Lawrence Bacudio
February 2010
ENGL 105
Scientific Look at Nanotechnology
“Nanotechnology will have an important role in realizing the goal of detecting transforming cell
populations early by in vivo imaging or ex vivo analysis.1”
Parallel to Ferrari’s notion, nanotechnology would exhibit great significance in early detection
of mutated and cancer cells. Simply, the implementation of nanotechnology in medical aspects
could allow pre-cancer patients to detect the formation of a benign tumor before it becomes
cancerous. Consequently, as nanotechnology develops, not only would it be easier to detect
cancerous cells, but it would have the potential for therapeutic “adaptive targeting.2” That is,
therapeutic treatment becomes much more personalized from patient to patient. Yet, does
treatment through nanotechnology do more harm than good? Simply, the Journal of
Nanoparticle Research asserts, “…unwanted nanoparticles may enter cells or nanostructured
tissues may not be biocompatible.3” That is, contradictory to nanotechnology’s therapeutic
goals, neither “new chemicals4” introduced in the body nor a “programmable genocide5” would
have any positive contribution to public health. Therefore, physicians may not be able to
prescribe nanomedicine as a therapeutic treatment. Consequently, through a limited access in
nanotechnology, patients are protected from an even harmful abnormality. As such, physicians
may offer nanomedicine as a curative option but not benign because of “nanoparticle toxicity
and risk.6” And, with this understanding as my foundation, my essay will look at the causative
links, not merely the corollary factors, demonstrating how and if the limited access in
nanotechnology lead to a more beneficial value.
Origins
Understanding the origins of nanotechnology takes us back to the late 1950s that first discussed
the concepts that spawned nanotechnology during Feynman’s talk, There’s Plenty of Room at
the Bottom. Simply, as the International Handbook on Regulating Nanotechnologies assert,
“Feynman’s talk preceded numerous crucial events that made nanotechnology possible.7” That
1
Ferrari, Mauro. "Cancer nanotechnology: opportunities and challenges." Nature Reviews Cancer 5.3 (2005): 161171.
2
Sumer, Baran, and Jinming Gao. "Theranostic nanomedicine for cancer." Nanomedicine 3.2 (2008): 137-140.
3
Roco, Mihail C. "Broader societal issues of nanotechnology." Journal of Nanoparticle Research 5.3-4 (2003): 181189.
4
Bowman, Diana M., and Graeme A. Hodge. "A small matter of regulation: an international review of
nanotechnology regulation." Columbia Sci Technol Law Rev 8.1 (2007).
5
Bowman, Diana M., and Graeme A. Hodge. "A small matter of regulation: an international review of
nanotechnology regulation." Columbia Sci Technol Law Rev 8.1 (2007).
6
Bowman, Diana M., and Graeme A. Hodge. "A small matter of regulation: an international review of
nanotechnology regulation." Columbia Sci Technol Law Rev 8.1 (2007).
7
Hodge, Graeme A, Diana M. Bowman, and Andrew D. Maynard. International Handbook on Regulating
Nanotechnologies. Technology & Engineering. 2010, 47.
is, Feynman’s concept of manipulating atoms to synthesize new materials gave birth to the
science of nanotechnology. Consequently, similar to Whitesides, “‘nano’ offers new tools… that
will be necessary to put together a conceptual model of life.8” Thereby, nanotechnology, by
synthesis through atomic buildup, would allow “an enabling technology for personalized
oncology9” to be accessible to cancer patients. As such, nanotechnology can be specifically
tailored to fit the needs of society in general.
Another way to understand the origins of nanotechnology is through the design of lipid vesicles.
Simply, as Farokhzad asserts, “Among the first nanotechnology drug delivery systems were lipid
vesicles, which were described in the 1960s and later became known as liposomes.10” That is,
drug delivery was improved through lipid vesicles. Consequently, similar to Farokhzad, lipid
vesicles improve the therapeutic and “pharmaceutical efficacy11” of “clinically approved
drugs.12” Thereby, the earliest design of nanotechnology of which is lipid vesicles provided the
blueprint of what is to come in modern pharmaceutical designs of nanotechnology.
Another way to comprehend the origins of nanotechnology is through nanoparticles’ lognormal
size distributions. Simply, as Kiss posits, “A new model provides insight into the physical origin
of lognormal particle size distributions found in open, stationary systems common in modern
nanotechnology.13” That is, particle growth, due to “diffusion and drift,14” is best explained
through a model “based on residence time approach.15” Consequently, similar to Kiss,
nanoparticle production can be enhanced for “technical applications16” through the use of the
aforementioned model.
Fundamental Concepts
Understanding the fundamental concepts of nanotechnology would allow us to gain a better
understanding of what this science entails. Simply, as Whitesides asserts, “the reliance upon
8
Whitesides, G. M. The ‘right’ size in nanobiotechnology. Nat. Biotechnol. 2003, 21, 1161–1165.
