Jan Axmacher
Changing Landscapes
Candidate Number: YNVH4
Investigate the Implications of the Use of Traditional
Chinese Medicine (TCM) and Chinese Cooking for Nature
Conservation with Specific Focus on Aquatic Organisms.
Wildlife and humans coexist in an intricate relationship; people value wildlife as
a source of income, food and medicine as well as representing cultural symbols
(Alves and Rosa, 2007). From an ethnomedicinal perspective, wildlife represents
an immeasurable source of information and raw materials, which support health
systems of different human cultures that depend on nature as a source of
medicines to treat and cure illnesses (Zhen, 2009). Naturally occurring
substances such as plant, animal and mineral sources have provided a continuing
supply of medicines since the earliest times (Alves and Rosa, 2012). The use of
these traditional medicines have provided a crucial support and health system to
millions of people around the globe for centuries and this has continued and
influenced the present day (Alves et al., 2012). Traditional medical systems
throughout the world have been relied on to support, promote, retain and regain
human health for millennia. It has been estimated that between 70 and 95% of
citizens in a majority of developing countries, especially those in Asia, Latin
America, and the Middle East use traditional medicine for the management of
health and as primary health care to address their health care needs and
concerns (Xue et al., 2010).
The healing of human ailments by using therapeutics based on medicines
obtained from animals or ultimately derived from them is known as zootherapy
(Lev, 2003). Undoubtedly the basis of many of these traditional medicines
contains parts of plants and animals, however the pharmacological using animals
in medicines have been little explored. Available studies have nevertheless
shown that animal natural resources are highly promising in the search for new
drugs of medical pharmaceutical interest (Souto et al., 2012). As the demand for
these resources are so high, inevitable exploitation has been seen. There is a
need for careful strategy due to the exploitation of aquatic organisms through
bioprospecting as there is a growing demand for their medicinal purposes that
can lead to sever overharvesting of target species (Seedhouse, 2011). In view of
this reality, economic development associated with animal bioprospecting
should be preceded by a broad discussion of the conservation of biodiversity and
the sustainable management of natural resources (Harvey, 2012).
Aquatic mammals from various sizes have been sourced for their use in
traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) since ancient times (Guo et al., 1997).
However, there is growing concern towards their use, as they are also among the
most threatened animal taxa worldwide (Still, 2003). At least 24 species of
aquatic mammals are used in TCM, although all these species are listed in the
IUCN Red List and include critically endangered species (Yi-Ming et al., 2000).
The medical value of aquatic animal species has also not been included in the
calculations of the economic value of biodiversity by the World Conservation
Union (IUCN) (Alves, and Rosa, 2005). The medicinal use probably does not pose
major threat to most aquatic mammals, nevertheless their exploitation for
Jan Axmacher
Changing Landscapes
Candidate Number: YNVH4
medicinal purposes is troubling, as it constitutes an additional and persistent
impact for a group of animals that have suffered major direct impacts, especially
from ocean habitat degradation and over fishing, as well as impacts related to
global warming (Zhang et al., 2008). Oceans are the Earth’s most valuable
natural recourses, which provide majority of the food in form of fish and
shellfish; about 200 billion pounds are caught each year (Burge et al., 2013).
Oceans are the richest resources for numerous biomedically important chemicals
as well as protein molecules, which range from general medication proposes to
the specific therapeutic applications (Jha and Zi-rong, 2004). Developments of
medicines from the sea are quickly becoming seen as the best at present day
because there is a conventional belief that “life originated from the sea”
(Pitchford, 2002). Asians supplement their regular diet with seafood, which
provides them more proteinaceous and medically valuable ingredients. They
view a healthy and nutritious life as being able to source the right food, thus the
search for medicinal foods and remedies are still continuous from marine
resources (Gould and Villarreal, 2006).
Many of the aquatic organisms found in TCM are part of trading processes
throughout China (Chan et al., 2003). Since demand is high it’s a lucrative market
with huge earning potential for buyers and sellers. One of the most alarming
trades is from shells of hard shelled and soft shell turtles (Alves et al., 2012).
