i
SCIENCE BEHIND ETHNO KNOWLEDGE
DEEPAK PRASAD KAYASTHA
This thesis is submitted to the Tribhuvan University
in partial fulfilment of the requirements for
The Master of Philosophy in Education
August, 2011
ii
Abstract
This study has focussed on the perception of science under ethno knowledge. I had done in-depth
study of some households of Bhaktapur and Kaski districts where three generations of Newar
family were living together. Underpinning the science behind traditional practices was the main
area of this study as many such practices still prevail in many Nepali communities. What was
more intriguing was that people have followed such practices unknowingly about the science
hidden into it. Most arguably, practices related to health care and hygiene, culinary practices, and
housing are some of the areas that inherit significantly from our traditions. Qualitative approach
was used in this research to articulate the use of ethno-science between the two different
generations – grandparent and grandchildren. Focus group discussions, interviews, and
observation of artefact and practices constitute the major data source. This information was
processed and interpreted with the help of Ethnography. The study found that there is a big gap
between the traditional knowledge and the modern knowledge for which modern technologies
appears to be the cause. Except in a few areas, most traditional practices have their own
explanations and the process for which there were particular values attached to them. In the
study, intergenerational value difference in scientific knowledge was also identified and the ways
to bridge the intergenerational knowledge through educative process was highlighted.
iii
Library Release Form
Name of the author
Deepak Prasad Kayastha
Degree
Master of Philosophy in Education
Year of this degree granted
2011
Permission is hereby granted to Tribhuvan University to reproduce single copies of this thesis
and to lend or sell copies for private, scholarly or scientific research purposes only.
The author reserves other publication and other rights in association with the copy right in the
thesis, and except as herein before provided neither the thesis nor any substantial portion thereof
may be printed or otherwise reproduced in any material form whatever without author’s
permission.
-------------------------------Deepak Prasad Kayastha
2011
iv
Declaration
I hereby declare that this thesis has not been submitted for the candidature for any other degree.
I understand that my thesis will become a part of permanent collection of Tribhuvan University
Library. My signature below authorizes release of my thesis to any readers upon request.
----------------------------Deepak Prasad Kayastha
2011
v
Acceptance and Recommendations
The undersigned certify that we have read, approved, and recommend to the Faculty of
Education, Tribhuvan University for acceptance, a thesis entitled SCIENCE BEHIND ETHNO
KNOWLEDGE submitted by Deepak Prasad Kayastha in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the degree of MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION WITH SPECIALIZATION IN
LEADERSHIP STUDIES.
.......................................
Dr Vishnu Karki, Ed. D.
Thesis Supervisor
…………………………
Dr Hridaya Bajrachharya
External Examinar
……………………………
Dr Rukmani Bajrachharya
External Examinar
August, 2011
vi
Dedication
To my parents
vii
Acknowledgement
I sincerely would like to express many thanks to Dr Vishnu Karki for his immense support and
advice to complete this thesis. I am also equally thankful to Dr Bidya Nath Koirala for his
massive cooperation throughout my work.
I am grateful to the Principal of Budhanilkantha School, Mr N P Sharma, Vice Principals- Mr R
N Dawadi and Mr K Khulal for their full support and co-operation during my M Phil study. I am
also very indebted to Mr Mukunda Amagai, Mr Rajesh Manandhar, and Mr Ramchandra Dahal
for their immense help and support during the gestation period of my thesis. I am so much
thankful to Mr Noor Jung Shah for his full cooperation to convert my thesis into the APA style.
I would also like to extend my gratefulness to the families of Mr Prem Lal Malla for assisting me
during my fieldwork and all the households and the informants that I got support during my field
visit.
I appreciate my wife, Sushila for her patience and support throughout my M. Phil. Study.
I am equally indebted to my brother Mr Rabindra Kayastha, the assistant professor of
Kathmandu University for his full guidance throughout my study.
viii
Table of Content
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... ii
Library Release Form .................................................................................................................... iii
Declaration ..................................................................................................................................... iv
Acceptance and Recommendations ................................................................................................ v
Acknowledgement ........................................................................................................................ vii
CHAPTER I .................................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1
Background of the study ............................................................................................................. 1
Medicinal Practices ..................................................................................................................... 4
Daily Living Practices................................................................................................................. 7
Problem Statement and Rationale of the Study ........................................................................ 12
Research questions: ................................................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER II................................................................................................................................. 13
Literature Review...................................................................................................................... 13
Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................................. 26
Chapter III ..................................................................................................................................... 37
Methodology ............................................................................................................................. 37
Selection of the Site .................................................................................................................. 37
Tools/ Instruments .................................................................................................................... 38
Participant Observation ............................................................................................................. 38
Focus Group Discussion ........................................................................................................... 39
Science behind traditional practices.......................................................................................... 45
ix
A. Daily Living Practices:......................................................................................................... 45
1. Structure of the old houses ................................................................................................ 45
2. Ethnoscience in Chulo ...................................................................................................... 47
3. Location of chulo .............................................................................................................. 48
4. Cloud formation ................................................................................................................ 49
5. Additional importance of smoke ....................................................................................... 49
B. Health Related Practices....................................................................................................... 50
1. Health awareness of the grandparents: ............................................................................. 50
2. Clever use of the products of fire wood ............................................................................ 50
3. Use of abir ........................................................................................................................ 51
4. Use of suraii for storing drinking water ........................................................................... 51
5. Pond water /river water is regarded as a drinking water. .................................................. 51
Findings and Discussions .......................................................................................................... 52
1.
Knowledge on house construction .............................................................................. 54
2.
The thermodynamics of chulo .................................................................................... 58
3.
The scientific location of chulo .................................................................................. 61
4.
Cloud formation: the contribution of chulo ................................................................ 62
5.
Multipurpose of smoke ............................................................................................... 64
B. Health Related Practices....................................................................................................... 64
Health awareness of the grandparents: ..................................................................................... 64
1.
Fire wood and smoke hazards: ................................................................................... 64
2.
The science on the fire wood used in the chulo .......................................................... 66
3.
Use of abir (vermillion) .............................................................................................. 67
x
4.
Suraii for health and local economy ........................................................................... 68
5.
Pond water /river water: healthy practice. .................................................................. 69
Chapter VI..................................................................................................................................... 72
Conclusion and Implications..................................................................................................... 72
References ..................................................................................................................................... 81
Appendix –I .................................................................................................................................. 85
Appendix -II .................................................................................................................................. 94
1
CHAPTER I
Introduction
Background of the study
Long years back, people were trying to understand the nature and hence remained closer to the
nature. They were not aware of the advent of the modern science and technology. Over the time,
considerable change has happened in science and technology and their use in addressing basic
human needs such as housing and food habits. However, what is more intriguing is to note that in
most traditional cultures, age old practices, especially on shelter and food habits, are still
prevalent and that they have sustained healthy living. What is the science or the knowledge
behind traditional practices that contributed to continuation of the traditional practices, and that
people are still making satisfactory living with the practices? Current research is more or less an
attempt to find scientific reasoning on some of the most common activities that many people
have been practising in traditional ways mostly in rural areas but is also common in some urban
households in Nepal.
While this traditional science and the knowledge that was transferred from generations to
generation was initially in my mind, I did some exploration into the literature where I could find
something like ethno-science which was quite a new concept. There was an abundance of
literature on ethno-mathematics, ethno-botany, ethno-biology but the word ethno-science was
relatively few in the literature search. As a science teacher, lack of information on this new
knowledge domain “ethno-science” made me inquisitive to explore the knowledge or the science
behind traditional practice and that how it explains ethno-science in our Nepalese context.
2
To begin with, I did preliminary survey of some households in which three generations were
living together. It was fascinating to note that many of their methods used in daily chores were
very much scientific. This made me even more curious to examine this household level science
which is used interchangeably as ethno-science. Ethno-science researches have been started in
different parts of the world as we could see some research related to these in the libraries and in
the internet. Most of the ethno-science researches have been done in ethno-botany and ethnomathematics but the history of ethno science is not that long. The ethno science basically focuses
on the knowledge rather than the number of sample (www.ethnoscience.com). Therefore, the
research is based on the reviews of existing literature and the experience of some household
studies.
According to Encarta dictionary, ethno means culture. So, ethno science means the science
inherent in people’s culture. There are different traditions, beliefs, logical reasoning, and habits
ascribed in such cultures. There exists innate reasoning and logical thinking, in each culture,
behind such practices that is often described as traditions have been followed through
generations. Such reasoning and logical thinking provides as the basis to form the ethno-science.
Speaking of the traditional buildings, the earthquake of 2045 BS provides good reasons to
discuss how traditional buildings could resist the wave whereas many of recently built houses
failed to stand it. Likewise, the knowhow about different types of spices used in cooking and
preserving food dates back to hoary past which has transcended from generation to generation.
The knowledge or the science that has been transcended from generations is gradually fading
away due to inadequate research and studies. No doubt, that the modernization has made human
living safer and comfortable than ever before, widespread use of gadgets and instruments in daily
living and household chores have on the other hand made us more dependent. For example,
3
spices are readily available in the market that meets food specific requirement of ingredients,
making cooking lot easier. The person cooking the food need not know anything about spices
being used. Basic cooking and preserving food used to be the common household knowledge,
which has now been fading away due to extensive use of gadgets and readymade recipes.
Kitchen, in particular, in many Nepali cultures receives an utmost priority in terms of its location
and value in the household chores. In some cultures, it is the place that is most neat and tidy, for
example, the thakali kitchen. Fire, an important source of energy in the kitchen is also considered
the god and is regularly worshipped in Hindu culture. Thus, cleanliness in the kitchen is also
associated in the use of fire that is considered as the god. Wasting food is considered a sin but an
offering is usually made to the fire god prior to beginning the meal.
Impact of the disappearing knowledge is discernible among our new generations. Hence the sole
motive of this study is to bring forth the traditional practices and culture and to examine the
scientific reasoning envisaged in them. Nepal is really rich with old people with old techniques
and we should understand the science associated with these techniques. The old methods and
techniques are scientific in many ways. It is for this reason that we need to look their methods
through the lens of science.
Among the innumerable items, some of the items and techniques discussed in this thesis include
the science behind indigenous structure of the old houses, and the science behind chulo – the
kitchen. Additional importance in the study is also given to explore scientific reasons in the use
of smoke, health awareness of grandparents, clever use of the products of firewood, scientific
truth in the use of charcoal, old method of tackling mental stress, use of abir, use of surai for
drinking water storage. These discussions have been grouped into two broad categories for better
understanding as: Medicinal practices and Daily living practices.
4
Medicinal Practices
There are various practices still executed by the old people for various purposes which although
does not apparently look scientific are very scientific and many valuable reasons behind it. For
instance, when the body skin burns due to the accidental fire break, the old people spat the paste
of cow dung around the affected area. They said it prevents the formation of blisters. But the
discussion with the medical doctors shows that they are not in position to accept this concept and
yet the old people are using these methods since the time immemorial and they are getting relief
from these methods. Therefore, how far the truth is there needs to be studied scientifically in this
regards and this will really be beneficial to the Nepalese people. For instance there is a scientific
reasoning behind the ‘paan’. Old people whom I talked with believe that eating ‘paan’ increases
the strength of the teeth. This has scientific reasoning. paan consists of ‘chun’ which is calcium
oxide powder. The powder thus provides calcium which is very essential to strengthen the teeth
(Mackean & Jones, 1985). Similarly, the old people preferred to have pickles grinded in the thick
stone slate rather than grinding in the electric grinder. There is pretty scientific reasoning behind
this. The old people prefer that because the stone slate provides fine particles of stone which is
the compound of calcium and it is because of Calcium that the pickles grinded on the stone slates
are tasty (Tuli, et al, 1983). Pickles without calcium have blunt taste. Similar is the case with
water. River water is also tasty as it flows along the stone rocks they contain plenty of calcium
ions (Sthapit & Pradhananga 1996). Underground water have blunt taste as it is not coming in
contact with the rock stones and hence consists of very little or no calcium ions at all. That is
why the old people prefer to have pickles made in the stone slate. The calcium makes our teeth
and bones stronger and hence essential substance for our healthy growth (Mackean & Jones,
1985). This clearly shows how the old people are using science in their day to day life.
5
Another physician points out that as far as possible, patients should be given only the traditional
methods of treatment unless it is really very essential. It is because the pharmaceutical medicines
always have some or other sort of side effects. He recommended sourly foods like teete karela
and pickles with ‘methi’ which gives sour taste is the best method to control the blood pressure.
When I consulted with dieticians and doctors in an Adolescent Health Training Programme in
Budhanilkantha School (2010), they claimed that food in particular with sour taste such as teete
karela (bitter gourd) has medicinal values in controlling human blood pressure (01/08/2009).
This message had also sparked my mind. Those old people that I met were very cool in spite of
their old age- generally I have found many old people in the urban areas very sensitive due to
problem of the blood pressure. There are some amazing methods, which are very powerful
methods to cure some of the diseases like curing janai khatira. This disease was treated by
writing a lion around the blisters. But a physician Dr Dhakwo told (12/12/2010) me that janai
khatira is a disease named Harpes Zoster. Herpes Zoster is a viral infection in the nerves, and it
spreads along the branches of the infected nerves. An ointment called ‘acyclovir is used to cure
this disease’ said Dr Dhakhwo. I feel that Research needs to be done in these amazing traditional
methods because this method is curing this disease among several people according to the old
people.
The old people had no access to the allopathic medical treatment in old times. They had their
own old methods to cure for pains in their back, hands and legs. For this they used ‘anani
chamal’. The anani chamal is soaked in water. The soaked chamal is then roasted in margarine.
After that the roasted chamal is then cooked like a plau. People with back pain, hand and leg
pain eat that plau to get relief from the pain.
6
People who suffer from the janai khatira are also very effectively treated with old methods. An
artist with his own rituals writes lion around the boils with the Lion’s mouth widely open on the
boils. Grandmother of one of old house told me that she suffered from the janai khatira just two
years back. ‘It was very painful’ she said. She had undergone medication but it did not heal,
rather it increased and became more and more painful. Many of her relatives asked her to go to
an artist and write lions on the affected area at the back side of her body. Then she went to an
artist nearby her house. The artist wrote following his own rituals. After two days the janai
khatira was gone. Similar incidents had occurred in Kumar Saijju’s house. His grandson had also
got the janai khatira which was healed only after writing lions on the affected area.
One of the old ladies in Pokhara showed me a special kind of net which is used to cure jabi
khatira. A jabi khatira is a kind of boils that rapidly spread all-round the body, is extremely
itching and produces red spots. The old lady named Kundali told me that the jabi jali (net) is
smeared around the affected area and then it is pressed under the jatto. After four days all the
boils disappeared. Grandmother Kundali said that in her time many people suffer from that kind
of diseases and she used to send her jabi net to them. She said the net has been kept in her time
from the time immemorial. She had shown me the net. This is the most challenging method to
science that I have found. When I consulted with number of doctors they say that it is a kind of
viral infection which can be cured but they have no answer to the traditional method of curing
such disease. According to the physician, the janai khatira is a disease called ‘Herpes Zoster’. It
is a viral infection in the nerves, and it spreads along the branches of the infected nerves. The
jabi khatira is a disease called Morgellons and is caused by Morgellons parasites that wreak
havoc on the skin causing itching and biting symptoms that are relentless. According to the
physicians, these diseases can be treated through antiviral creams and tablets.
7
Daily Living Practices
a. Sitting practice
In the old houses I had often seen the old people sleeping in the hard mattresses. I thought they
slept on such hard mattress because they are poor. I thought sleeping in the hard mattress would
spoil the health. But these old people are healthier than the urban people who slept in the cosy
mattresses. In this regard I had consulted with the medical doctors. ‘Sleeping in hard mattresses
like the straw mat would keep our body in correct posture’ said a child physician. Our body
needs to be in correct posture to maintain our health. According to the doctor, the incorrect
posture would lead to constriction of nerves that lead to several types of diseases specially nerve
diseases.
b. House construction practice.
Almost all the old houses are built in such a way that it consists of topmost floor with slanting
tiled roofs. In some of the houses slate roofs are often seen. The houses are built of bricks and
mud with a 14” thick wall. This is called houses built on ‘wall system’ basis. In the wall system,
because the walls are very thick, it is safer in terms of earthquake point of view. In 2045BS, an
earthquake of 7richter scale stroke with its epicentre in the district of Udayapur. Its effect was
felt in the Kathmandu Valley as well. So many houses including the houses built by modern
methods were collapsed but the traditionally built houses did not collapse. This proves that the
wall system houses have greater resistance to earthquake.
