuel, and analyses of the problems
that currently exist for algae-based biofuel and genetically
engineered algae.
INTRODUCTION: ALGAE-BASED
BIOFUELS AND THE QUEST FOR CLEAN,
SUSTAINABLE ENERGY
“There’s an old saying that the definition of insanity is
doing the same thing over and over and expecting a different
result. Oddly enough, that is our current energy policy, and
it’s not a winner,” explains Dr. Robert Criss, professor of
earth and planetary sciences at Washington University in St.
Louis [1]. As the earth becomes more populated and more
industrialized, the rate at which our natural, non-renewable
resources are depleting becomes more alarming. Because of
this, scientists, policymakers, and leaders at major energy
corporations have begun to intensify their efforts to find
cheap and renewable ways to match the energy production
of oil.
The search for cheap and sustainable alternative energy
keeps those concerns in mind, with the hopes of providing
the most benefit for the most people. In this search, the
relatively new discovery of algae-based biofuels has shown
a great amount of promise. Many types of algae grow
quickly and are adaptable to a variety of environments [2].
The fuel produced from refined algae is efficient and
comparable to corn-based ethanol, which is already a
popular alternative to gasoline [2]. To make an even better
biofuel, genetic engineers are attempting to increase the
benefits and capabilities that algae currently has. There are
several ways that this is happening, including but not limited
to increasing the hydrogen-producing capabilities of algae
[3], speeding up the rate of photosynthesis to increase
growth [4], and improving the durability of algae strains [5].
It is crucial for everyone—not just engineers and
politicians—that this research must be done. As consumers,
people are constantly affected by the availability and price of
energy, be it fuel for our transportation, electricity of our
homes, or other necessities. As inhabitants of earth, people
of current and future generations are going to be affected by
the environmental impacts of today’s decisions.
This topic holds special importance to me, as I have
grown up in an era in which gas prices, energy prices, and
concerns about the environment and use of non-renewable
resources have only ever increased. As a future engineer, I
realize that the work that I do must be focused on
maintaining a healthy environment and searching for ways
to make daily life sustainable, so that my children and
grandchildren may enjoy this planet in the same way that I
do. This most certainly involves finding the best sources of
energy possible.
An Ethical Framework for the Genetic Engineering of
Algae for the Production of Biofuels
While “classical” forms of engineering, such as
electrical, civil, or mechanical, focus on making “the
properties of matter and resources of energy in nature
available to human use,” [6] genetic engineering extends
these principals into living organisms. As it deals with living
things instead of the nonliving products that engineers have
exclusively dealt with in the past, genetic engineering has
caused many new debates regarding ethics and morality.
George Wald, Nobel Prize winning biologist and Harvard
professor, explained this well when he wrote that “[genetic
engineering] presents probably the largest ethical problem
that science has ever had to face. Our morality up to now has
been to go ahead without restriction to learn all that we can
about nature. Restructuring nature was not part of the
bargain.... For going ahead in this direction may be not only
unwise but dangerous. Potentially, it could breed new animal
and plant diseases, new sources of cancer, novel epidemics”
[7].
It is clear that the great power that genetic engineering
gives researchers comes with great responsibility to work
safely and carefully to provide their services. It is for that
reason that genetic engineers must adhere to universal codes
of ethics, like engineers in other fields do. In the context of
the genetic engineering of algae to create more efficient
biofuels, it is beneficial to look at the ethical codes of the
National Society of Professional Engineers and the
American Institute of Chemical Engineers. These codes of
ethics serve as guidelines for professional, responsible, and
proper behavior when dealing with materials and clients.
In this paper, a look at the genetic engineering of algae
to produce more efficient biofuels will be accompanied by a
University of Pittsburgh, Swanson School of Engineering
October 30, 2012
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Taylor Shippling
discussion of both of these codes of ethics, to gain an
understanding of how engineers actually put these codes into
use. Additionally, this paper will also include a discussion
on the importance of engineering education, in the context of
current issues in engineering as well as ethics.
hundred times the amount of biofuel that could be obtained
through corn, soy, or palm oil [2].