Turtles and tortoises have long been utilized in East and Southeast Asia for food,
medicines and pets; China is the largest consumer country in the world (Fund,
2002). Due to burgeoning demand in the market following rapid economic
growth, over one-half of freshwater turtle and tortoise species from Southeast
and East Asia have been severely threatened by overexploitation for food and
traditional medicines (Parham et al., 2001). The turtle shells (plastrons from
hard-shelled species and carapaces from soft-shell species) have long been used
as an ingredient for TCM in many societies with Chinese cultural origins and
affinities in East and Southeast Asia and other overseas Chinese communities
around the World (Gong et al., 2009). However, the trade in turtle shells has
never been systematically monitored and very few long-term data reports are
available (Schlaepfer et al., 2005).
Although a study carried out by Chen et al in 2009 showed that based on custom
trade statistics from 1999 to 2008, a total of 1989 metric tons of hard shells have
been imported into Taiwan for consumption in the TCM market, with an average
of 198.9 metric tons per year (Chen et al., 2009). Soft-shells were also imported
and a figure of 290 metric tons was recorded, averaging 29.0 metric tons per
year (Chen et al., 2009). This volume indicates that millions of turtles and
tortoises have been killed annually for the TCM market in Taiwan alone. The
custom trade records however were not species specific but Chen et al did
discover through surveying methods that in 1996-2002 a total of 39 species of
the turtles and tortoises in this trade mainly originated from China. Only 3 nonAsian species were found whilst surveying. The TCM market is a closed
community and the domestic trade is very poorly documented due to the limited
oversight by the responsible agencies, this means that data access relies purely
on international trade statistics of custom reporting systems (Broad et al., 2001).
The larger number and numerous species of origin in turtle-shell trade for the
Jan Axmacher
Changing Landscapes
Candidate Number: YNVH4
TCM market indicate blatant disregard by traders for law and authority
countries (Cheung and Dudgeon, 2006). The trade of turtle shells appears to be
highly unsustainable and may have great impact on the chelonian fauna in Asia
due to the absence of turtles and tortoises in the food chain (Shiping et al., 2006).
Clear policies and close international cooperation for the regulation of turtle
shell trade are urgently needed.
A similar trade can also be seen in manta and mobula rays across the TCM
market, the appetite for these animals have put the population at sever risk
(Alava et al., 2002). Labelled as a traditional medicine, there is actually no
historical reference to this remedy in Chinese texts, so the term “traditional”
cannot directly be applied accurately (Fernando and Stevens, 2011). However,
the product is still being marketed as such but is extremely undocumented and
many reports are based on speculation. They are hunted for their gill rakers,
these are filaments that filter out plankton, krill and other food (Jaine et al.,
2012). Demand in China for dried gill rakers as purported medicine for chicken
pox and other aliments is down to a marketing pitch (Nijman and Nekaris, 2012).
They are advertised through the belief that as manta rays are capable of filtering
particles out of the water, if you consume the rakers yourself, it will filter
impurities from your body (Hilton, 2009). It’s thought that this has drawn
attention to the growing market, as there are increasing problems with bird flu,
SARS and asthma from pollution (Still, 2003).
This market pitch has tapped into people’s insecurities and the consumption of
gill rakers are inevitably raising when twenty years ago they were an unheard of
remedy (Fernando and Stevens, 2011). The increasing popularity of this trade
means that a large manta can fetch several hundred dollars, versus $20 to $40
for its meat alone (Shyr, 2012). Last year it was stated that around 100,000 of
the rays landed in global fish markets, this estimate included around a dozen
mobuild species (Shyr, 2012). In 2004, manta rays were identified by the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species as a group associated
with significant unregulated, unsustainable fishing and sever population
depletion (Stevens, 2012). In 2005, the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
classified the manta ray as “near threatened” (Dewar et al., 2008). If current
fishing practices continue, certain populations are vulnerable too extinction in
the future (Hilton, 2009). However, global extinction is far from sight but it is
possible that populations will go, or have gone, regionally extinct. Some species
of manta have been documented to be more vulnerable than others and there is
a need of urgent research to understand the comprehensive management efforts
that need to be put in place (Marshall, 2008). There is much still to be discovered
on behalf of manta rays biology and physiology. A fear has set in across scientists
who are making new discoveries into the life of a manta ray. Their slow maturity
rates and infrequent pregnancies mean that populations cannot replenish
themselves as fast as man is catching and killing them (Stevens, 2012).