The topmost floor is not usable to live. It is used as a store room in some houses while in others
it is used as place for worshiping the god. A small window is kept on the roof to allow light to
enter inside the room. Apart from the small peephole like window there is no other window.
8
The second topmost floor is used as kitchen. It is called bhanchha kotha. Bhanchha kotha is used
for both kitchen and dining. The third and fourth floor is used as bed rooms and living rooms.
There are plenty of windows in these rooms made up in old style with carved windows. The
bottom floor is a ground floor. The bottom floor is used for making shops. Toilets are made in
the bottom floor. The floors are smeared with paste of red soil and cow-dung
Brushing practice
The people of these houses in many cases are stuck to their old methods and styles. Those old
people I have found brushing with coal and charcoal whereas their sons and grandsons/
daughters are habituated to brushing with toothpaste. But the most interesting part is that those
old people who brush with those coal and charcoals have very shiny and healthy teeth. I asked
Mr Kumar Saiju ‘where do you get coals and charcoals from?’ He said ‘Well I smoke tobacco so
I have plenty of coals and charcoal.’ The charcoal is the burnt out tobacco. Anything burnt out in
limited or absence of oxygen forms charcoal. People who are suffering from the abdomen pain
are also treated very easily by charcoal. Such people are given hot water in which seven pieces of
‘ko appa’ the charred brick, the charcoal is added. Sometimes the ash of the incessant is also
used for relieving the pain in the stomach as seen practiced by the phukne baje in Pokhra and
Bhaktapur and in Budhanilkantha, Kathmandu
d. Alcohol making practice
Another interesting part of these old peoples’ houses is the method of production of Alcohols.
They are making excellent alcohols. In many places in Bhaktapur people make alcohol at their
own houses whereas the new generations are habituated to drinking foreign alcohols.
9
The alcohols are excellent in taste and I wonder how old people are able to make such beverages
when they know nothing about science. I observed the procedure and talked informally with
them. I found that they first of all use kodo, gahu, rice etc containing maad matter are grinded
into small particles. Then water is added to make a paste. Then it is cooked only with a steam. A
big copper container named as fosi is taken and water is added into the fosi. On the top of the fosi
is kept an earthen container with a hole at the centre named as potasi is kept. The hole of the
potasi is closed with straw and on the top of the straw the paste is put. The mouth of the potasi is
closed and the water in the fosi is heated. After one and half hour the paste is cooked with a
steam.
The paste is then put in a clean place and is spread. When it is cooled, yeast (marcha) is put. The
powdered yeast is uniformly mixed. Then this mixture is put into a big container (gyampa) and
some water is added. It is kept idle for 10/12 days and according to the need it is stirred time to
time and yeast is added. The paste inside the container starts to boil and sometimes the froth even
comes out of the container.
After the process of overflowing starts to diminish, then distillation is preceded. For this the
liquid of the gyampa is transferred into the fosi. On the fosi is adjusted the potasi. The junction
between the fosi and potasi is made air tight. For making air tight they enclose the junction with
a wetted cloth. Inside the potasi they put a small container, which they call it as patra (receiver).
On the mouth of the potasi, a funnel shaped copper container is adjusted. The copper funnel and
the potasi junction are also made air tight.
Consequently the liquid starts to vaporize. The vapours are cooled in the copper funnel. The
condensed liquid droplets then fall down into the receiver. To condense the steam time to time
the copper funnel is exchanged with cold water.
10
When the patra is full, it is taken out and replaced with another. This distilled water is alcohol.
The first part consists of more very high concentration of alcohol while the latter part consists of
low amount of alcohol.
Scientifically speaking, when a solution of sugar is allowed to stand in the presence of yeast for a
few days at about 300 C, it undergoes fermentation forming ethyl alcohol and carbondioxide. The
fermentation is a process of slow chemical decomposition brought about by two enzymes present
in the yeast. The enzyme invertase converts sugar into glucose and fructose while the second
enzyme converts these into ethyl alcohol.
C12H22O11 + H2O
C6H12O6
C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
C2H5OH + CO2
The fermented liquid is submitted to distillation when a sample contains 90% ethyl alcohol.
Sugar required for the above purpose is taken either in the form of molasses which is the byproduct of sugar industry ( Tuli et al, 1983).
c. Washing practice
In one of the old house in Pokhra, I met a grandfather and grandmother. Their daughters in law
were washing their clothes in washing trough made of plastic. I asked with the grandfather and
grandmother whether in their time too washing method is also same or different. They replied
that it is different. There was no soap in their time. But they used a specially made liquid to use
as soap. That was very interesting. They said it was far better than the soap. They said it is made
by burning a bundle straw. The ash thus formed is then put into a small perforated bucket made
up of bamboo. Then water is poured into the bucket and through the perforated bucket at the
11
bottom comes out a very slippery gray liquid. That liquid is used for washing purpose and it can
totally clean the dirty clothes.
I inquired whether same solution can be used for taking bath or not. They replied that solution is
not suitable for taking bath. For bathing purpose, they have different soaps. They are still using
it. They showed me rittha. It grows up in the tree. It is easily available and is cheaper. The liquid
present inside the rittha produces too much froth and is slippery in water which is used for taking
bath. ‘It makes the hair black and healthy’ said the old parents. It also removes many of the skin
diseases. It is far better than the shampoos.
Water drinking and filtering practice
To drink cold water they put water in earthen container which keeps water cool. One of the
grandparents told me that in past days the religious people dig a hole in the ground around the
Chautara and earthen containers are kept inside with water in it to provide water to the
pedestrians.
The aforesaid practices and the reasoning and logical thinking embedded in them made me
interested to examine ethno-science through this study. Although, Nepal is a small country in
comparison to the big neighbouring countries China and India, it inherits a rich cultural heritage
and thus it provides an ideal condition for studying ethno-science. In every culture, practices
pertaining to comfortable and healthy living are also apparent. Being a relatively poor and
undeveloped country, influence of modernization is also relatively less compared to other
nations. The most common form of activities that the human kind has followed through ages
since early civilizations include: shelter and food habits. These two provisions in daily human
living form the major area of assessment in this study.
12
Problem Statement and Rationale of the Study
Innovation in technology has made daily living easier and comfortable. However, we have also
become more dependent to different gadgets and readily available materials. While this has
made modernised/urban living possible, we have been losing basic household knowledge and
practices that our parents and grandparents used to keep them on fingertips. There’s no denying
that there is a science behind such traditional practices and that there are many traditional
activities that needs to be studied and the hidden science to be revealed. This knowledge has
been passed through generations and no attempt appears to have been made to document it. Thus
there are two issues with regard to traditional knowledge: a) that it has not been properly
documented and b) the science hidden behind these age old practices needs to be revealed. The
study is only a small attempt to reveal the science behind traditional practices and how
traditional science is gradually fading away in the new generations. This study presents the
importance of preserving the traditional practices in learning science on our own methods.
Studying on our own methods would be more economical, sustainable and effective in learning
science and in applying science to invent new products using the traditional and modern science.
Research questions:
On the basis of the above background I developed three research questions that are mentioned
below:
1. What is the science behind traditional practices?
2. How the inter-generational values differ in using the traditional scientific knowledge?
3. How the modern scientific knowledge can be taught with the help of traditionally
nurtured knowledge?
13
CHAPTER II
Literature Review
The concept of ethno-knowledge
Ethno is a popular prefix these days, because that is a short way of saying ‘that’s the way other
people look at the world (Martin, 2004)’. When used before the name of an academic discipline
such as botany or pharmacology, it implies that researchers are exploring local people’s
perception of cultural and scientific knowledge.
History shows that ethno-science related study was first introduced by Chalk Buttes (19841985), the Northern Cheyenne Cultural Commission, the Fort Peck Tribes and Custer National
Forest with funding from the National Park Service did a cultural assessment of the Chalk Buttes
area in southeast Montana. He had found out about the traditional and cultural significance of
Chalk Buttes.
Ethno-science is currently working for the Kalispel Tribe Natural Resources Department since
1999 and is still going on (www.ethnoscience.com). The project involves an archaeological
inventory of traditional lands, ethnographic interviews with Elders to determine cultural
significance.
Lynelle A. Peterson has been the President and Senior Archaeologist of Ethno-science since
2008. She had been supervising cultural resource investigations since 1986. A native of North
Dakota called Peterson had worked throughout the Plains and had experience in both historic and
prehistoric archaeology. She worked six years with the National Park Service, spending three
years examining Fort Union in northwest North Dakota. From 1989-1991, she worked for the
University of North Dakota where she conducted numerous projects in the state. In 1991,
14
Peterson joined Ethno-science, and bought the company in 2003. Peterson has supervised
hundreds of survey, testing, and mitigation projects. Her expertise includes archaeology of the
northwest Plains, stone feature sites and historic archaeology of the late nineteenth century EuroAmerican and Indian sites.
Boughton has been conducting intensive cultural resource inventories, site testing and full-scale
data recovery excavations in many western states, primarily North Dakota and Montana since
1989. He had worked for many clients and agencies to ensure compliance with Section 106 of
the National Historic Preservation Act. Some of the clients include the Department of
Transportation (Montana and Oregon), the Bureau of Land Management, the Bureau of Indian
Affairs and several private coal companies in North Dakota. Boughton has extensive experience
recording both prehistoric and historic sites and making recommendations of eligibility to the
National Register of Historic Places.
Since 1985, Fandrich has worked on numerous historic and prehistoric site documenting,
recording and mitigating projects, primarily on the northern Plains and northwest Plateau. His
current work focuses on the documentation of historic homesteading and transportation
properties on the northern Plains and historic hydroelectric properties on the northwest Plateau.
Fandrich is skilled in historical research practices, archaeological fieldwork methods, library and
archive classification procedures, and the gathering of oral history.
Fandrich has contributed to well over fifty cultural resource studies, including historic
overviews, ethnographic overviews, environmental impact statements, cultural impact
assessments etc.
Since 2002 Jacquelyn C. Ferry has been conducting pedestrian survey, shovel testing, monitoring
for assessment, excavation and emergency excavation in Montana, North and South Dakota,
15
Wyoming, Washington, England and Wales. She has worked on projects for the Department of
Transportation, the National Park Service, large energy and environmental firms and personal
landowners.
Strait has been conducting prehistoric and historic archaeological research and fieldwork since
1995. He graduated with a BS in Anthropology from Iowa State University in 1995. In 1999, he
obtained his MA in Archaeology from the University of Arkansas, specializing in ethnic studies.
Strait has also conducted archaeological investigations throughout the Southeast, Great Basin
and the Plains, including historic overviews, environmental impact statements, cultural impact
assessments, cultural resource inventories, testing, documentation, and mitigation reports.
Jennifer L. Thomas another ethno-scientist had been conducting archaeological pedestrian
surveys, site recording and assessment, site eligibility testing and data recovery excavations since
1999. She had experience with artifact analysis, monitoring construction activities for cultural
resources and writing technical reports. She has also worked on projects in Montana, North and
South Dakota, Wyoming, New Mexico, Texas, Missouri and Washington.
Likewise Scott J. Wagers had been doing prehistoric and historic archaeology since 1995 and has
worked on projects in Montana, Idaho, Washington, North Dakota, Minnesota, Illinois, Utah,
California and Ireland. He had extensive experience in historical and ethno-historical overviews,
literature reviews, archival research and database management. He had also assisted in
coordinating numerous field crews on survey, testing and mitigation projects. He has co-authored
or contributed to numerous technical reports and is skilled in archaeological fieldwork methods
and laboratory analysis.
16
Dietrich Brandis, the first Inspector General of forest in India in his book Forestry in India:
Origins and Early Development had recorded Indigenous Indian forestry and describes sacred
groves, game preserves and closures in Rajputana (now Rajasthan); and Kans (woodlands/sacred
groves) of Mysore districts. There was also surprising paucity of literature on indigenous forest
management after Brandis in India.
The All India Coordinated Research Project on Ethno-biology has currently started. Several
leading institutions in India played a key role in the project. These include Botanical Survey of
India, National Botanical Research Institute, Regional Research Laboratories, Forest Research
Institute and several Universities in India and abroad. No explicit reference, however, is seen on
indigenous forest management systems.
A number of dissertations on Ethno-mathematics are reported in different parts of the world.
These are effective research contributions, which add significantly to the area. This is a report on
a number of them.
On May 1995, Maria Luiza Oliveras Contreras presented a doctoral dissertation at the University
of Granada, Spain (www.ethnoscience.com), with title “Etnomatemáticas en Trabajos de
ArtesanÍa Andaluza: Su Integración en un Modelo para la Formación de Profesores y en la
Innovación del CurrÍculo Matemático Escolar” [Ethnomathematics in the Artisanal Work in
Andalusia. Its Integration in a Model for Persevere Teacher Training and in Innovation of School
Mathematics Curricula]. This important work was the result of more than 10 years of research on
the Mathematics identified in artistic artifacts typical of Granada. Three kinds of these were
chosen for his research: empedrados (stone pavement), taraceas (marquetry) and alfombras
(carpets). A very original ethnography was proposed by the author to identify the Mathematical
contents of these beautiful handworks. An ethno-mathematical theoretical framework had
17
allowed the recognition of important styles of doing Mathematics, which would be
unrecognizable with the prevailing views of academic mathematics. An important aspect of these
was researching the way the techniques of work and were transmitted among artisans, the
masters and the apprentices. This was very appropriately called "ethno-didactics" by the author.
And the methods there observed were important in proposing a structure of teacher training
through projects. Those methods could be recognized as a model of training teachers to act as
researchers. This important contribution to Ethno-mathematics could probably be a book in the
series published by the Department of Didactics of Mathematics at the University of Granada.
After mentioning the history of ethno-knowledge exploration practices, I now present a brief
review of the development of science related ethno-knowledge based research in a chronological
order.
In 1563 Gareia da Orta published his `Os cologuis' on ethno science without using the term
ethno-botany. This publication gave the account of the indigenous medicinal plants of India.
But it was William Harshberger whose study used the term ‘Ethno-botany’ to denote the uses of
plants by aboriginals and indigenous people in 1895. In the year 1897: Dietrich Brandis, the first
Inspector General of forest in India in his book Forestry in India: Origins and Early Development
records Indigenous Indian forestry and describes sacred groves, game preserves and closures in
Rajputana (now Rajasthan); and Kans (woodlands/sacred groves) of Mysore districts. There was
a surprising paucity of literature on indigenous forest management after Brandis in India. In
1962: R.E. Schultes defined the role of ethno botanist in search of new medicinal plants. He
elaborated the subject and enlarged its scope to related fields. In 1963: A publication of
fundamental importance appeared in Vanyajati (11th volume) S.K. Jain had given his
observations on ethno botany of the tribes of Madhya Pradesh. The works of R.E. Schultes,
18
Ammal and S.K. Jain were of vital importance for they not only gave direction and widened the
scope of the subject; they also played a catalytic role in starting several ethno botanical studies.
Discussion on the indigenous ‘management’ of resources, however, remained wanting, except
studies on sacred groves by Madhav Gadgil and V.D. Vartak during the decade of 70s. In 1972,
UNESCO’s Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage
popularly known as World Heritage Convention adopted. It offered ways to protect the cultural
landscapes and recognizes the value of the cultures, traditions and beliefs of indigenous
communities. In 1980: The All India Co-ordinate Research Project on Ethno biology was started.
Several leading institutions in India played a key role in the project. These include Botanical
Survey of India, National Botanical Research Institute, Regional Research Laboratories, Forest
Research Institute and several Universities in India and abroad. No explicit reference, however,
was seen on indigenous forest management systems. In 1982: Society of ethno botanists
established in India under the Chairmanship of Dr. S.K. Jain, the legendary ethno botanist often
referred as ‘Father of Indian ethno botany’.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948 became the philosophical basis for the
Working Group in Indigenous Populations created in 1982 under the structure of the UN SubCommission on the Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities (Purcell, 1998).
IUCN Working Group on Traditional Ecological Knowledge established. The Publications
coming from the members of the WG include Johannes (1989), Williams and Baines (1993) and
Berkes (1999). In 1989: Publication of a journal ethno botany started, to disseminate original
research reviews, and articles on ethno botany of various tribes, including ethno-medicine,
ethno-chemistry, ethno-pharmacology and ethno-taxonomy. In 1992: The Rio Summit results in
international instruments such as Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and Convention to
19
Combat Desertification (CCD) providing the space for recognition of indigenous knowledge.