An analysis between the costs and benefits of many
different types of biofuels would demonstrate that algaebased biofuel is an ethical choice for engineers to pursue.
The code of ethics of the American Institute of Chemical
Engineers has as one of its goals that chemical engineers
will “uphold and advance the integrity, honor and dignity of
the engineering profession” by” “using their knowledge and
skill for the enhancement of human welfare” [7]. Because
algae-based biofuels have fewer disadvantages than many
other types of biofuels, further research into the subject
would be an ethical way for engineers to use their
knowledge and skills to improve the daily lives of everyone.
Further research into this field could enhance life even more,
especially with the help of genetic engineering.
ALGAE-BASED BIOFUEL AS A VIABLE
ALTERNATIVE ENERGY OPTION
In the past decade, the search to find inexpensive,
sustainable energy sources to serve as alternatives to oil has
intensified as oil prices, as well as concerns about the
security and stability of the global oil market, have steadily
increased. To the average consumer, the fact that gasoline
prices have just recently reached an all-time high in many
places—such as an average of over $4.60 a gallon in
California [8]—could serve as reason enough to at least
explore other energy options. Policymakers and those
working in the energy industry, however, know that the
reality is much harsher for many reasons. An increasingly
volatile oil market can contribute to a decrease in trade
between countries [9] and slow economic growth and
recovery [10]. Emissions from automobiles and buildings
which use oil as a source of energy account for forty-two
percent of the world’s CO2 emissions, a number which is
continuously rising and is a major contributing factor to
pollution, which in turn can result in diseases such as heart
disease and asthma [11]. For all of these reasons, it is clear
that the time to work toward ending oil dependence is now.
Alternative energy can take many forms, all of which
have both positive and negative aspects. Electricity can be
generated through the energy found in wind, water, and the
sun, but the steep price of the technology needed to harness
these forms of energy makes these options unattractive
compared to using gas or oil [12]. Nuclear power plants
continue to be a cheap way of producing electricity, but
given recent events such as the Fukushima disaster in Japan,
it is an unpopular option [12]. Recently, ethanol-based
biofuels have begun to enter the mainstream energy market
and have been poised as a competitor to gasoline for
transportation uses, but the land used to grow the crops
necessary for its production could be used in ways that may
be more beneficial in the short and long term—a study has
shown that if the European Union had used the land on
which it grew crops to produce biofuels to instead grow
wheat and maize, 127 million people could have been fed for
an entire year [13].
Algae-based biofuels, on the other hand, have many of
the benefits of other alternative energy sources, particularly
those of other biofuels, but lack the disadvantages. Many
strains of algae can be grown in places with little to no fresh
or clean water and don’t necessarily have to use land that
would be better suited for growing food [2]. Acre for acre,
algae has the potential to produce between thirty to one-
TECHNOLOGY AND METHODS USED
IN THE GENETIC ENGINEERING OF
ALGAE
Compared to other sources of energy—oil or those which
are generally considered to be “alternative energy”
sources—algae-based biofuel is relatively new. As such,
methods of genetically engineering algae strains to be more
efficient in the production of biofuel are still in their infancy
[14]. One of the main goals of genetic engineering in this
context is to improve algae strains so that they can create a
source of alternative energy that is more environmentally
friendly and sustainable than oil. This is a demonstration of
another goal within the National Society of Professional
Engineers’ code of ethics, “Engineers are encouraged to
adhere to the principles of sustainable development in order
to protect the environment for future generations” [15]. This
part of the code of ethics is becoming increasingly important
as the need for sustainable energy continues to grow. This
has spurred an intense academic and global interest in the
subject of genetic engineering and its processes with regards
to biofuels.
In this context, the goal of genetically engineering algae
is to accelerate the evolution of hardy strands which can
convert sunlight and carbon dioxide into lipids or
triglycerides which can then be refined into biofuels, much
like the way that corn or soybeans are [16]. Genetic
engineers are attempting to do this by splicing new genes
into strands of algae and manipulating their current genes.