The shark fin trade is arguably the most important determinant of the fate of
shark populations around the world (Clarke et al., 2006). Shark fins have been a
traditional element of Chinese haute cuisine for centuries. They were first
established as an ingredient in formal Chinese banquets prepared for the
Jan Axmacher
Changing Landscapes
Candidate Number: YNVH4
emperor of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD) (Fabinyi et al., 2012). Although,
during the Mao Zedong and early Deng Xiaoping eras, consumption was either
discourages by policies of cultural reform or priced beyond the reach of all but
the wealthiest consumers (Lack and Sant, 2006). However the consumption of
shark fin has remained a status symbol by means of the same factors of
exclusiveness and exoticism that fuel the demand for other rare wild animals in
Chinese society. They are freely available to purchase in shops and restaurants
and are advertised as prize dining features to make a restaurant exclusive and
desirable.
Fig 1. Below is a photo demonstrating the advertisement of shark fins ready for
consumption.
In addition to this, connections between shark fins and beliefs about health and
vitality play a role in market demand (Worm et al., 2013). Products from animals
known to be strong or fierce, such as sharks, were believed to impart strength to
those who ate them and this are considered suitable for the imperial family
(Fong and Anderson, 2000). There is no data complied on shark fin sales and
volumes in Hong Kong or Mainland China, import data from national custom
authorities are only available for indications of demand (Milner-Gulland and
Bojorndal, 2008). As the demand is further explored attention needs to be drawn
to regulatory and policy actions designed to discourage the practice of shark
finning. Finning has arisen mostly from fisheries targeting high-value species
such as tuna or billfishes (Clarke et al., 2006). The vessels that operate within
Jan Axmacher
Changing Landscapes
Candidate Number: YNVH4
these fisheries often make lengthy trips with limited hold capacity and therefore
do not wish to keep shark carcasses, but appreciate the high value of fins. Some
vessels may also target sharks especially just for their fins however recent
campaigns have urged coastal longline fleets that land large numbers of whole
sharks to use both fins and meat, if only to make the processes more ethically
bearable (Clarke et al., 2004). The current extent of finning is unknown and
studies into the matter are not entirely welcomed. It is thus necessary to
simultaneously work to rectify data deficiency while supporting precautionary
measures as a hedge against scientific uncertainties. The most serious, and yet
perhaps most easily remedied, data deficiency is that associated with frozen fin
imports to China (TRAFFIC, East Asia, 2004). A decision by the Government of
China to reverse the coding guidance of 2000 and ideally to separate dried and
frozen and processed and unprocessed shark fin imports and exports as Hong
Kong does, would greatly benefit all research into the shark fin trade (Norman
and Catlin, 2007). In order to close unavoidable loopholes in the regulation of
shark fins via fin-to-carcass weight ratios, finning regulations should be
amended to require that sharks be landed with fins attached, as was specified in
the State of Hawaii legislation in 2000 (Morita, 2000).
To improve the conservation of aquatic animals that are associated with TCM
there is need for action to be taken on the supply side of the economic equation.
However consumer awareness and precautionary demand reduction campaigns
could be extremely effective. The target audience for such campaigns would
obviously be consumers and potential consumers in Mainland China, as no other
group can so strongly affect the fate of sharks, manta rays and turtle populations
(Still, 2003). These however are to only name but a few of the aquatic species
that are being endangered by popular use of TCM. However, the use of animals
for medicinal purpose is part of a body of traditional knowledge, which is
increasingly becoming more relevant to discussion on conservation biology,
public health policies, sustainable management of natural resources, biological
prospection and patents (Costa-Neto, 2005). Coexistence is not out of the
question if proper management and regularity is carried out in the trade of TCM.
Nevertheless, the political web surrounding this broad statement is incredibly
vast. Strong political will from the Chinese government is crucially needed along
with proper environmental education to take a step towards new conservation
methods in order to appreciate and protect these critically endangered species.
Word Count – 1994
Jan Axmacher
Changing Landscapes
Candidate Number: YNVH4
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Changing Landscapes
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