Agenda 21 and Rio Declaration on Environment Development become instrumental to promote
the cause of indigenous knowledge.
Arising out of Rio Summit the Non-legally binding Authoritative Statement of Principles for a
Global Consensus on the Management, Conservation and Sustainable Development of All Types
of Forests (the Forest Principles) established the importance of indigenous knowledge.
The Kari-Oca Declaration and The Indigenous People’s Earth Charter presented at Rio Summit.
In 1993, indigenous people under the banner of various Civil Society Organizations bring forth
the Mataatua Declaration on Intellectual, Cultural and Scientific Rights of Indigenous Peoples. In
1994, the Santa Cruz Declaration on Intellectual Property Rights and Biodiversity and in 1995,
Institute of Ethno-biology was established in India. Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF)
established to promote the implementation of Forest Principles and created further space for
Indigenous Knowledge. In 1996, the term ‘ethno forestry’ was coined. Material defining the
scope, classification and other aspects of ethno forestry appeared (Pandey, 1996). 5th
International Congress on Ethno biology held in Nairobi, 2-6 September 1996. It has the theme
‘ethno biology and conservation of cultural and Biological Diversity’. IUCN’s World
Conservation Congress adapts resolutions regarding indigenous peoples and their knowledge.
Meeting of Indigenous and Other Forest Dependent People on the Management, Conservation
and Sustainable Development of All Types of Forests attracts 100 indigenous groups and
organizations. Leticia Declaration put forth. In 1997: XI World Forestry Congress, Turkey
accords acceptance to the term ‘ethno forestry’ and a paper titled ‘ethno forestry by Indigenous
People’ examined the subject (Pandey, 1997).
20
Dissertation on ethno mathematics
A number of dissertations on ethno mathematics are reported in different parts of the world. A
number have been submitted in Brazil and in Spain. These are effective research contributions
which added significantly to the area. This is a report on a number of them.
In March 1995 Gelsa Knijnik submitted to the Faculty of Education of the Federal University of
Rio Grande do Sul, in Porto Alegre, Brazil, a thesis under the title Cultura, Matemática,
EducaÁ“o na Luta pela Terra [Culture, Mathematics, Education in the Struggle for Land] . This
very important work is the result of several years of research among teachers of the so-called
"Movimento dos Sem-Terra". This is a political action with the objective of occupying the lands
which, according to Brazilian constitution, are subjected to expropriation for land reform. The
effective possession of these large tracts of land after the occupation implies several legal
démarches which may take years, normally about five years. Meanwhile, those occupying the
lands were confined to these areas and have to develop their own social structures: schools,
medical assistance and production. They could not leave the territory and the support they
received was nonpermanent, obeying humanitarian demands. In this period of confinement they
had to rely on their own resources. These rural populations had a minimal education and had to
run their own surveying and land demarcation practices, and the production system, as well as
their schooling. There was so much mathematics in all these activities. The ethnographic
research of Gelsa Knijnik had focused on identifying the Ethno mathematics of these processes
and giving the supporting instruments to integrate these practices in a school mathematics
curriculum relevant for their immediate needs and allowing the transition to the official school
system after overcoming the legal obstacles. How to conduct the teacher training for this parallel
educational system, relying, of course, on the human resources provided by uneducated confined
21
population, was a major challenge. The thesis of Knijnik had presented a socio-political and
pedagogical study of these issues, always stressing the Mathematical content in every step of the
process. The theoretical framework included a thorough discussion of conceptual aspects of
ethno mathematics.
In April 1995 Adriana Isler P. Leite presented a dissertation to the Programa de Pos-GraduaÁ“o
de EducaÁ“o Matemática of the Universidade Estadual Paulista/UNESP at Rio Claro, under the
title A Brinadeira é Coisa Seria: Estudos em Torno da Brincadeira, da Aprendizagem e da
Matemática [Playing is serious: Studies about playing, learning and Mathematics] . The
dissertation was the result of an extended ethnographic research over three years involving
children aged between 5 and 8 years old. The focus was to understanding the way children play
spontaneously and recognizing the Mathematics contents of these activities. The theoretical
framework was ethno mathematics and the ethnography adopted, with the analysis of about 60
hours of video taping, lead to an important contribution to understanding the formation of
mathematical concepts in early childhood. It was of much importance to the conceptual
discussion of the nature of ethno mathematics in view of the theories of cognition and learning,
particularly of Vygotski.
Marianna Kawall Leal Ferreira submitted a dissertation to the University of S“o Paulo on Da
Origem dos Homens a Conquista da Escrita: Um Estudo sobre Povos Indigenas e EducaÁ“o
Escolar no Brasil [From the Origin of Men to the Conquest of Writing: A Study of Indian
Peoples and School Education in Brazil] dealing with the construction of knowledge in an
Amazonian tribe. Very careful research was conducted among a number of different tribes of the
Parque IndÍgena do Xing. A variety of cultures provided the author with the opportunity to
understand the historical and philosophical ground upon which these tribes built their
22
knowledge. Several aspects of Indian culture, as seen in the schools of the tribe, are analyzed,
focusing on the educational process which gives emphasis on the transmission of "official"
knowledge and values.
SÙnia Maria Clareto worked in a small fishing community on the seashore (caiÁara) in the State
of S“o Paulo. The dissertation was an ethnographic study of the space perception of school
children after taking classes of Geography. Specifically, what was the perception of the child as
"standing upside down" after being exposed to a terrestrial globe. A most interesting dissertation
entitled A crianÁa e seus dois mundos: A representaÁ“o do Mundo em crianÁas de uma
comunidade caiÁara [The child and its two worlds: The representation of the World by children
of a "caiÁara" community] based on this research was submitted to the Universidade Estadual
Paulista/UNESP at Rio Claro.
Samuel Lopez Bello submitted a dissertation on EducaÁ“o Matemática IndÍgena -- Un Estudo
Etnomatemático dos Indios Guarani-Kaiová do Mato Grosso do Sul [Indigenous Mathematical
Education -- An Ethnomathematical Study of the Guarani-Kaiovaa Indians in the State of
Southern Mato Grosso]. The dissertation referred essentially to questions about education,
particularly mathematical education, among Indian communities in a somewhat remote State in
Western Brazil. The main objectives were to identify and recognize different ways of explaining
and knowing in the Guarani culture and to relate these with the strategies of formal schooling.
The ethnographic research gave origin to new methodologies and techniques on participant
observation. New interpretations of cognitive models among indigenous cultures resulted from
the research. An important result was the recognition of the role of the history of the individuals
and of the communities in the cognitive processes. Among the variety of topics discussed,
particularly important were questions about shapes, measures and counting.
23
The thesis of Gelsa Knijnik was published, with slight modifications, as a book with title
Exclus“o e Resistencia: EducaÁ“o Matemática e Legitimidade Cultural [Exclusion and
Resistance: Mathematics Education and Cultural Legitimacy], Artes Médicas, Porto Alegre,
1995. The thesis of Maria Luiza Oliveras Contreras was also appeared as a book. The
mathematical part of the dissertation of Mariana K. Leal Ferreira became a booklet: Com
quantos paus se faz uma canoa! A Matemática na vida cotidiana e na experiÍncia escolar
indÍgena [With how many logs one can make a canoe! Mathematics in the daily life and in
Indian school experiences], MEC/Assessoria de EducaÁ“o Escolar IndÍgena, Brasilia, 1994. The
others will appear only as papers presenting partially the important results. The fact that they are
in Portuguese and Spanish limit, in a sense, the accessibility to these important contributions to
Ethnomathematics. Indeed, a considerable amount of research in these fields comes out of
research in Latin America, as well as in Lusophone countries in Africa and in Portugal and
Spain, but language is still a barrier. Fortunately, much of the important work of Paulus Gerdes
has been translated into English and French.
These works reveal the large scope of Ethnomathematics. Indeed, we can hardly classify these as
Mathematical works. This is, in a sense, a sort of "epistemological aggression". The distinction
between Ethnomathematics and Ethnoscience, Ethnohistory, Ethnomusicology, Ethnomedicine,
Ethnopsychiatry, Ethnomethodology, becomes very artificial and difficult to establish. Even in
the Mediterranean civilizations and as recently as the XV century, Mathematics and Religion, the
Sciences and the Arts, are difficult to separate.
This leads us to look into different ways, styles, techniques of explaining, of understanding, of
coping with the surrounding natural and cultural environments as the essence of the History of
Ideas. In order to organize these studies, we have to coin a few words to express the above:
24
different ways, styles, techniques of explaining, understanding, coping with mathema, the
surrounding natural and cultural environments (ethno). Thus we have the word
Ethnomathematics, which in this conception obviously incorporates Ethnoscience.
The history of ethno science is not long. For the first time, at least in the west, ethno science
study was made by Chalk Buttes, (1984-1985), the Northern Cheyenne Cultural Commission, the
Fort Peck Tribes and Custer National Forest with funding from the National Park Service did a
cultural assessment of the Chalk Buttes area in southeast Montana. The project involved an
encampment of traditional Elders at Chalk Buttes. The Elders were interviewed and an Indian
student ethnographer trained. The project provided the Northern Cheyenne and Fort Peck Tribes
and the Forest Services with a photographic (video and still) record, oral history transcripts and a
technical report concerning the traditional cultural significance of Chalk Buttes.
Ethno science is currently working for the Kalispel Tribe Natural Resources Department since
1999 and is still going on. The project involved an archaeological inventory of traditional lands,
ethnographic interviews with Elders to determine cultural significance and compiling
documentary data (site files, historical documents, maps etc.) in support of the future Kalispel
Tribal Preservation Office.
If we look at the history of the philosophy of science, we find that the development of the
underlying methodology and foundations of the scientific process had shaped science. If proceed
towards the history we see that Plato was the follower of the innate knowledge of human beings
and hence learning according to him was the process of uncovering the memories. For this
reason he is regarded as the father of Western philosophy. Using his philosophy, many elegant
mathematical theories to explain the cosmos have been generated. Aristotle believed in
comparison of knowledge from what is already known and then making deductions
25
(http://www.experiment-resources.com/history-of-the-philosophy-of-science.html). But his
knowledge proved to be a general rule to a particular and specific circumstances but it could not
explain the universe. In 1620 the great philosopher Francis Bacon came up to explain about the
universe with the induction which was based upon the experimental science (ibid).. The
theoretical physicists like Einstein, Hawking and Feynman generated different mathematical
formulas and models to explain the unknown areas of quantum physics and cosmology ((ibid)..
But Bacon philosophy of induction based upon the experimental science has planted the seed of
the first division between science and theology ((ibid). Later on Galilean expanded Baconian
views of science to another level through experiments taking mathematics and geometry as the
basic concepts ((ibid). This way he had set the first example of using modeling as a foundation of
the scientific method. Hence science began to deviate from the philosophy and by 19th century
most of the religious philosophers began to felt that science has undermined the religious
scriptures and the philosophers began to address this issue. But most of the philosophers of
science themselves were the believer of gods ((ibid).
Karl Popper brought the idea of falsification to differentiate between science and non science
((ibid). He stated that the metaphysics was non-observational and cannot be falsified and
therefore cannot be science. Social science, psychology, anthropology are not science either as
these field rely upon case studies and not falsifiable. Thomas Kuhn brought a revolution in
science by introducing the idea of paradigms and paradigm shifts ((ibid). This idea of Kuhn had
brought a complete change in view in science.
In this way we can see that the modern science had actually generated from the old philosophies
which gradually deviated from the philosophies. This helps us understand that philosophies
26
contains science and traditional knowledge has also science which if we deeply go into it we
would be able to contribute a new knowledge in it.
Ethno science research in Nepal
Hence the history of ethnoscience in the world was not too old and in Nepal ethnoscience is little
explored in the field of science education. In Nepal, Bal Chandra Luitel (2003), Sashishekhar
Belbase (2006) and Ramchandra Dahal (2008) has done research on ethno mathematics. But no
one so far in Nepal has done the research in ethno science. The current study on ethno science
finds out the gap between traditional science of the grandparents and the school science of the
grandchildren and the interrelationship between the traditional methods and science. This study
does not seek ethno science but attempts to explore the intergenerational value differences in
scientific knowledge between the grandparents and the grandchildren and also shows the ways to
bridge intergenerational knowledge through educative process.
Conceptual Framework
Conventional Methods
Modern Methods
Ethno-science
Pure-science
World of Tradition
School generation
Intergenerational
Intergenerational
World of Science
27
This framework explains how knowledge has been transferred from generation to generation.
Knowledge has been presented here to transfer in two ways: through intergeneration and school
generation. Intergenerational knowledge transfer happens by means of social network – culture,
society, family, etc. Transfer of knowledge and skill from the grandparents to parents is the
perfect example of the intergenerational knowledge transfer. Likewise, the society and the
cultural practices in the family also pass on from one generation to the other. In the school
generation, the knowledge is transferred formally and pedagogically. Classroom teaching by the
teacher to the students is the perfect example of the knowledge transfer through the school
generation. It is generally found among old generations that the knowledge is very much guided
by the utilitarian thinking, while the knowledge among the new generations is guided by the
aesthetic aspects of it.
When it comes to science, a demarcation is clearly visible in the literature as hard science and
soft science. The hard science is generally thought of as the one that can be objectively
quantified and studied. They are the ones where the scientific method applies. Math and physics
are definitely hard sciences. World of science is perceived as a hard science.
Soft sciences are less quantifiable and considered more subjective. The "social sciences" such as
sociology, anthropology, history and political science are obvious examples. World of tradition
is perceived as soft science.
The conceptual frame above shows that through the context of Nepal world can be viewed in two
ways: one in terms of World of Science and the other in terms of World of Tradition. World of
Tradition is concerned with the knowledge obtained through experiences by our past generations
and that has been passed down from generations to generations. World of science is concerned
with the knowledge developed through various kinds of scientific research. When we view
28
through the lens of science, we come across two streams: Conventional Methods and Modern
Methods. If we follow through the conventional methods, we reach to the Ethno- science but, if
we go through the Modern Methods we would arrive at the Pure-science. Likewise, if we view
the world through the lens of Tradition, we would come across two streams: Ethno-science
stream and Pure-science stream. If we follow through the Ethno-science stream we would end up
at the Conventional Methods but, if we proceed through Pure-science, we would end up at the
Modern Methods.
The current thesis is based on the World of Tradition. Through the World of Tradition it has
followed the two streams: Ethno-science of the old generation and Pure Science of the new
generation and their similarities and dissimilarities. It has also shown how ethno-science has
shaped the conventional methods in our indigenous society of our old generations while the
Modern science has shaped into Modern methods in the contemporary society. My concern is
that the modern new generations are forgetting the conventional methods and fetching the
Modern Methods without connecting with the lived roots. If we do not preserve our conventional
methods, very soon it would perish forever. At the same time, if we failed to connect the lived
root the generational gap will be widen for not but in understanding to each other.
As far as my understanding is concerned, very few studies have been made in Nepalese context
in regards to ethno-science research. I felt it quite important and hence immersed into the
research on the science of our grandparents’ traditional methods.
Some of the traditions as shown in the table below describe the basic tenets linking between
inherent practices and scientific reasoning behind such practices.
29
Daily living practices
S. No.
The Traditions
The Science
Contains calcium: strengthen teeth; basic nature:
Paan (brittle nuts) is eaten after
1.
controls acidity in the stomach: contains leaf:
the feast during various festivals.
provides fibres for cleansing the stomach.
Calcium ions which makes the pickles tasty and
Pickles are grinded on the stone
2.
also provides the mineral calcium for the
slates. It is a tradition.
strengthening and development of bones.
River water should be obtained from
Hygienic, contains plenty of calcium and
the river before the crows wake up
magnesium ions, tasty. Water brought to the houses
early in the morning. It is a tradition.
through the lead pipes and the polythene pipes are
3.
health hazardous.
TeeteKkarela (Bitter Gourd) is fed to
4.
people who are unwell.
Controls the blood pressure
Lion is sketched by an artist with his
5.
own rituals to cure Janai Khatira
To cure the viral infection of the nerves
( Harpes Zoster)
Use of jatto in curing the Jabi
6.
Khatira (Morgellons)
Kills Morgellons parasites
7.
Straw mattress is used for beddings.
Maintains the correct body posture
8.