At its most basic level, genetic engineering is a threestep process. First, genes of an organism which have a trait
wanted in another organism are cut using a restriction
enzyme, an enzyme that can essentially “scan” a DNA
strand for a particular sequence which contains the desired
trait and cut the molecule after the sequence is completed.
That sequence is then inserted into a plasmid, a genetic
structure which has the ability to copy a genetic sequence
which can then be used elsewhere. Finally, through a process
known as transformation, the newly-copied DNA is
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crude,” or crude oil made from refined algae, per day. This
would be contrasted with the average production output of
nine barrels per day of oil wells in the United States [19].
These experiments, and countless others, demonstrate the
importance of genetic engineering—in the energy industry
and beyond. As a future engineer, the potential to change the
world that this type of engineering has is incredibly exciting.
In the context of algae-based biofuels, genetic engineering is
essential, as it may take researchers one step further in
finding the optimal strain of algae to use for fuel, thus
hopefully mitigating the current disadvantages associated
with this form of alternative energy.
incorporated into the DNA of the desired organism. This is
achieved by inserting the copied DNA into a chromosome of
the organism, where it accepts—or rejects, if the process is
done incorrectly or if the gene isn’t suitable for the
organism—the new genes into the organism [17].
Genetic engineers manipulate algae in a number of ways
to try to create a better biofuel. Many types of algae have the
capability to release hydrogen by splitting water molecules,
using energy from the sun. The hydrogen can then be taken
and used to generate electricity or combined with other
molecules to create fuels such as methane. Genetic
engineering plays a role in increasing the rate at which this
process is done—generally, very little hydrogen is released
because the organism is using the energy needed to produce
sugars to sustain their own growth. Through years of
research, engineers at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology’s Center for Biomedical Engineering have
found a way to introduce an enzyme into the algal cells
which can reduce the amount of sugars produced and use the
energy for hydrogen production instead. Research team
member Iftach Yacoby says that adding this enzyme to algae
“increases the rate of algal hydrogen production by about
400 percent” [3]. If this method is adopted into the
mainstream, it may lead to a clean and simple way of
producing energy.
In addition to manipulating the hydrogen production of
algae, genetic engineers are also working on ways to speed
up the photosynthetic process of algae. Researchers within
the L.C. Smith College of Engineering at Syracuse
University have developed a process which scatters blue
light on a culture of green algae. The researchers discovered
that “by varying the concentration and size of the
nanoparticle solution they could manipulate the intensity and
frequency of the light source, thereby achieving an optimal
wavelength for algal growth” [4]. This experiment is
especially important, as the engineering of algae strains that
have genes that are poised to have high levels of growth can
be used in a myriad of other experiments, ones which may or
may not be related to the creation of biofuels.
Finding the most effective way to create biofuel takes
many different experiments. Sapphire Energy, an energy
company based in San Diego, has claimed to have
engineered over 4,000 strains of algae [18]. Through several
years’ worth of splicing experiments, the startup has
discovered hundreds of thousands of traits held in various
genes in algae strains, including yield enhancement and
stress tolerance, which are incredibly important in creating
durable algae strains which can efficiently be refined and
turned into fuel [5]. Despite admitting that they are still in a
relatively early stage of exploring the doors that genetic
engineering will open for algae-based biofuels, Sapphire
Energy has moved from the laboratory into the field with the
creation of an algae-to-oil “farm” in Columbus, New Mexico
earlier this year, which can successfully produce oil from
algae grown on the site. In the next two years, it hopes to
have a production output of one hundred barrels of “green
POTENTIAL PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED
WITH GENETICALLY ENGINEERED
ALGAE
Economic Concerns
From a scientific standpoint, algae-based biofuels may
seem beneficial. With more time and research, it may be
able to provide a viable alternative to oil and natural gas that
has many of the advantages but few of the disadvantages
that current biofuels such as ethanol have.
From an economic standpoint, however, algae-based
biofuels are far from perfect. Particularly for consumers,
algae fuel may not be an attractive option. At the current
time, if algae fuels were on the market and if cars had the
capability of processing them, a gallon of fuel would cost
approximately eight dollars [20].
This concern is valid for energy companies as well.