Slanting roofs.
To diffuse the sun radiation
14” thick wall in the houses to make
To absorb the shock from earthquake
9.
the house strong.
30
Attic of the house is left vacant for
For circulation of air so that lower floor is cool and
the cats to live.
refreshing.
Kitchen and dining floor at the top
Less likely to be attacked by germs and bacteria;
floor. It is a tradition.
free of heavier harmful gases.
10.
11.
Middle floors bed rooms and living
Likely to have fresh air with high amount of
12.
rooms. It is a tradition.
oxygen, less amount of heavier harmful gases.
13.
Toilets at the ground floor: it would
Prevents the spread of germs / bacteria and the
make the house sinful if made at
heavier gases in the upper living and dining floors.
upper floor.
Brushing by coals and charcoals to
It is highly absorbent material therefore cleans the
keep teeth clean.
teeth.
Ash of incessant to cure abdominal
It is highly absorbent material absorbs the poisons
pain. It is a tradition.
produced due to food poisoning.
14.
15.
People wash clothes with ash of
Ash consists of mild alkali and germicides.
16.
burnt straw.
Chulo- the traditional stove is used
Latent knowledge of conduction, convection,
for cooking food.
radiation
17.
Smoke consists of carbon particles which are
18.
Smoke used to dry out lumbers
highly moisture absorbent.
19.
Suraii used to keep water cool
Earthen material are porus bad conductor of heat
20.
People take bath with rittha
Needs to study science behind it.
Should not sleep with head facing
Needs to study science behind it.
21.
towards north.
31
Looking at chamal some old people
22.
can tell the past happenings and the
Needs to study science behind it.
future of a person.
By worshiping god, some old people
can bless a woman with a son. This is
23.
still in practice in many places of
Kathmandu and remote places of
Needs to study science behind it.
Nepal.
It is the main energy to initiate most of the
24.
Fire is regarded as god.
reactions.
Urine of cow is fed to a child who
25.
cries and weeps a lot.
Needs to study science behind it.
Cows’ dung is used to smear the
26.
floor with red mud to clean the
Needs to study science behind it.
house.
Bhoot (Spirit) is pacified by
27.
providing food called bhau to cure
Needs to study science behind it.
various kinds of diseases spread in
the family.
People worship the foundation before
making a house. They believe that if
28.
not worshiped the foundations the
house would be full of problems and
very often be troubled by the spirits.
Needs to study science behind it.
32
Shraddha is often done by the
families of a dead person for the dead
person. Food, water and alcohol are
provided to the dogs and crows. If the
rituals are conducted with following
29.
up the rules and regulations,
Needs to study science behind it.
whatever the dead person likes, that
is eaten by the dogs and crows. There
are cases where the dogs have drunk
alcohol and crows have taken
cigarette.
30.
Gonga appa
Lightening arrester
It would be interesting to find the scientific reasoning behind the following practices of our
traditional people who follows the following rituals at different stages of human beings.
S. No.
The Stage
Name
Description
The rite of conception, a prenatal ceremony,
1.
Before Birth
Garbhadana
performed at the time of conception
Ceremony performed seeking a male child or to
2.
Before Birth
Pumsavana
increase the chances of the birth of a male
child.
33
The parting of hair ceremony seeking safe delivery.
Simantam or
3.
Before Birth
This is usually performed for women and
Simatonnayana
celebrated by the women.
4.
At birth
Jatakarman
5.
Childhood
Namakaranam
At the time of birth and before severing the cord.
Naming ceremony performed usually on the 10th
or 12th day after birth.
Performed on the first outing of the baby and
6.
Childhood
Niskramana
usually involves the first viewing of the sun.
Performed on the occasion of the first feeding of
the child with solid food such as rice, ghee and
7.
Childhood
Annaprasana
lentils. Now a days this ceremony is performed
both for boys and girls.
The tonsure ceremony performed usually in the
8.
Childhood
Chudakarana
first or third year of the child's birth
The ear piercing ceremony performed during the
third or fifth year. Now a days this ceremony is
9.
Childhood
Karnavedha
performed mostly for girls as boys are reluctant to
get their ears pierced for fear of ridicule or looking
feminine or orthodox.
34
Performed on the occasion of a child's initiation
into education. Now a days this is performed on the
10.
Student
Vidyarambha
first day a child goes to school and starts practicing
the alphabet beginning with the letter AUM.
The ceremony involving the wearing of the sacred
11.
Student
Upanayana
thread, which is confined to the upper three castes
only and performed between the ages of 8 and 24.
The ceremony marking the beginning of the study
of the Vedas. Now a days not all children show
12.
Student
Vedarambha
interest in the study of the Vedas. The priestly
profession is not very fetching. So this ceremony is
performed in select cases only.
The ceremony marking the first shaving of the
beard or the approach of manhood. In case of girls,
in some regions, there is a corresponding ceremony
13.
Student/Adolescence
Kesantha
to mark the beginning of menstruation or change in
dress from a gown to a sari.
35
Performed when a student completes his education
and returns home from the school. In olden days
the schools existed in remote places. Once a
student left home for education, he would return
only after several years of study in the house of his
teacher. So his return was a matter of joy and
14.
Student
Samvartana
celebration for the family because the child not
only survived the tough conditions of life in
gurukulas but also acquired knowledge of the
scriptures. Now a days the schools are located
mostly in the same village or town where the child
lives and the child is hardly separated from his or
her parents during studies. So the ceremony is truly
ceremonial.
Marriage ceremony. Child marriages were the
order of the day in ancient times. Now a days they
15.
Householder
Vivaha
are legally banned and also out of favor. Marriage
usually marks the beginning of life as a
householder.
36
Funeral rites performed after death and up to 15
days. Usually involves cremation rites, making
offerings to gods and ancestors seeking the soul's
16.
Death
Antyeshti
comfortable journey to the worlds of light,
scattering of ashes in select places, and serving of
food to the relatives and among the poor.
(http://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/concepts/samskara.asp)
37
Chapter III
Methodology
Ethnographic approach is considered to be the most appropriate tools in the study of social
phenomena and especially human social behaviour (Giddens, 2001). Wherever it is possible,
ethnographer provides richer information about social life than most other research methods.
Once we see how things look from the inside of a given group, we are likely to have a better
understanding of why members act as they do. We may also learn more about the social
processes which intersect with the situation under study. Ethnography is often referred to as a
type of qualitative research, because it is more concerned with subjective understandings than
numerical data (Giddens, 2001). As such, elements of an ethnographic approach such as, close
and extended observation of people’s habit and attitudes; interviews and some focused
interactions were applied to enrich the process of generating the knowledge.
The study is partly also a comparative study as it tries to compare social behaviour between two
different generations: grandparent, parents and grandchildren. Comparison between these groups
shed some light on the changing patterns in living style, and their perception and practices on
living a healthy and peaceful life. The generational gap associated with the innovations in new
technology is also discussed in this study wherever appropriate.
Selection of the Site
Sites for this study have been selected purposefully, meeting the requirements and necessary
conditions to address the research questions. I have chosen family houses with three generations
living together so as to assess the generational differences in terms of their attitudes and
behaviour.
38
For this purpose the site located in Pokhara was selected as there were several houses that
provided suitable conditions for this study. These houses in the community were selected and
studied for nearly a month. In all those houses, there were families of at three generations –
grandparents, parents and grandchildren. They were all the newar families. They mentioned that
their previous location were said to be in Bhaktapur, Banepa but they did not know why and
when they were migrated to Pokhara. They all followed the Hindu religion but only the
grandparents were very conservative to the religion but the parents and the grandchildren were
not much conservative and stubborn to the religion. Some of the house families were very rich
while others were poor. But the living patterns of all these families were almost similar. They do
not spend money lavishly. Their fooding and clothing were very similar. Two of the families’
parents had built up new houses but they still used to live in the same old houses with the
grandparents and the new houses were given in rent.
Tools/ Instruments
I had open discussion with the family members just to be familiar with them. Then I gradually
entered into the structured discussion just to retain them to the focus of my interest. Whenever
required or possible I did observation as the primary approach to data generation for my
research. I also did the focus group discussion so that I could reach to the strong truth rather than
discussing individually where I could obtain the false information.
Participant Observation
Following the characteristics of the participant’s observation, I had spent more than two months
in one of the old house. I had observed in detail the different things present in the house. Then I
discussed with the grandparents and the other family members. In the beginning the clear cut
information were not obtained. But when I stayed in the same house with the family members for
39
many days, I became very much familiar with them that they paid interest to my every quarry
and gave me every possible answer they know without any hesitation. They also showed me the
different old tools and materials and showed me their applications. I took the photos of all those
things.
I had clearly informed them that I was studying about the old methods and instruments which are
being vanished in the new generations and told them that my study would help to preserve the
old methods, styles and the materials. Knowing this they were very happy to help and I found
that they too were worried about the disappearance of the old methods, styles and the materials
and they hate the new methods and styles.
Focus Group Discussion
Altogether eight old people from the studied houses were requested to come for the small party
in the house where I lived. I had informal discussion at the beginning and later on I gradually
drew their attention in the jeopardizing of the old methods, styles and the materials. We had a
long discussion of about three hours. Time to time I had to interrupt very tactfully to bring them
to my focus of interest because they often go out of tract. Sometimes the house owners used to
become very impulsive launch invectives upon the habits of their sons and the grandsons. Some
of them kept on speaking monotonously and often used to go out of tract and if I interfere to
bring it in the right tract he did not easily hear me. If I speak very loudly I was in fear that they
could mind. So I had a lot of trouble in conducting the focus group discussion. But I had lot of
information from them. Again after forty days I conducted the focus group discussion but at that
time only five old people were able to come as those old people were ailing.
40
Data analysis
For data analysis, I had first of all gone to visit the old houses and observed different kinds of old
houses and different kinds of old practices carried out by the old people. I have collected those
data and the beliefs of the old people. I then looked through the lens of the science. I have found
that they were very closely linked with the science.
Notice things
Collect things
Think about things
Analysis through qualitative inquiry is done through three processes: Noticing/observing things,
Collecting/gathering information, and Thinking/interacting about interesting phenomena or
things (www.qualitativenalysis.com). The figure above represents the process and the
relationships among its parts. As the figure suggests, the Qualitative data analysis process is not
linear. The qualitative process adopted the following characteristics
(www.qualitativenalysis.com):
1. Iterative and Progressive: The process is iterative and progressive because it is a cycle
that keeps repeating. For example, when we are thinking about things we also start
noticing new things in the data. We then collect and think about these new things. In
principle the process is an infinite spiral.
41
2. Recursive: The process is recursive because one part can call us back to a previous part.
For example, while we are busy collecting things we might simultaneously start noticing
new things to collect. This has happened several times during my research. When I
visited the old houses, first of all I was curious to the structure of the house. Most of the
old houses were of similar kind. It is of three/four story houses made of unbaked bricks
and special type of mud. There were floors and all the floors have its own importance.
There is an attic, which seemed to me is a place without any useful purpose but it has its
own scientific purpose. The kitchen floor was made just below the attic and the floors
below the kitchen floor was used for living and bedrooms. The bottom floors were not
used for living or cooking purposes. Only toilets and bathrooms were made in the ground
floors. While observing the houses, I could see the different activities of the old people
and other house members. Each and every activity of the members of the houses had
drawn my attention and it was quite difficult for me to focus on any particular point. I had
several curiosities. How these old people were very healthy? What was the mystery
behind this? Their way of thinking was very different than the way of thinking of the new
generations. Why was this? What they ate? I focused my observations on it. I found that
they liked old cuisines. While observing the house, I saw the young grandchildren
coming from the school. They were given food cooked in a chulo. The children then
began to do their homework. I saw in their book the terms heat chapter were there were
the terms conduction, convention and radiation. Just to be familiar with the children I
asked the children what is meant by those terms. They explained it based upon the
experiment they had done in the school. I asked where they could give any example
where we could observe these terms at their own home but they were not able to answer.
42
At this moment my attention was drawn in towards the chulo. I explained to the children
how heat was being transferred in the chulo. Hearing my answer the children were very
clear and happy.
After few days when I visited the other old houses, I had found the other houses were
also of similar nature. The chulo was made at similar place. This had sparked my mind
with the question why chulo was made at similar place?
I discussed about the chulo with the grandparents and I found that they had a belief of
formations of cloud in sky from the smoke released from the chulo. Apart from that they
said smoke was essential for drying woods, lumbers and to keep the room warmer.
Hearing this I felt that the grandparents were unaware of the hazardous effect of the
smoke. They said smoke could be used for making gazal. They also said that the
firewoods produced smoke at the same time it also produced ash, which was very
essential cleaning powder. They also said that a cup of water with little ash would cure
abdominal pain. This has really made me very excited to learn the clever use of the
firewood by the old people.
The old people worshiped god every morning and also go to temple. They called it a
puja. In every puja they used tika of abir (vermillion). My curiosity rose regarding the
use of vermillion.
In the room of the grandparents I had found old suraii. They use for drinking water. They
were still using the suraii for drinking water. They said they keep fresh water brought
from the river in the past, as they did not have tap in the past. My curiosity arose
regarding the safety of water obtained from the river. But when I looked from the
scientific point of view these old people’s practices were really very scientific.
43
These different expositions mentioned above gave way to bring the phenomena under the
Research Ethics
In this study I was fully aware of some ethical issues and questions related directly to the
respondent under study. To inform about the study, I took their permission and concepts for the
time needed, observing their activity and recording their views in written form and in photos
(Oliver, 1997). In addition, I also had their acquiescence whether or not I should share their
views with others, whether to reveal or to conceal their identity in the public spheres in order to
discuss for the study purpose. The following excerpts that I have generated are worth citing:
Ethics embody individual and communal codes of conduct based upon adherence to set
of principles which may be explicit and codified or an implicit and which may be abstract
and impersonal or concrete and personal. For the sake of brevity, we may say that ethics
can be dichotomized as ‘absolute’ and ‘relative’. When behaviour is guided by absolute
ethical standards, or higher order moral principle can be postulated which is invariant
with regard to the conditions of its applicability – across time, situations, persons and
expediency. Such principled ethics allow no degree of freedom for ends to justify means
or for any positive consequences to qualify instances where the principle is suspended or
applied in an altered, watered – down form. In the extreme, there are no extenuating
circumstances to be considered or weighed as justifying an abrogation of the ethical
standard. (Cited in Louis Cohen, et. al, 2000, p: 58)
The best way to deal with ethical issues is that the researchers should be aware of the
consequences so that they understand the importance of honesty and sincerity in research (Wolf
& Pant, 2005). I followed these authors for ethical considerations of this study.
Moreover, I
44
was aware of the legal provisions and the codes of ethics and standards set by professional
associations for the conduct of research.
45
Chapter IV
Science behind traditional practices
The hard sciences are generally thought of as the ones that can be objectively quantified and
studied. They are the ones where the scientific method applies. Math and physics are definitely
hard sciences.
Soft sciences are less quantifiable and considered more subjective. The "social sciences" such as
history and political science are obvious examples.
In this chapter the indigenous concepts, practices, and attitudes related to ethno science were
generated by using different tools such as participant observation, follow-up interview, and
informal discussion are discussed. These discussions have been grouped into two major
domains: Medicinal or Health Related Practices and Daily Living Practices. Medicinal practices
include traditional methods used in healing illness. Daily living practices include structure and
use of the house, and the household chore confined mostly in and around the kitchen. The
kitchen is the area where most routine and daily chore happens and that it is also an area where
the household functions have been carried out throughout the historical periods.
A. Daily Living Practices:
1. Structure of the old houses
In my visit to the old houses, I found similarity in their structures. Almost all the old houses were
built with slanting tiled roofs. At the one end of the roof a hen shaped tile is adjusted The modern
houses were mainly made with kausi. In some of the houses slate were found to be as roofing
material. The houses were built of bricks and mud mortar with a 14” thick wall. The houses were
built on a ‘wall system’ basis which is considered as very safe in earthquake point of view. The
46
In the wall system houses, the walls are made very thick. It is far more thicker than the houses
built by modern methods with cements and sand. In 2045BS, an earthquake of 7 richter scale
stroke with its epicentre in the district of Udayapur. It had a massive effect in the Kathmandu
Valley as well. So many houses including the houses built by modern methods were collapsed
but the traditionally built houses did not collapse. This shows that what the old people say about
the safety of the old houses in every aspect literally true. Such houses even have greater
resistance to earthquake.