Considering how new algae fuel is when compared to things
such as traditional gasoline or even ethanol fuel, the
equipment and technology needed to create it is still
expensive. Biochemical engineer John Sheehan, a team
member in a National Renewable Energy Laboratory adds
that for energy companies and laboratories “even relatively
inexpensive [technologies] are going to add dramatically to
capital costs” [21].
These costs may turn investors away initially, but after
analyzing the costs of algae-based biofuel versus the benefits
of using them, scientists and policymakers should realize
that it is not an alternative energy option that should be
entirely dismissed. The future of energy security and
affordability absolutely needs algae in its arsenal.
Biological Concerns
As with many other genetically engineered organisms,
concerns exist with the existence of these “unnatural”
organisms outside of the laboratory setting. Because they are
not found in the wild, biologists and ecologists worry that if
genetically engineering algae strains are either introduced or
find their way into natural habitats, they may not survive,
they may become invasive species, or they may produce
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toxins and algal blooms which could harm other organisms
in the ecosystem [22].
The trait that makes algae an attractive organism for the
production of biofuels is that it grows much faster than corn
or soy. This, however, also makes it more difficult to track
how it interacts with its environment. This lack of
knowledge also creates an ethical dilemma. The canon of the
code of ethics of the National Society for Professional
Engineers is that engineers “shall hold paramount the safety,
health, and welfare of the public” [15]. If engineers are
creating strains of algae that are likely to produce harmful
blooms, they are causing harm to the public by making
beaches unsafe to swim in, by contaminating water used for
drinking, cleaning, or bathing, and in many other ways.
Thus, if engineers are to conduct only ethical work, the
research and development of algae-based biofuels may not
be as fast of a process as it ideally could be.
To increase awareness about this ethical problem and
implore researchers to pursue a solution, Allison Snow,
professor of evolution, ecology, and organismal biology at
Ohio State University, wrote a paper in which she suggests
that researchers compare genetically engineered strains of
algae with naturally occurring algae to fully understand the
differences between the two and that the algae be genetically
engineered to not be able to survive in the wild, for fear of
the negative impacts that it may have on a natural
environment [23]. Doing this, and taking necessary steps to
further improve the safety of algae strains in the future,
would be consistent with the American Institute of Chemical
Engineers’ code of ethics, which implores that its members
take responsibility of their actions and take necessary action
if they “perceive that a consequence of their duties will
adversely affect the present or future health or safety of their
colleagues or the public” [7].
Many in the field, however, believe these fears are
overblown. Stephen Mayfield, a biology professor at the
University of California, San Diego, explains that the
process of genetically engineering organisms can make them
weaker and that the “idea that [scientists] can make
Frankenfood or Frankenalgae is just absurd” [18]. Fear of
the unknown is very common and sometimes even
understandable, but in this context, the only way to conquer
that fear and ease these concerns is to carry on with more
research.
teamwork, and communication [24]. Writing is one of the
most commonly used forms of communication, and thus
having students complete writing assignments such as this
current set of papers is teaching an incredibly valuable skill.
This is explained further by Marc J. Riemer of Monash
University in Clayton, Australia, who wrote “skills such as
problem solving, communications, interpersonal skills and
critical and independent thinking should be fostered in
engineering education, not just because they are qualities
that employers look for but because they should be part of
any tertiary education” [24]. While much of our engineering
curriculum focuses on the technical aspect of the field—
mathematics, physics, chemistry, computers, et cetera—it is
also essential that it includes components on
communication.
Because it has made me understand how to write in a
clearer, more professional manner—a manner in which I
must communicate in the workplace in the future—I have
found this assignment to be very helpful. Moreover, while it
was initially frustrating to have to write a paper about an
issue that I knew very little about, as I begin to reach my
conclusion, I see its value. This paper has taught me many
things—how to do the necessary research for a university
level paper, how to properly follow formatting instructions,
and perhaps most importantly, how to synthesize my
research and my perspective on a subject in a way that can
be easily followed by others. If nothing else, a lack of prior
knowledge has allowed my paper to remain clear and
understandable—had I gone into this paper with an immense
amount of knowledge in the fields of genetic and chemical
engineering, it’d be likely that I would have included a great
deal of technical jargon and explanations that only other
people in those fields would understand. Instead, I had to sift
through many other sources of information which had that
problem and find a way to explain them in such a way that
they would support my position as well as be easily
understood by non-experts. The result of this was that my
explanations, particularly regarding the actual technology
and methods of genetic engineering in the context of my
paper, were sophisticated and technical enough to show that
I have learned something, but still are rudimentary enough to
show that I am clearly not an expert. To that effect, I believe
I have achieved the goal of the paper—to communicate my
findings clearly and in a professional, yet understandable,
manner.