The houses commonly had four storeys in it. The topmost storey was often not usable to live as
there’s little room due to the slanting roof and it had also limited light. But, this storey was found
commonly used as a storeroom. In some houses, it was used as a worship/prayer room. A small
window was kept on the roof had allowed enough light in the room for storing goods as well as
for the prayer.
The fourth storey (second top floor) was found commonly used as the kitchen. It is called
“bhanchha kotha” which usually combines both kitchen and dining together. The second and
third storey was used as bedrooms and living rooms. Usually, there were plenty of windows in
these floors that were artistically carved enhancing elegance of the entire house structure.
The ground floor is used for business and usually it was turned as shop. Toilets were made
separately in the ground floors.
The parents of the same house had also built a modern house. Some had built one story house
while others had built two/ three story houses. In their houses, I found that all the rooms and the
kitchen and the toilets were built in the same floor. This very much contradicted with the old
concepts and ideas. Further scientific explanations of these two generational understandings have
been presented in chapter V.
47
2. Ethnoscience in Chulo
The chulo is an earthen stove used for cooking in most of these houses that was observed. It is
made up of clay and unbaked bricks. There are usually two pan holes at the top while there is a
small hole in the façade of the chulo. The chulo is specially/ tactfully made in such a shape that
fire wood burn easily and that sufficient fire/heat is directed towards the pan holes. When asked
to the parents about why they are still using it, they said that, “it is, compared to the modern gas /
kerosene stoves, is much safer”. They said the foods prepared on it are far tastier than in other
stoves. I have experienced the taste. The food that was prepared in these cholo had a very
different taste.
The Traditional Chulo
The parents and grandparents of the same house regard it as ‘outdated’. They did not find it
comfortable to use. Moreover they did not like the smoke and dust it produces. They could not
entre into the chulo with their shoes as the grandparents absolutely a sin. In the modern gas
stoves and in the heaters they used it with their shoes on. The grandparents said ‘ it is very cold
in the winter season while it is very hot in the summer season in the new houses while it is just
the opposite in the old houses". That is the beauty of the old houses. But the new generation hold
48
the knowledge differently. They said, ‘ the old houses are made of mud, clay and wood which
are old fashioned, it is difficult to clean and does not look neat, trim and tidy. Everywhere
everyone is replacing the old houses because they look old and absurd".
Scientifically speaking, what the old generation had said is absolutely right. It is true that an old
house remains warmer during winter and cooler during the summer. The main reason behind this
phenomenon is that mud, clay, unbaked bricks and wood that constitute these old houses are very
bad conductor of heat energy. Therefore during winter when people warm up the room by
burning fire, the heat formed inside the room does not easily escape. It is the retained heat that
keeps the house warm. In the modern houses, the constituents are sand, cement, gravel, baked
bricks, metallic grills and windows, iron rods inside the pillars etc are all good conductor of heat
energy. Therefore heat energy produced inside the room easily escapes. Likewise, during the
summer season, heat energy from outside does not get transferred inside the house in the old
houses while it does get transferred in the modern houses. We can also explain this through a
small demonstration. Water kept in the suraii remains colder in the hot season and remains
warmer in the cold season whereas the water kept in any metallic pot directly proportional to the
temperature of the surroundings. Its additional scientific explanation has been presented in
chapter V.
3. Location of chulo
The chulo has extremely important place in our culture and therefore a great care is given in
maintaining its cleanliness. Fire is considered a God and hence the fireplace – chulo – is
considered as ‘God’s place’. For maintaining its purity, chulo is usually not made in the bottom
floor as toilets are usually made in this bottom floor. When asked why the toilets cannot be
made in the same floor, they said ‘no, it will impure our chulo’. These old people are not in a
49
position to accept the modern methods of building chulo and toilets in the same floor and that is
also at the ground floor. When I ask them why such design is not acceptable to them, they state
only the cultural reasoning ‘it is a sin’. Some additional scientific explanation has been presented
in chapter V.
4. Cloud formation
The old people have a belief that the smoke released from the chulo, which raises up forms
clouds. For me, This is quite interesting. They showed me the smokes rising from the chulo
going upwards which ultimately looked like the clouds in the sky. They also said it would then
get thicken in the sky and then drops down in the form of rain. When I asked how it turned into
the rain water, they replied it is the god’s power. The grandchildren of the same house say that it
is not the smoke that forms the cloud but it is the rising water vapours that cause the clouds and
the clouds would turn into rain. The grandchildren who said this were studying in class VII.
More scientific explanation has been given in chapter V.
5. Additional importance of smoke
The grandparents know the importance of smoke for other purposes as well. They often used
smoke especially of the chulo for drying the firewood, the lumbers of the house. For keeping
house warm, they also saw the importance of smoke. For rooms where there was no chulo they
often burnt wood or straw to generate the smoke. They strongly believed that the smoke keeps
the room warmer. They say electric heater heats only the specific part of the room but the smoke
warms up the whole room and the house periphery. But this is very much disliked by the parents
and grandchildren of the same house. Additional scientific explanation has been displayed in
chapter V.
50
B. Health Related Practices
1. Health awareness of the grandparents:
Grandparents use smoke for their daily life activities and they disregard the hazards of it. Along
with questions in mind I asked the grandparents whether they were aware of the hazards that
could be caused by the smoke. But they seemed to be less cautious in this regards. However I
came to know that their mother who had spent most of her time in cooking food in chulo had
chest pain problems that lead to her death. They were not aware of the hazards caused by the
burning wood. But they were not in position to accept the hazards of smoke. They said that their
death is natural as they were very old. Something had to happen to meet death at very old age
that exactly the case happened with the great grandparents. This way they were not in position to
accept the hazards of the smoke. Parents and grandchildren of the same house were not willing to
stay in the smoke. They believed that smoke causes hazards to health. So they were willing to
use heaters and gas stoves for cooking foods. But the grandparents want their daughter-in-laws to
cook food in the chulo which produces plenty of smoke. But in spite of their willingness, I found
that the parents cook food in the separate room while the chulo remained in the top floor only
sometimes be used by the grandmother.
2. Clever use of the products of fire wood
Grandparents have used the products of the burning wood in a clever way. The ash produced
they used it as fertilizer, cleansing powder and also for treatment of abdominal pain. They fed
little amount of ash along with one cup of water to the patient. They used the ash produced for
cleaning the utensils. They used the coal and charcoal for brushing teeth. I examined their teeth,
and found that it is shiny and healthy. I asked them whether they have used toothpaste or not.
They replied that they have been using the coal and charcoal since the very young age and they
51
are comfortable with it. But the all the parents and the grandchildren prefer to use the modern
toothpastes. They felt that coals and charcoals are dirty materials and very harmful.
3. Use of abir
Another interesting part was that these grandparents do various kinds of puja to meet their
demands. They said that their demands were fulfilled through such puja. In puja they frequently
used the sapta rangin abir. They put tika made of abir on their foreheads.
According to one of the old man who practiced yoga- was a Buddhist, who said the tika placed
on the forehead would help to concentrate our mind which would greatly help to do meditation.
Other old people regard it as a blessing of good fortune.
4. Use of suraii for storing drinking water
The grandparents found them using suraii for drinking water where as their grandchildren drank
water in the water bottles. It seems very easy to carry off the plastic water bottles. They are
lighter and transparent and hence nice to look at.
The suraii is an earthen pot which looks like a volumetric flask. Water kept in the suraii has a
different taste and moreover water is cool, fresh and clean. The old people do not like to drink
water kept in the water bottles and aluminium containers.
5. Pond water /river water is regarded as a drinking water.
In the past days people used to collect water from rivers and ponds which they regard it as fresh
water. At least water kept open outside the houses are regarded as the fresh water. Those old
people were not in position to admit the water safely kept in the house as the fresh water. “So
even the water kept in the filter was not the fresh water and not suitable for drinking” according
them.
52
Chapter V
Findings and Discussions
The numbers of schools in the grandparents' period were very few. According to these
grandparents the courses were not like the courses of the current children. Current children’s
courses are very vast. Because they are vast children did not get chance to deepen them in all
these courses. This is where I asked myself what has made the children different from their
grandparents? Why the children did not try to explore the traditional knowledge of their
grandparents? These questions lead me to know that that knowledge can be obtained from two
ways: intergenerational carry over and school taught. Intergenerational carry over continued
through social network – culture, society, family, etc. What to wear at different occasions, what
to eat at different occasions, where to cook food, how to cook food, all these knowledge gained
by the children has solely been transferred from the generation to generation. But in school, the
knowledge was transferred formally. In the classroom, the teacher transferred knowledge to the
children. This is a different way in gaining knowledge. But I realized that the old generation
learnt and transferred their knowledge by dint of utilitarian thinking, while the knowledge among
the new generations was guided by the aesthetic aspects of it. Hence the children were gaining
both traditional knowledge based upon the utilitarian thinking and the knowledge based upon the
aesthetic aspects.
When I reflected about science, I came across hard science and soft science. The hard science is
generally thought of as the one that can be objectively quantified and studied. They are the ones
where the scientific method applies. Math and physics are hard sciences
(www.ethnoscience.com).
53
Soft sciences are less quantifiable and considered more subjective (ibid). The "social sciences"
such as sociology, anthropology, history and political science are obvious examples. World of
tradition is perceived as soft science.
The modern children are simultaneously gaining the knowledge both through the world of
science and the world of tradition. My conceptual frame shows that through the context of Nepal
world can be viewed in two ways: one in terms of World of Science and the other in terms of
World of Tradition. World of Tradition was concerned with the knowledge obtained through
experiences by our past generations and that had been passed down from generations to
generations. World of science is concerned with the knowledge developed through various kinds
of scientific research done in the West. When we view through the lens of science, we come
across into two streams: Conventional Methods and Modern Methods. If we follow through the
conventional methods, we reach to the Ethno- science but, if we go through the Modern Methods
we would arrive at the Pure-science.
The current thesis is based on the World of Tradition. Through the World of Tradition it has
followed the two streams: Ethno-science of the old generation and Pure Science of the new
generation and their similarities and dissimilarities. It has also shown how ethno-science has
shaped the conventional methods in our indigenous society of our old generations while the
Modern science has shaped into Modern methods in the contemporary society. My concern is
that our children are finding the huge gap between the modern and the traditional sciences.
Because of this, modern generations are forgetting the conventional science and fetching the
modern science without connecting with the lived roots. If we do not examine the connection of
our conventional science, it will die out very soon. At the same time, if we failed to connect the
lived root the generational gap will be widened.
54
1. Knowledge on house construction
Old houses were built with slanting tiled roofs. One of the scientific reasons for making slanting
roofs was to protect the direct heat of the sun. Making the surface slant would disperse the
focusing radiation of the sun which prevents too much heating of the houses (Mee et al 1971). At
the one end of the roof a hen shaped tile was adjusted. The grandparents told me that that has a
very important role to protect the house from the lightening. Lightening arresters were also seen
in some of the modern houses. A thin wire was adjusted at the top of the house and the end of the
wire was grounded. The old people told me that there are temples everywhere which has a gajur.
They were specially meant for lightening arrester. Thunder and lighting is a phenomenon of
spark discharge due to the unlike charges carried by clouds. When clouds carrying great
quantities of positive charge and negative charge come together, the strong attractive force
between them will puncture the insulating air and produce strong spark discharge, accompanied
by a tremendous explosive noise (Hanfu 1985).
When a charged cloud nears the ground, it will induce unlike charges in the ground underneath.
The induced charges tend to accumulate on the towering objects, such as big trees, high
buildings, chimneys and other high objects. If the charged cloud is very close to the ground, with
the increased accumulated charge on these objects, a huge spark discharge will occur between
the cloud and the high points of these objects. This is known as a lighting stroke. Objects struck
in this way by lighting will be damaged to varying degrees. If someone happens to be close to
these objects, he will get injured or killed. However, people in a car will usually be safe, even if
the car is struck by lightning, owing to shielding afforded by the metal body of the car (ibid).
The way to avoid being struck by lighting is to install a lightning rod on high buildings. A
lighting rod is a pointed conductor installed on the top of a building and grounded through a
55
thick copper wire. The grounding end of the wire is either buried in wet earthy several feet deep
or connected to a metal plate buried deeply. When a charged cloud approaches, the induced
charges on the ground will be attracted through the grounded copper wire to the lighting rod
where point discharge takes place continuously. In this way, the destructive spark discharge of a
lighting stroke is avoided (ibid).
The sandy soil in the mountain slopes and other solid particles formed from rocks can adsorb
ions from aqueous solutions, in most cases negative ions, thus the concentration of positive ion
in the solution is increased. When such aqueous solution permeates from the top to the bottom of
a mountain under the action of gravity, the higher region of the mountain will show negative
potential owing to sandy soil there with their adsorbed negative ions, while the bottom of the
slope will show positive potential due to the excess positive ions in the aqueous solution there.
Thus, there exists a potential difference between the top and the bottom of the mountain slope,
forming a hilly area electric field. That is why most of the temples are built in the top higher
regions of the mountains. The gajur helps to discharge the approaching cloud; the induced
charges on the ground will be accumulated towards the top of the temple and from there the
gajur where point discharge takes place continuously. In this way, the destructive spark
discharge of a lighting stroke is avoided (ibid).
In the city areas the electric field could be produced due to the high-tension wire, telephone
wires, electrical equipments, electric vehicles and current leaking from various electrical
installations. These electric fields can be induced in the periphery houses and buildings, which
are very dangerous. So to prevent such lighting danger, temples are often made to prevent such
dangers. The old generations' houses had used the same wisdom but they were not found
informed of what they did scientifically. On the other hand the new generation studied this
56
scientific know how but did not try to do so in their houses nor they understood the science of
the old houses. These conceptual and operational paradoxes were observed in the studied
houses.
In some of the houses slate were found to be as roofing material. The houses were built of bricks
and mud mortar with a 14” thick wall. These are the wall system houses in which only the
unbacked bricks are used to built the walls. No iron rods are kept inside the wall unlike in the
modern houses in which the walls are reinforced with iron rods inside the walls. In the wall
system, because the walls are very thick, it is safer in terms of earthquake point of view. In
2045BS, an earthquake of 7richter scale stroke with its epicentre in the district of Udayapur. Its
effect was felt in the Kathmandu Valley as well. So many houses including the houses built by
modern methods were collapsed but the traditionally built houses did not collapse. Only certain
cracks were seen in the traditionally built houses. This proves that the wall system houses have
greater resistance to earthquake.
The houses commonly had four storeys in it. The topmost storey is often not usable to live as
there’s little room due to the slanting roof and it also has limited light. But, this storey is found
commonly used as a storeroom. In some houses, it was used as a worship/prayer room. A small
window was kept on the roof that allowed enough light in the room for storing goods as well as
circulation of air.
The fourth storey (second top floor) is found commonly used as the kitchen. It is called
“bhanchha kotha” which usually combines both kitchen and dining together. The second and
third storey was used as bed rooms and living rooms. Usually, there are plenty of windows in
these floors that are artistically carved enhancing elegance of the entire house structure.
57
The ground floor was used for business and usually it is turned as shop. Toilets were made
separately in the ground floors. The selection of bhanchha kotha at the upper storey and toilets at
the ground floor had the special feature of the old houses. The modern houses built by the
parents of the houses have all the rooms, kitchen and toilets in the same floor. But what the old
people follow seems to be more scientific than the modern buildings.
The bhanchha kotha was made in the upper storey to enhance enough light and free from germs
and harmful gases. In the ground floors, there were high chances being damp and less exposure
to the sun light. This can give rise to the development of germs. Furthermore harmful gases like
carbondioxide, sulphurdioxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, formalin etc are often produced
from the damp dirt and toiletry places are heavier and mainly occupy the bottom layer (Gyawali
et al 2006). The parents of the same house have also built a modern house. Some have built one
story house while others have built two/ three story houses. In their houses, I have found that all
the rooms and the kitchens and the toilets were built in the same floor. This very much
contradicted with the old concepts and ideas. The gases that are produced in the ground floors
had the following effects. Hence prolong inhalation is harmful to the health.

Formalin: Poisonous by inhalation. Causes burns and severely irritates the eyes, skin and
respiratory system. It can also cause ulceration and cracking of the skin.

Ammonia: The vapour irritates all parts of the respiratory system. The solution causes
severe eyes and skin burns.