Including an ethical perspective, particularly one which
looks at multiple codes of ethics, in a discussion of current
issues in engineering is essential. Ethical codes cannot, and
should not, provide a fix-all solution for challenges—in
engineering or in life. Instead, codes of ethics serve to
provide a framework that demonstrates to all professionals,
or any group to which an ethical code made apply, how to
act in an appropriate and consistent manner while trying to
find solutions to problems that can benefit the largest
amount of people. It is important for an exploration of ethics
to take place in a freshman engineering program, as it is
THE IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATION
REGARDING CURRENT CHALLENGES IN
ENGINEERING
Engineers do not live in a vacuum nor in an ivory
tower—they must be able to work with others, including
non-engineers, and be able to communicate with their
coworkers, clients, and the public. In fact, in addition to
expertise in their field, employers are demanding that their
employees now have excellent skills in decision-making,
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Taylor Shippling
good for students to begin to understand what will be
expected of them in the workplace and society as soon as
possible. [25]
stage of development, it still has plenty of room to improve
and become an even more viable alternative energy option in
the future.
The potential of algae-based biofuel can be fully realized
through genetic engineering. For the past several years,
genetic engineers have found ways to use gene splicing and
modification to improve algal growth rates, potential fuel
yields, and strength, among other things. These experiments
allow researchers to more fully understand algae-based
biofuels and thus how to solve the problems that are
currently associated with their creation and existence outside
of a laboratory setting.
Decreasing the world’s dependence on oil is a goal
which many people in different areas of science,
policymaking, and economics share. Keeping this common
goal in mind, as well as their own ethical compulsion to
strive for sustainability and the preservation of the
environment, genetic engineers should continue modifying
the genes of algae to create a biofuel that is sustainable,
inexpensive, and high-quality—an oil alternative that is
“green” in every sense of the word.
CONCLUSION: THE NECESSITY TO
GENETICALLY ENGINEER ALGAE FOR
BIOFUEL
A steady growth in population and an increase in
concerns about humankind’s impact on the environment
have intensified efforts to find sources of energy which can
be efficient, cheap, and available to many people while at
the same time providing an attractive alternative to oil.
Algae-based biofuel is one of the energy sources that should
be examined most closely.
Algae is an attractive candidate for biofuel production
because it can be grown in many places and has a relatively
high yield of fuel per amount of land on which it is grown,
especially compared to other potential biofuel sources such
as corn and soy. As algae-based biofuel is still in a young
[6] C. Mitcham. (1990), “Ethics in bioengineering.” Journal
of
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Ethics.
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ADDITIONAL SOURCES
D. Biello. (2011). “Can Algae Feed the World and Fuel the
Planet? A Q&A with Craig Venter.” Scientific American.
A. McKay. (2012). “The New Paradigm: Volatile Oil
Markets.”
Southern
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“Oil
and
Trouble.”
The
Economist.
http://www.economist.com/blogs/freeexchange/2011/04/ene
rgy_prices
as Brandon McCartney for helping me stay focused on my
writing and staying positive when I got frustrated.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank Nupur Gupta for discussing possible
topic ideas with me, to help get ideas flowing. I would like
to thank members of my high school debate team, Leo
Zausen, Aeryn Smith, and Will Caugherty for helping me
with choosing a specific topic and sharing with me their
knowledge and perspective on the issue I had chosen. I
would like to thank Ruth Ziesloft for assisting me in editing
my paper. Finally, I’d like to thank my brother Jon, as well
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