Hydrogen Sulphide: High concentration may cause unconsciousness followed by
respiratory paralysis. Causes irritation of all parts of the respiratory system and eyes,
headaches, dizziness and weakness. Irritates eyes and may cause conjunctivitis.
58
These precautions taken by the first generation people were hence highly commendable. The
chulo uses the phenomenon of convection of current of air. It is due to the convection current of
air that leads the flame and heat focused towards the pan-hole. Although the parents were not
fully aware, the science of convection current inherent in the chulo had come along generations
to generations and still constitute an important household chore.
2.
The thermodynamics of chulo
The chulo made of bricks and mud are far safer and economical because mud and bricks are bad
conductor of heat so the heat is not lost to from the body of the chulo rather heat is reflected and
focussed towards the pan holes (Mee et al 1971). Furthermore it is safer in an explosion point of
view as well. The gas stoves are often found to be exploded and sometimes due to gas leakage
the whole body of the person is burnt but chulos are not dangerous in that sense. The grandsons
of the houses have not realized these important scientific applications at home. They have
studied and know what are conduction, convection and radiation but were not applying at their
own houses. This shows that our traditional methods have much practical scientific knowledge
that can be used in our textbooks to teach.
The most interesting science behind this earthen chulo is convection current of air.
According to the particle theory of matter, the cold air occupies the bottom layer and the hot air
occupies the upper layer (Denial et al 1981). So when the fire wood is burnt at the bottom of the
chulo, the hot air thus produced rise up through the two pan holes giving much heat. When the
hot air pass out of the pan holes dragging the flame as well, fresh cold air which consists of more
oxygen would enter through the bottom hole assisting the firewood to burn. But in the schools
the teachers were found teaching the same science by the following experiment (Mee et al 1971).
59
The example shown above is most commonly used in the classrooms and also in many textbooks
explaining movement of hot and cold air. A continuous supply of cold air is a precondition for
the candle to keep burning. It is because in the candle compartment the hot air rises up and the
cold air is replaced from the other compartment. The example given below explains what
happens if there’s no supply of cold air.
60
Both examples suggesting that the continuous supply of air is essential for burning anything. The
chulo are made in such a typical way that it has perfectly addressed to the principles of burning
fire (Mee et al 1971). This implies that the knowledge of science existed in traditionally made
chulo since long. The shape of the chulo is made in such a way that the fresh air is continuously
and naturally supplied from the bottom hole and the heat thus produced with hot air is focused
towards the pan holes. So the heat is not lost elsewhere and hence this sort of chulo is very
economical as even lesser firewood can produce a prolong heat. In addition to this the inner part
of the chulo is pasted with the mud that radiates the heat which contributes to the convection
current of hot air. Convection thus is the action of the warm air rising and cool air sinking. The
basic concept of convection current of air is Warm air rises, Cool air sinks.
Bodies of warm air are forced to rise by approaching cold masses. According to Charles law
(1887) volume of gas is directly proportional to absolute temperature.
Vα T
Hence the volume of air increases when the temperature increases while burning wood in the
chulo. When volume is increased the density of the air is decreased as
density = mass /volume
When the air becomes less dense, it then rises up. The hot gas then touches the cold container.
The air cools down when it comes in contact with the cold container and when the air cools
down it transfers the heat energy to the container. The resulting cold air then would increase in
density, thus becomes heavier and goes down. This way the convection current of air is playing
great role in cooking food in our traditionally made chulo.
61
Let us take another example as well that reiterates the scientific notion of the traditional chulo
makers and the users. In order to examine the science associated with chulo, I talked with the
young generation about the science behind chulo. Those young people already in grade 9 knew
in detail about the meaning of convection current. They could demonstrate the experiment to
prove the convection of air. But they failed to realize the convection current of air also inherent
in the chulo.
3. The scientific location of chulo
The old house consists of chulo only in the upper story and never in the ground floor. The old
people said that it is kept in the uppermost storey for purity purpose. Whoever goes into the
chulo has to clean hands and legs. The shoes were absolutely forbidden. In purpose of isolating
the chulo from the people also the chulo is made at the uppermost storey of the old houses.
According to science, the bottom layer of the houses is concentrated with the stinging gases
which are heavier in nature. Gases like Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S), Ammonia (NH3),
carbondioxide, formalin which are harmful for our health are present at the bottom floor and
nearby the toilets area because they are produced from the organic waste products, rubbish and
dead and decaying materials (Jain 1999). Bacteria and virus also grows well in such places.
People who steps on these floors would have their hands, legs and shoes plenty of virus and
bacteria. That is why chulo is made in the upper floors. To go to the bhanchakotha they have to
clean their hands and legs and take off their shoes. In this regard the concept of making chulo
away from the toilet areas is highly commendable from the protection of bacteria (Selmon,
1957). The parents of the old houses have made the new houses where they simply worked in the
kitchen wearing shoes. This seems that modern method is rather less scientific than the old
methods.
62
4. Cloud formation: the contribution of chulo
The old people seem to have got gifted latent scientific knowledge. They said that the clouds are
produced by the smoke. In fact scientifically speaking, smoke also contributes the formation of
clouds (Mee et al. 1971).
(Mee et al. 1971)
The grand children’s idea was not wrong as they had studied. This is quite interesting. According
to the general law of science, air may become full up or saturated with water vapour by passing
for example over the sea (Mee et al. 1971). If the air is forced to raise, perhaps meeting a range
of hills, it becomes colder because the temperature of the air falls as the height increases (Mee et
al. 1971). The air cannot then hold much water vapour. The extract water condenses as a cloud.
That is why we often see the clouds on the top of the mountain. (Mee et al 1971).
The convection current of air is playing many roles in nature as well, for instance, in the
formation of cloud. A body of warm air is forced to rise by an approaching cold front. A strong
updraft of warm air creates cumulus clouds. The air cools as it rises, condenses, and forms
clouds.
But what has made the old people believe that smoke forms cloud. They are also right as well. In
fact water vapour may not condense although the air may be cool enough (Mee et al. 1971). The
63
air is then said to be supersaturated with water vapour. When it is like this it does not take much
to make the water vapour condense. Dust particles of the smoke can cause it to do so. Following
experiment can clearly illustrate this.
(Mee et al 1971)
The apparatus is to be set up as shown in the figure above. The large bottle has a little water at
the bottom. A little smoke has to be introduced into the bottle form a glowing wooden splint.
Then air is pumped into the bottle with a bicycle pump. Then the clip is opened to let the air
escape. On doing this the side of the bottle would be seen with droplets of water. The
thermometer shows the temperature fall. So this clearly shows how clouds are formed. In this
experiment we use smoke particles which act as ‘centres’ around which the water droplets
formed. This explains why fogs are more often found in smoky areas than in clean air. Vapour
trails from aeroplanes are clouds formed when the plane passes through air which is
supersaturated with water vapour (Mee, et al. 1971). The exhaust fumes act as the ‘centre’ in this
case. Sometimes rain clouds are made artificially by putting tiny particles of solid carbon dioxide
into air supersaturated with water vapour. (Mee, et al, 1971).
64
So what the old people told me about the principle of formation of cloud is scientifically valid.
5. Multipurpose of smoke
The grandparents’ application of smoke is also highly scientific. The grandparents use smoke of
the chulo for drying the firewood, the lumbers of the house and for keeping house warm. For
rooms where there is no chulo they often burn wood or straw to generate the smoke. They
strongly believe that the smoke keeps the room warmer. In fact scientifically speaking, the
smoke coming out from the burning wood, straws or other organic product consists of soot and
gases like carbon dioxide, methane, moisture. All these gases are the greenhouse gases (Hill &
Holman 1989). These gases reflect the heat produced in the room thus making the room warmer
and things quickly dry up. Furthermore, the soot in the smoke is mainly the fine carbon particles.
These are very good in absorbing moisture from the air. Hence the air in the room dries up and
hence those dry air pick up moisture from the wooden materials. The wood thus dries up faster.
This shows that daily living practices there are full of science. People call their practice as the
old methods which are “unscientific”. In fact it is not true. Their practice is very scientific.
B. Health Related Practices
Health awareness of the grandparents:
1. Fire wood and smoke hazards:
Grandparents enjoy smoke in their daily life activities and they disregard the hazards of it. Along
with questions in mind I asked the grandparents whether they are aware of the hazards that could
be caused by the smoke. But they seemed to be less cautious in this regards. However I came to
know that their mother who had spent most of her time in cooking food in chulo had chest pain
problems that lead to her death. This means they were not aware of the hazards caused by the
65
burning wood. But they were not in position to accept the hazards of smoke. They said that their
death is natural as they were very old. Something has to happen to meet death at very old age
that exactly the case happened with the great grandparents. This way they are not in position to
accept the hazards of the smoke. Parents and grandchildren of the same house were not willing to
stay in the smoke. They believed that smoke causes hazards to health. So they were willing to
use heaters and gas stoves for cooking foods. But the grandparents want their daughter-in-laws to
cook food in the chulo which produces plenty of smoke. But in spite of their willingness, I found
that the parents cooked food in the separate room while the chulo remained in the top floor only
sometimes be used by the grandmother. According to science, the fire wood is an organic
product. Products from heating wood depend on the temperature of heating: Temperature ranges
are approximate, although the conversions to Fahrenheit are exact.
100-120ºC: moisture driven off.
275ºC : Nitrogen, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide gases; acetic acid and methanol distilled
off.
280-350ºC : Chemical reactions occur during burning of wood, driving off complex mixtures of
ketones, aldehydes, phenols and esters; carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide,
methane, ethane and hydrogen gases evolved.
Above 350ºC : All volatiles driven off; a higher proportion of hydrogen and carbon monoxide
(both useful combustible gases) formed; carbon remains as charcoal with ash residues.
There are numerous minor products, many of them toxic or carcinogenic e.g. polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons. These readily adsorb on soot particles.
66
But when I told them that the great grandmother might have got the disease because of the
smoke, they presented a conflicting view in this regard. They told me that their father used to do
a lot of puja staying in one closed room burning a lot of dhoop (incandescent) and other related
things like burning ghee (margarine) which all produces a lot of smoke. They said he did not
have any problem in his chest throughout his life. This knowledge helped to think that all the
smoke particles burning at low temperature produces mainly the fine coal and charcoal particles
which on inhaling enters the lungs. Now in the lungs, any sort of unwanted liquids produced due
to infections are absorbed by these fine particles of coal and charcoal. After sufficient absorption
they are thrown out as sputum thus clearing the lungs which can then absorb oxygen easily
through the mucus layer present on it (Mackean and Jones 1985).
2. The science on the fire wood used in the chulo
I was so delighted to see the grandparents making use of even the products of burning wood. The
soot produced, they use it for making gaajal. The ash produced they used it as fertilizer,
cleansing powder and also for treatment of abdominal pain. People suffering from abdominal
pain were immediately treated if little amount of ash was fed along with a cup of water. They
used the ash produced for cleaning the utensils. They used the coal and charcoal for brushing
teeth. I examined their teeth, and found that it is shiny and healthy.
Scientifically speaking the chulo users usually suffered from respiratory allergies, such as asthma
and hay fever, and people carrying out strenuous exercise are more susceptible to the effects of
sulphur dioxide and smoke than other people (www. home. health source.com). This is partly
because they usually need to breathe through their mouths instead of their nostrils, and so there is
more chance of the acid droplets and smoke going straight down the trachea without any filtering
in the nostrils ( Alloway & Ayres 1993).
67
But the wisdom of the chulo users shows that people who brush with coals and charcoals have
healthy teeth. Not only are that people often fed with activated charcoal for stomach pain
poisoning as well. Activated charcoal is pure carbon which is highly adsorbent of particles and
gases in the body's digestive system (www. home. health source com).
Activated charcoal has often been used since ancient times to cure a variety of ailments including
poisoning. Its healing effects have been well documented since as early as 1550 B.C. by the
Egyptians (www. home. health source com).
The ash consists of oxides and hydroxides of sodium and potassium which helps to clean the
utensils. They consist of plenty of potassium which is essential for the ripening of fruits in plants.
So it is used as fertilizers. This shows that what the grandparents are practicing have scientific
reason behind it. The parents were not in reluctantly using the ash for various purposes. They
used the market powder for cleansing, chemical fertilizers for the growth of crops.
3. Use of abir (vermillion)
The first generation excessively used vermillion for worshiping, blessings and for every good
deed. They say their demands were fulfilled through such puja. In puja they frequently used the
sapta rangin abir. They put tika made of abir on their foreheads.
According to one of the old man who practiced yoga- he is a Buddhist, the tika placed on the
forehead would help to concentrate our mind which would greatly help to do meditation. Other
old people regard it as a blessing of good fortune. Many people put abir in the cut wounds.
Scientifically speaking all these colourful vermilions are lead containing compounds. All sorts
of lead containing compounds are health hazardous (Hawkings 1988).
68
Lead can cause learning, language and behavioural problems such as reduced school
performance and increased aggression. Pregnant women and young children are particularly
vulnerable to lead exposure
(http://www.englishforums.com/English/PlasticBottlesHealthHazard/bdwzb/post.htm). Lead has
also been linked to infertility and miscarriage.But why our culture gives so much importance to
abir? There should be a solid reason behind it which needs to be further studied.
4. Suraii for health and local economy
The first generation drink water stored in the suraii whereas their grandchildren used to drink
water in the water bottles. The volumetric flask shaped suraii made of earthen material. The
water kept on it is cool and tasty. The plastic water bottles which are popular among the modern
children is transparent very easy to carry.
But recent studies have shown that these plastic bottles are very hazardous to health which can
cause cancer
(http://www.englishforums.com/English/PlasticBottlesHealthHazard/bdwzb/post.htm). The
following text is worth citing here.
“Many are unaware of poisoning caused by re-using plastic bottles. Some of you may be
in the habit of using and re-using your disposable mineral water bottles (e.g. Nestle,
Bisleri, Aquafina, Kinley, Evian,etc...), keeping them in your car or at work. Not a good
idea. It happened in Dubai, when a 12 year old girl died after a long usage (16 months) of
SAFA mineral water bottle, as she used to carry the same fancy (painted by herself)
bottle to her school daily.
In a nutshell, the plastic (called polyethylene terephthalate or PET) used in these bottles
contains a potentially carcinogenic element (something called diethylhydroxylamine or
69
DEHA). The bottles are safe for one-time use only; if you must keep them longer, it
should be or no more than a few days, a week max, and keep them away from heat as
well. Repeated washing and rinsing can cause the plastic to break down and the
carcinogens (cancer-causing chemical agents) can leak into the water that you are
drinking.”(http://www.englishforums.com/English/PlasticBottlesHealthHazard/bdwzb/po
st.htm)
The same studies found that repeated re-use of such bottles—which get dinged up through
normal wear and tear and while being washed—increases the chance that chemicals will leak out
of the tiny cracks and crevices that develop over time. According to the Environment California
Research & Policy Centre, which reviewed 130 studies on the topic, Bisphenol (BPA) has been
linked to breast and uterine cancer, an increased risk of miscarriage, and decreased testosterone
levels.
BPA can also wreak havoc on children’s developing systems. So Parents needs to be aware:
Most baby bottles and Sippy cups are made with plastics containing BPA. Most experts agree
that the amount of BPA that could leach into food and drinks through normal handling is
probably very small, but there are concerns about the cumulative effect of small doses.
(http://environment.about.com/od/healthenvironment/a/plastic_bottles.htm)
5. Pond water /river water: healthy practice.
The first generation in the past used to go to the rivers and ponds everyday in the morning to take
bath and bring fresh water. They regarded that outside water as fresh water. At least water kept
open outside the houses are regarded as the fresh water for them. Those old people were not in
position to admit the water safely kept in the house as the fresh water. ‘So even the water kept in
the filter is not the fresh water and not suitable for drinking’ according to the old people. This
70
sounds funny. But their practices have highly scientific reasoning. The water in the ponds and
rivers exists in larger quantity hence virus if present have lower concentration. The temperature
in the rivers and ponds would be rather lower than in the houses. At low temperature, the germ
activity and multiplication is minimised – germs are active at optimum temperature 27O C. And
early sun’s rays can easily kill the germs in the water in the rivers and ponds. So such water
regarded as the fresh water by the old people is highly scientific. The water kept in houses would
be rather at room temperature at which the germs can easily develop. Furthermore inside the
house, there would be dirt from which the harmful gases like ammonia, hydrogen sulphide might
release. These gases are highly soluble in water so they easily mix up with the water kept in the
buckets in the houses making the water harmful. Harmful bacteria released by the living beings
in the house enter into the air which in turn enters into the water in the houses where they
develop. This shows that our people are really amazing to adopt such practice which is highly
scientific in nature.
All these practices of the old people clearly show that the old techniques are also very scientific.
But this is not being recognised by the new generations and gradually being extinct. This is a
moment to realize this and soon needs to take necessary steps to preserve these old methods and
styles. These methods and styles help us to understand easily the basic concept of science and
these are really the sustainable methods.
This study gave me intuition that there is a need of rethinking over science teaching. This
rethinking demands (a) intergenerational understanding over science (b) exploration of the
scientific know-how embedded in each generation (c) developing the formula/principle out of the
intergenerational scientific knowledge. I also realized that science teacher like myself should go
beyond the textbooks and encourage students to collect lived science and help them learn theory,
71
philosophy, formula in their collections. For example, if a student see the mixture of turmeric
and salt, s/he should find out its chemical reaction, formula associated with it, and also mention
how his/her grandparents and parents understand about it.
I also understood that using chulo we could explain the conduction, convection and radiation
and help students learn the concept clearly than the laboratory methods that we apply today. I
also realized that there are innumerable traditional methods, which we can be used to help
students understand different theories of science. Hence it is wise to collect all these knowledge
from the old people and apply them for science teaching. I also realized that this ethno-scientific
approach to teaching science would be helpful to understand the importance of social action
theory of Max Weber (http://ssr1.uchicago.edu/PRELIMS/Theory/weber.html). This theory
teaches us that people do act; and their acts shape their understanding. As a science teacher like
me, we are supposed to unveil the science associated with peoples' act. I also felt that this selfunveiling scientific process makes the students critical as Karl Marx claimed
(www.isj.org.uk/index.php4?id=141). At the same time I came to know that science is not
merely a fact but it is also an interpretation as the interpretationists championed (Mee et al 1971).
72
Chapter VI
Conclusion and Implications
I greatly felt that there are many sciences to learn from the traditional methods and utilize it in
various fronts. In Nepal, the importance of science education has been greatly realized. But my
experience is that the students are finding too much difficulty in science study especially in the
village regions. It is mainly because there are many things that has to be observed practically and
for that many expensive materials has to be imported from the foreign countries which are costly
and local schools cannot afford for it. So students in such schools are taught science only
theoretically. Such problem would be eliminated if the teachers could utilize the ethno science
knowledge. Students would easily understand and enjoy studying science if science is related to
their traditional and cultural knowledge. This study thus has tried to correlate the traditional
knowledge with the scientific knowledge and hence bridge the gaping between the modern
science and the ethno-science.
I do not feel that we should totally incorporate the traditional knowledge and discard the modern
scientific knowledge. My only concern is that traditional knowledge is also scientific in many
ways. Moreover there are many avenues to construct science-like knowledge. These scientific
knowledge and knowledge construction avenues should therefore be studied thoroughly and
apply in the research in modern science. The research of modern science is not based upon the
new things. It is based upon whatever present in this earth and universe. Hence it would be far
better if we are able to incorporate our traditional knowledge in the research of modern science at
the same time it would be very easy to learn modern science through the explanation and
examples of traditional knowledge. I am also aware that we should not be very dogmatic about
73
the traditional knowledge but we should understand it, examine it from scientific process,
preserve it, and use it for the betterment of the human being.
Usually we credit the West for the scientific innovation. This west- innovated science has been
defined as a systematic approach, a methodological approach to answering questions.
http://www.icsu.org/Library/ProcRep/%20TK-report/FinalTKreport.pdf). But our traditional
knowledge is yet to be lab tested though it has been passed down from generation to generation.
Such science-like traditional knowledge has not been documented as books. The new generations
are adopting the West generated knowledge through the school. Hence the traditional knowledge
has a very high chance to get disappeared very soon along with the new generations to come.
Alchemy: the basis for re-reading ethno science
The traditional knowledge has its own speciality. If we look
at the various wonders of the world,
we would see easily how ethno-science has worked for the
betterment of the civilization and society. There are many
cases where the indigenous knowledge has proved to be
highly advanced. The medieval chemistry is an ancient
traditional chemistry. It was developed with aim to produce
the philosopher’s stone which can turn the base metal into
gold or silver and act as an elixir. For this, Alchemy have
made many procedures, equipment, terminology that are still
in use and all these are based on mythological, religious, and
spiritual concepts, theories and practices. Another example
Pisa tower
74
of advanced indigenous knowledge is the example of the Leaning Tower of Pisa
(http://www.towerofpisa.info/Tower-of-Pisa-facts.html)
It is located in City of Pisa, Italy. The building of the leaning Tower of Pisa, one of the Seven
Wonders of the World.
This shows that there is a relation between ethno-science with the modern science. But their
premises are different. The table below displays the differences in the following ways.
Premises of western and indigenous science
Western premise
Indigenous premise
Materialistic
Spiritual
Reductionist
Holistic
Rational
Intuitive
Decontextualised
Contextualised
Individual
Communal
Competitive
Cooperative
Explains mystery
Celebrates mystery
Time is linear
Time is circular
Seeks power over nature and people
Seeks to coexist with nature and people
Knowledge production for the progress
Knowledge production for specific cultural outcomes
of the society
to maintain society
(http://members.ozemail.com.au/~mmichie/engag_tk.htm)
75
The West also tried to explore the ethnic knowledge. It also assessed the worldviews associated
around ethnic knowledge. The explored knowledge and the worldviews embedded with it are
given below in the table:
Indigenous peoples’ worldview on ethno science
Indigoes people's approach to construct
Example of the constructed knowledge
Approach
scientific knowledge
For example, the notion of the seasons
Holistic
Indigenous people examine elements of
only makes sense when considered with
versus a
their surroundings in terms of how they
the movement of the animals, growth of
reductionist
relate to each other.
plants, movement of water. There is a
relation between each element. An
approach
Indigenous view moves beyond simple
examining the wind, clouds and
temperature.
Ecologically
People are part of the environment.
The gathering of food or hunting of
based
Their actions directly impact on the
animals is based on present needs of its
approach
flora and fauna. People are in and not
people, within the context of ensuring
external to their environment. There is
scarce resources will be available in the
a connectedness with nature and each
future. For example, a waterhole is
other rather than the view that nature
imported and must be cared for and not
can be controlled.
depleted.
76
Inclusive
Everybody understands and uses
An understanding of where to find water
versus
technology (but with certain members
is traditionally held by all members of
specialisatio
of the community claiming knowledge
traditionally orientated communities.
n of
of it) as opposed to specialist
Similarly, the hunting for kangaroos
knowledge
knowledge held by a limited few.
(tracking, signing to indicate direction)
is known to all, although aspects of this
task may be performed by only some.
For example, an understanding of day
Knowledge
Art, dance, music and dreamtime
and night may be closely linked with the
is spiritually
stories link knowledge with the land
dreamtime. Stories link people and
framed
and its people.
nature together, and provide a vehicle
for passing on cultural knowledge from
adults to children.
Contextualis
Knowledge is developed and used in
For example, knowledge of fire lighting
ed versus
context. Scientific enquiry takes place
is developed as a result of materials
decontextual
in the everyday situation and not in an
available, e.g. rubbing sticks over dried
ised science
environment external to the context in
grass; using pandanus leaves to make
which it will be applied (laboratory).
string.
Fleer, Marilyn (1999). Children’s alternative views: Alternative to what? International Journal of
Science Education, 21(2), 119-135. http://members.ozemail.com.au/~mmichie/engag_tk.htm).
77
There are occasions that science and ethno sciences are going in an opposite way. For instance
when wood is burnt to give a carbon particle, from the carbon particles the science begins. What
is the content of the carbon particles is the special interest of science. Each and every particle
contains electron, proton and neutron. This is what science has found whereas in ethno science, it
is just going in opposite way. From carbon particles it looks for the source of the particles. The
sources are supposed to be wood. Where the woods come from? It comes from the trees.
Likewise trees from the forests and forest from this immense big earth and the earth are one of
the planets in the space. Lastly it concludes with the creation of everything by god. So this way
from tiny particle ethno science is moving to gigantic particle whereas from gigantic particle
modern science is moving towards the tiny particle and further into electron, proton and neutron.
Both of them have their own logic and hence both of them are science. But Science is based
upon philosophy and philosophy is adhered in ethno science.
Science has become very important in the today’s world, but the transfer of knowledge about
science has been increasingly dominated by school generations who receive the knowledge
through teaching and learning in the classrooms. This practice has in the one hand created a
conflict between old and new generations with their varied perception and values toward science.
While on the other, the rich source and traditional practices that used to transfer knowledge about
science through generations is fading away.
Study of science is one of the difficult subjects in the school curricula as many students tend to
fail in this subject. It is also expensive because this requires use of different tools, equipments
and chemicals to explain the science. Contrary to school based learning, the science inherent in
our daily practices, household chores, and in our culture makes it easy to explain and to
78
understand it. Moreover, bringing these concepts and practices into the classroom also helps
sustain our culture.
There are three research questions in the study. The first research question, ‘what is the science
behind the traditional?’ constitute major area of inquiry in this research. The deliberations made
earlier under the findings and discussion section presents plenty of practices in our traditional
methods that are scientific. The traditional knowledge is not just simply the knowledge of the old
people, but it has throughout the ages in human history helped our ancestors survive through all
the odds. The only problem associated with the traditional knowledge of science is that the
people could not give a valid reasoning to explain the science. Once assessed the science behind
traditional practices, it is easy to explain as well as to understand the real science in it.
The current generation is more acquainted with the modern science and technology, which has
created a huge gap in terms of their perception and understanding of science. The perception of
science among old generation is very much guided by their utilitarian thinking whereas, that of
the new generation is guided by aesthetic thinking. This explains my second research question ‘How the inter-generational values differ in using the traditional scientific knowledge?’ As far as
the science is concerned, it is apparent in both the traditional as well in the modern practices.
Traditional science inherent in human practices requires its assessment and documentation,
whereas the modern science is readily available in books in the form of theories or formulae.
My third research question was – How the modern scientific knowledge can be taught with the
help of traditionally nurtured knowledge? The youth whom I talked did not want to use
traditional method, which is mainly because these methods have not properly transferred to new
generations. School curricula and textbooks seldom include traditional methods as learning
79
requirement. For this intergenerational value difference should be enhanced through teaching
values of traditional methods in subsistence.
Thus, my conclusion is that there is science behind old practices. We need to explore and prove
it. These old techniques are safe and have no long-term side effects as well. There are a lot of
problems of the side effects in scientific products. For instance, the technology used for
production of crops and vegetables by using chemical fertilizers have now proved to be very
hazardous to health. Those people who have realized have already started to use the traditional
methods and traditional medicines and traditional methods of food preparation. This shows that
traditional methods are more safe and reliable methods. There are no hazardous side effects in
our traditional methods.
While modern science has tremendous value in our current state of being, traditional knowledge
also carries huge potential for its exploration, use and preservation.
In short I would like to summarise the thesis in two points:
1. The general belief that ‘the traditional methods have no scientific base’ is absolutely
incorrect. It has a strong scientific base and in many instances traditional methods works
as the foundation for many modern methods.
2. Traditional methods are easy to learn, easy to teach, less costly, environmental friendly
and highly sustainable. Science is of course essential in modern days but science should
also be studied through traditional methods.
Implications
Due to the rapid growth in science and technology, life style among the new generations has
changed dramatically. Consequently and most noticeably, the traditional knowledge which is the
80
source of modern knowledge and technology in many cases; and which also exhibits value
orientation among different human cultures living in different parts of the globe at different
periods, is at the verge of disappearance. We cannot blame to innovations and developments in
science and technology, but we can certainly find ways to retain and utilize traditional
knowledge that we inherit. We have yet to fully understand these traditional practices which
have helped human civilizations to thrive and prosper. There may be answers to many human
concerns hidden into these traditional practices. Therefore, to retain traditional knowledge and
the science hidden behind these practices should be included in the school co-curriculum. These
are simple to explain and easy to understand.
Ethno-science is one of the less explored areas in Nepal, if not globally. Through this study I
have made humble attempt to bring forth the values of our traditional practices in our culture and
that over the generations how these traditions is gradually transforming in the name of modernity
leaving the traditional knowledge in vain. Therefore, this is the area to conduct extensive
research and development works.
81
References
Alloway, B.C., & Ayres. D.C. (1993). Chemical principles of atmospheric pollution". London:
Chapman and Hall.
Blough, G. O.(1954). Making and Using Classroom Science Materials in the elementary school.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.
Cohen, L., Lawrence, M. & Morrison, K. (2000). Research methods in education (5th edition).
London: Routledge Falmer
Denial, M. J., Davies, L., Locke, A. W. Locke & Reay, M. E.(1981) Investigating Chemistry
London: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd
Douglas, M. (1996).The world of goods: toward and anthropology of consumption. London:
Routledge.
Giddens, A. (2001). Sociology (4th ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge: Polity Press
Gyawali, M. B., Wagle, P., Tiwari, R., Acharya S., Ghimire, C. (2006) Principles of Chemistry.
Nepal: Budha Academic Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
Haggis, S. M. & Hall, J. B.(1966). Finding out in science. London: Cambridge University Press.
Hampson, B. L., Evans, K.C. (1981). Science from the beginning. Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.
Hanfu, X. (1985). Popular Science Booklet Series Electricity (Y. Zhendan, Trans.). Beijing:
China Science and Technology Press.
Hawkings, M. D.(1988) Safety & Laboratory Practice. Southampton: The Camelot Press Ltd.
82
Jain, S. K. (1999) Conceptual Chemistry. New Delhi: S.Chand & Company Ltd.
Kottak, C. P. (2005). Window on humanity: A concise introduction to general anthropology.
New York: Graw Hill.
Martin, G. J. (2004). Ethnobotany. USA: Earthscan
Miller, D. (1987). Material culture and mass consumption. London: Blackwell.
Mee, A. J., Boyd, P. & Ritchie, D. (1971). Science for the 70’s. London: Heinemann Educational
Books Ltd
Mee, A. J., Boyd, P. & Ritchie, D.(1981). Science for the 2000 Book one. London: Heinemann
Educational Books Ltd
Mee, A. J., Boyd, P. & Ritchie, D.(1981). Science for the 2000 Book two. London: Heinemann
Educational Books Ltd
Muir, G. D.(1972). Hazard in the Chemical Laboratory. London: The Royal institute of
Chemistry.
Mackean, D. & Jones, B.(1985) Introduction to Human and Social Biology. London: John
Murray (publishers) Ltd.
Oliver, Richard L. (1997), Satisfaction: A Behavioral Perspective on the Consumer, New York:
Irwin/McGraw-Hill.
Pandey, Deep N. (1997) Ethnoforestry by Indigenous People. Paper presented in XI World
Forestry Congress, Antalya, Turkey
Pandey, Deep N. (1996) Plantation Forestry: India must Change to Advance Closure Technique.
83
Paper presented at the JFM National Network Meeting, October 1996, New Delhi.
Selmon, A.C. (1957). Health and Longetivity. India: The Oriental Watchman Publishing House.
Sthapit, M. K. & Pradhananga, R. R. (1996). Foundations of Chemistry. Kathmandu: Taleju
Prakashan.
Tuli, G. D., Bahl, B.S. & Prasad, A. (1983) Intermidiate Inorganic Chemistry. New Delhi: S.
Chand & Company Ltd.
Wolf, H. K. & Pant, P. R. (2005). Social Science Research and Thesis Writing. Kathmandu:
Buddha Academic Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
Websites:
www./Charcoal,%20activated.htm (retrieved on 10/2/2008)
www./Taking%20Care%20of%20Your%20Teeth.htm (retrieved on 10/2/2008)
www. /Charcoal%20History.htm (retrieved on 10/2/2008)
http://www.englishforums.com/English/PlasticBottlesHealthHazard/bdwzb/post.htm (retrieved
on 04/09/2008)
www./home-Health Resource - The Healing Properties of Activated Charcoal.htm (retrieved on
04/08/2008)
www./Articles - Activated Charcoal Universal Antidote and Detoxifier.htm (retrieved on
04/08/2008)
http://www.inef.org (retrieved on 04/08/2008)
www.ethnomath.org (retrieved on 04/08/2008)
84
Max Weber Basic Terms (The Fundamental Concepts of Sociology). Definitions of Sociology
and Social action: ssr1.uchicago.edu/PRELIMS/Theory/weber.html (retrieved on 4th April 2011)
Habib, I. (2005). International socialism. Critical notes on Edward Said.
www.isj.org.uk/index.php4?id=141 (retrieved on 4th April 2011)
http://www.icsu.org/Library/ProcRep/%20TK-report/FinalTKreport.pdf (retrieved on 4th April
2011)
http://www.towerofpisa.info/Tower-of-Pisa-facts.html (retrieved on 24th July 2011)
http://members.ozemail.com.au/~mmichie/engag_tk.htm (retrieved on 24th July 2011)
http://www.experiment-resources.com/history-of-the-philosophy-of-science.html (retrieved on
24th July 2011)
85
Appendix –I
Scientific reasons in some other interesting traditional methods.
When the body skin burns due to the accidental fire break, the old people spat the paste of cow
dung around the affected area. They said it prevents the formation of blisters. But our medical
doctors do not recommend this as this ‘is very unhygienic’ said by a physician Dr Arun Karna.
But the old people have strong belief that it can cure. So how far the truth is there needs to be
scientifically in this regards.
Eating paan increases the strength of the teeth also has a scientific reasoning. The paan consists
of ‘chun’ which is a calcium oxide powder. The powder thus provides calcium which is very
essential to strengthen the teeth. Similarly the old people prefer to have pickles grinded in the
thick stone slate rather than grinding in the electric grinder. It is because the stone slate provides
fine particles of stone which is the compound of calcium. Calcium is the main constituent of the
stone and the calcium makes pickles tasty. Pickles without calcium have blunt taste. Similar is
the case with water. River water is also tasty as it flows along the stone rocks. Underground
water have blunt taste as it is not coming in contact with the rock stones and hence consists of
very little or no calcium. That is why the old people prefer to have pickles made in the stone
slate. The calcium makes our teeth and bones stronger and hence essential substance for our
healthy growth.
‘Sleeping in hard mattresses like the straw mat would keep our body in correct posture’ said Dr
Dhakwa, a child physician. Our body needs to be in correct posture to maintain our health.
According to Dr Dhakwa, the incorrect posture would lead to constriction of nerves that lead to
several types of diseases specially nerve diseases.
86
Dr Karna points out that as far as possible, patients should be given only the traditional methods
of treatment unless it is really very essential. It is because the pharmaceutical medicines always
have some or other sort of side effects. He recommends sourly foods like teete karela and pickles
with methi which gives sour taste is the best method to control the blood pressure.
There are some amazing methods which are very powerful methods to cure some of the diseases
like curing janai khatira, jabi khatira etc. Research needs to be done in these amazing traditional
methods the findings of which would be a great beneficial to the human kind.
Alcohol is one of the very popular beverages found to be produced at home in the newars
families of Bhaktapur. Its scientific name is ethanol / ethyl alcohol. Ethanol is the alcohol of
beer, wines, and liquors. It can be prepared by the fermentation of sugar (e.g., from molasses),
which requires an enzyme catalyst that is present in yeast; or it can be prepared by the
fermentation of starch (e.g., from corn, rice, rye, or potatoes), which requires, in addition to the
yeast enzyme, an enzyme present in an extract of malt. The concentration of ethanol obtained by
fermentation is limited to about 10% (20 proof) since at higher concentrations ethanol inhibits
the catalytic effect of the yeast enzyme. (The proof concentration of an alcoholic beverage is
numerically double the percentage concentration.) For non beverage uses ethanol is more
commonly prepared by passing ethylene gas at high pressure into concentrated sulphuric or
phosphoric acid to form the corresponding ester; the acid-ester mixture is diluted with water and
heated, forming ethanol by hydrolysis, and the alcohol is then removed from the mixture by
distillation, usually with steam.
Fermentation and Industrial and Beverage Production:
All beverage alcohol and much of that used in industry is formed through fermentation of a
variety of products including grain such as corn, potato mashes, fruit juices, and beet and cane
87
sugar molasses. Fermentation is an enzymatically anaerobic controlled transformation of an
organic compound. With respect to alcohol, we are referring to the conversion of sugars to
ethanol by microscopic yeasts in the absence of oxygen. The equation for the fermentation of
glucose is: C6H1206
2CH3CH2OH + 2CO2
The figure uses a symbolic notation familiar in biochemistry. It shows the stepwise
transformation of glucose to ethanol through intermediates, pyruvate and acetaldehyde.
Ethanol is a monohydric primary alcohol. It melts at -117.3°C and boils at 78.5°C. It is miscible
(i.e., mixes without separation) with water in all proportions and is separated from water only
with difficulty; ethanol that is completely free of water is called absolute ethanol. Ethanol forms
a constant-boiling mixture, or azeotrope, with water that contains 95% ethanol and 5% water
and that boils at 78.15°C; since the boiling point of this binary azeotrope is below that of pure
ethanol, absolute ethanol cannot be obtained by simple distillation. However, if benzene is
added to 95% ethanol, a ternary azeotrope of benzene, ethanol, and water, with boiling point
64.9°C, can form; since the proportion of water to ethanol in this azeotrope is greater than that in
95% ethanol, the water can be removed from 95% ethanol by adding benzene and distilling off
this azeotrope. Because small amounts of benzene may remain, absolute ethanol prepared by
this process is poisonous.
The alcohol whether it is of good quality or not is tested by burning it in a finger. It is because
ethanol burns in air with a blue flame, forming carbon dioxide and water. It reacts with active
metals to form the metal ethoxide and hydrogen, e.g., with sodium it forms sodium ethoxide. It
reacts with certain acids to form esters, e.g., with acetic acid it forms ethyl acetate. It can be
oxidized to form acetic acid and acetaldehyde. It can be dehydrated to form diethyl ether or, at
higher temperatures, ethylene.
88
Alcohol /Ethanol is not only used for drinking purposes. It is used extensively as a solvent in the
manufacture of varnishes and perfumes; as a preservative for biological specimens; in the
preparation of essences and flavorings; in many medicines and drugs; as a disinfectant and in
tinctures (e.g., tincture of iodine); and as a fuel and gasoline additive any U.S. automobiles
manufactured since 1998 have been equipped to enable them to run on either gasoline or E85, a
mixture of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline. E85, however, is not yet widely available.
Denatured, or industrial, alcohol is ethanol to which poisonous or nauseating substances have
been added to prevent its use as a beverage; a beverage tax is not charged on such alcohol, so its
cost is quite low. Medically, ethanol is a soporific, i.e., sleep-producing; although it is less toxic
than the other alcohols, death usually occurs if the concentration of ethanol in the bloodstream
exceeds about 5%. Behavioral changes, impairment of vision, or unconsciousness occur at lower
concentrations.
Structure of old house of the indigenous people: Almost all the old houses are built in such a
way that it consists of topmost floor with a slanting tiled roofs. In some of the houses slate roofs
are often seen. The houses are built of bricks and mud with a 14” thick wall. The houses are built
on ‘wall system’ basis which is very safe in earthquake point of view said the civil engineer
Gyanendra Raj Pandey who is running Nepal Aadarsha Nirman Company ( A- class company).
The topmost floor is not usable to live. It is used as a store room in some houses while in others
it is used as a worshiping god. A small window is kept on the roof to allow light to enter inside
the room. Apart from the small peephole like window there is no other window.
The second topmost floor is used as kitchen. It is called bhanchha kotha. In the bhanchha kotha
is used for both kitchen and dining room.
89
The third and fourth topmost floor is used as bed rooms and living rooms. There are plenty of
windows in these rooms made up in old style with carved windows.
The bottom floor is a ground floor. The bottom floor is used for making shops. Toilets are made
in the bottom floor.
The floors are smeared with paste of red soil and cow dung.
The old people of these houses in many cases are stuck to their old methods and styles. Those
old people I have found brushing with coal and charcoal whereas their sons and grandsons/
daughters are habituated to brushing with toothpaste. But the most interesting part is that those
old people who brush with those coal and charcoals have very shiny and healthy teeth. I asked
Mr Sunil Saiju ‘ where do you get coals and charcoals from?’ He said ‘Well I smoke tobacco so I
have plenty of coals and charcoal.’ The charcoal is the burnt out tobacco. Anything burnt out in
limited or absence of oxygen forms charcoal. People who are suffering from the abdomen pain
are also treated very easily by charcoal. Such people are given hot water in which seven pieces of
‘ko appa’ the charred brick, the charcoal is added. Sometimes the ash of the incessant is also
used for relieving the pain in the stomach as seen practiced by the phukne baje in Pokhra and
Bhaktapur and in Budhanilkantha, Kathmandu.
The grand parent in one of the house in Pokhara said that to teeth should be brushed with
sajjiman with the branch of the same. While talking about the old methods with the grandfather
Mr Prem Lal he said eating ‘paan’ has a medicinal values. For instance a woman who has under
gone delivery is given ‘paan’ two / three times a day. It would make the teeth very strong.
90
Another interesting part of these old peoples’ houses is the method of production of Alcohols.
They are making excellent alcohols. In many places in Bhaktapur people make alcohol at their
own houses whereas the new generations are habituated to drinking foreign alcohols.
The alcohols are excellent in taste and I wonder how old people able to make such beverages
when they know nothing about science. I observed the procedure and talked informally with
them. I found that they first of all use kodo, gahu, rice etc containing maad matter are grinded
into small particles. Then water is added to make a paste. Then it is cooked only with a steam. A
big copper container named as fosi is taken and water is added into the fosi. On the top of the fosi
is kept a earthen container with a hole at the centre named as potasi is kept. The hole of the
potasi is closed with straw and on the top of the straw the paste is put. The mouth of the potasi is
closed and the water in the fosi is heated. After one and half hour the paste is cooked with a
steam.
The paste is then put in a clean place and is spread. When it is cooled, yeast (marcha) is put. The
powdered yeast is uniformly mixed. Then this mixture is put into a big container (gyampa) and
some water is added. It is kept idle for 10/12 days and according to the need it is stirred time to
time and yeast is added. The paste inside the container starts to boil and sometimes the froth even
comes out of the container.
After the process of overflowing starts to diminish, then distillation is preceded. For this the
liquid of the gyampa is transferred into the fosi. On the fosi is adjusted the potasi. The junction
between the fosi and potasi is made air tight. For making air tight they enclose the junction with
a wetted cloth. Inside the potasi they put a small container which they call it as patra (receiver).
On the mouth of the potasi, a funnel shaped copper container is adjusted. The copper funnel and
the potasi junction is also made air tight.
91
Consequently the liquid starts to vaporize. The vapours are cooled in the copper funnel. The
condensed liquid droplets then fall down into the receiver. To condense the steam time to time
the copper funnel is exchanged with cold water.
When the patra is full, it is taken out and replaced with another. This distilled water is alcohol.
The first part consists of more very high concentration of alcohol while the latter part consists of
low amount of alcohol.
In one of the old house in Pokhara, I met a grandfather and grandmother. Their daughters in law
were washing their clothes in washing trough made of plastic. I asked with the grandfather and
grandmother whether in their time too washing method is also same or different. They replied
that it is different. There was no soap in their time. But they used a specially made liquid to use
as soap. That was very interesting. They said it was far better than the soap. They said it is made
by burning a bundle straw. The ash thus formed is then put into a small perforated bucket made
up of bamboo. Then water is poured into the bucket and through the perforated bucket at the
bottom comes out a very slippery gray liquid. That liquid is used for washing purpose and it can
totally clean the dirty clothes.
I inquired whether same solution can be used for taking bath or not. They replied that that
solution is not suitable for taking bath. For bathing purpose, they have different soaps. They are
still using it. They showed me rittha. It grows up in the tree. It is easily available and is cheaper.
The liquid present inside the rittha produces too much froth and is slippery in water which is
used for taking bath. ‘It makes the hair black and healthy’ said the old parents. It also removes
many of the skin diseases. It is far better than the shampoos.
The old people had no access to the medical treatment in old times. The old people have their
own old methods to cure for pains in their back, hands and legs. For this they use anani chamal.
92
The anani chamal is soaked in water. The soaked chamal is then roasted in margarine. After that
the roasted chamal is then cooked like a plau. People with back pain, hand and leg pain eat that
plau to get relief from the pain.
People who suffer from the janai khatira are also very effectively treated with old methods. An
artist with his own rituals writes lion around the boils with its mouth widely open on the boils.
Grandmother of one of old house told me that she suffered from the janai khatira just two years
back. ‘It was very painful’ she said. She had undergone medication but it did not heal, rather it
increased and became more and more painful. Many of her relatives asked her to go to an artist
and write lions on the affected area at the back side of her body. Then she went to an artist near
by her house. The artist wrote following his own rituals. After two days the Janai Khatira was
gone. Similar incidents had occurred in Krishna patti Saijj’s house. His grandson had also got the
Janai Khatira which was healed only after writing lions on the affected area. One of the old lady
in Pokhra showed me a special kind of net which is used to cure jabi khatira. A jabi khatira is a
kind of boils that rapidly spread all-round the body, is extremely itching and produces red spots.
The old lady named Kundali told me that the jabi jali (net) is smeared around the affected area
and then it is pressed under the jatto. After four days all the boils disappears. Grandmother
Kundali said that in her time many people suffer from that kind of diseases and she used to send
her jabi net to them. She said the net has been kept in her time from the time immemorial. She
had shown me the net. This is the most challenging method to science that I have found. When I
consulted with number of doctors they say that it is a kind of viral infection which can be cured
but they have no answer to the traditional method of curing such disease.
In all the old houses the grandparents and grandsons methods are falling apart. The grandson
wants to drink cold water and cold drinks specially cokes. Coca -cola is kept in the house
93
refrigerator along with water. So when they want cold water or cold drinks they can have it at
any time. But the old people did not have such facilities at their times. To drink cold water they
put water in earthen container which keeps water cool. One of the grandparents told me that in
past days the religious people dig a hole in the ground around the chautara and earthen
containers are kept inside with water in it to provide water to the pedestrians.
The old people say drinking cold drinks and eating chauchau is not good. They say only
naturally food must be eaten. Junk food would spoil the health.
The old people prefer to have pickles grinded in the special stone called shilaute. The old people
does not like to have pickles made by grinding in the electric grinders.
The old people prefer to sleep on the straw matt. In the old houses I found the old people
sleeping on the matte and they are very healthy whereas their sons are sleeping in cozy mattress
which is thick. The old people say such mattress would damage the health.
For people who suffer from high blood pressures are given the blood pressure medicine. But
these old people are not suffering from the high pressure diseases. They are controlling it by
themselves by drinking neem water. Drinking neem water and eating sour foods like teete karela
would reduce the blood pressure’ said one of the old man who practices phuk phak.
94
Appendix -II
Form 1: Interview guidelines for children (boys/ girls)
1. Personal information:
Name…………………………….Gender………..ethnicity………….age……….
2. Application of science at home
3. ethnoscience at home
4. the realization of science in their life at home
5. photo on their consent
6. What day-to-day practice at your home helps you to understand concepts of science such
as conduction, convection and radiation?
7. What experiments you have observed in the school helped you to understand your day-today activities at home.
8. Can you give some scientific evidence behind some day-to-day practice on the basis of
science you learnt at school?
95
Form 2: Interview guidelines for grandparents
1. How much are you satisfied with your traditional methods at the present context?
2. How important do you think is your traditional methods at the present context?
3. Do you prefer it to be continued or simply be replaced by the modern methods?
4. Do you believe in science or traditional methods?
5. Is traditional method a science or not?
96
Form 3: Interview guidelines for parents
1. Personal information:
Name…………………………….Gender………..ethnicity………….age……….
2. How do you like traditional methods?
3. Do you see the importance of the traditional methods?
4. Do you wish to adopt it?
5. Do you believe in science or traditional methods?
6. Are traditional methods a science or not?
97
Form 4: Guidelines for Focus Group Discussion
1. Personal information:
Name…………………………….Gender………..ethnicity………….age……….
2. How do you like traditional methods?
3. Do you wish traditional methods to be abolished and replaced by the modern methods?
98
Form 5: Check list for observation
Activities
Household activities
Traditional equipments
Occupations
Photos
Related concepts in science
Remarks
99
Form 6: Checklist for participant observation
1. Grandparents
Name................................................
Gender..........................
Age...............................
Qualification.........................
2. Parents..............................
Name...............................
Gender....................................
Age....................................
Qualification..................................
3. Children
Name.........................
Gender.....................
Age.....................
Qualification.......................