Misra, Ranjita, Sarbari Acharya, and Sanjeeb K. Sahoo. "Cancer nanotechnology: application of nanotechnology in
cancer therapy." Drug Discovery Today 15.19 (2010): 842-850.
10
Farokhzad, Omid C., and Robert Langer. "Impact of nanotechnology on drug delivery." ACS nano 3.1 (2009): 1620.
11
Farokhzad, Omid C., and Robert Langer. "Impact of nanotechnology on drug delivery." ACS nano 3.1 (2009): 1620.
12
Farokhzad, Omid C., and Robert Langer. "Impact of nanotechnology on drug delivery." ACS nano 3.1 (2009): 1620.
13
Kiss, L B, J Soderlund, G A Niklasson and C G Granqvist. New approach to the origin of lognormal size
distributions of nanoparticles. Nanotechnology 10 (1999): 25 – 28. Print
14
Kiss, L B, J Soderlund, G A Niklasson and C G Granqvist. New approach to the origin of lognormal size
distributions of nanoparticles. Nanotechnology 10 (1999): 25 – 28. Print
15
Kiss, L B, J Soderlund, G A Niklasson and C G Granqvist. New approach to the origin of lognormal size
distributions of nanoparticles. Nanotechnology 10 (1999): 25 – 28. Print
16
Kiss, L B, J Soderlund, G A Niklasson and C G Granqvist. New approach to the origin of lognormal size
distributions of nanoparticles. Nanotechnology 10 (1999): 25 – 28. Print
9
non-covalent self-assembly… of sub-assemblies to obtain the final structure.17” That is, the
parts to a whole concept is as, if not more, significant than the single whole itself.
Consequently, similar to Csáki, nanomaterials are significantly characterized by “the properties
of single molecules.18” Thereby, a system will perform on a subpar level if not for the single
molecules it encompasses at its base level. Yet how would it be possible to create a wide range
of nanostructures if the aforementioned singular molecules are essentially similar to one
another? Simply, as Whitesides asserts that “it is possible to generate a broad range of types of
nanostructures using synthethic chemical approaches.19” That is, modifying the very basis of
nanostructures, of which are atoms, and building those atoms up to a subsequent level would
generate a diversity of nanostructures. Thereby, a variety of nanostructures would exhibit a
spectrum of different purposes.
Another way to understand the fundamental concepts of nanotechnology is through molecular
nanotechnology. Simply, as Hersam asserts, “One steps in this process is the tethering of
individual molecules at specific locations on silicon surfaces.20” That is, molecular electronic
function, through molecular nanotechnology, involves the binding of different molecules to
fabricate “devices whose function is governed by single molecules.21” Consequently, similar to
Hersam, molecular technology offers a variation of functions through the different bonds
between atoms.
Current Research
Exploring the goals of nanotechnology would allow us to diverge onto the details behind its
current research. Simply, as Sumer 2008 posits, “the current paradigm for regulatory approval
of therapeutics might have to be altered in the new era of multicomponent nanomedicine with
modular designs that can be personalized to individual patients and altered during therapy for
adaptive targeting.22” That is, with nanotechnology, personalized nanomedicine would be an
effective therapeutic agent for patients. Consequently, as long as nanomedicine is personalized,
the variety of patients that can be treated would be in a higher degree than what it was when
nanomedicine did not exist.
Another current research involving nanotechnology is gold nanorods. Simply, as Huang 2006
posits, “… gold nanorods are a novel class of optically active dual imaging/therapy agents due
to their strong absorption and scattering of near-infrared light.23” That is, “cancer cell
17
Whitesides GM, Mathias JP, Seto CT. 1991. Science 254:1312–19.
Csáki, Andrea, et al. "DNA-based molecular nanotechnology." Single Molecules3.5-6 (2002): 275-280.
19
Whitesides GM, Mathias JP, Seto CT. 1991. Science 254:1312–19.
20
Hersam, M.C., N.P. Guisinger, and J.W. Lyding. “Silicon-based molecular nanotechnology.” Nanotechnology 11.2
(2000): 70.
21
Hersam, M.C., N.P. Guisinger, and J.W. Lyding. “Silicon-based molecular nanotechnology.” Nanotechnology 11.2
(2000): 70.
22
Sumer, Baran, and Jinming Gao. "Theranostic nanomedicine for cancer." Nanomedicine 3.2 (2008): 137-140.
23
Huang, Xiaohua, et al. "Cancer cell imaging and photothermal therapy in the near-infrared region by using gold
nanorods." Journal of the American Chemical Society 128.6 (2006): 2115-2120.
18
diagnostics,24” as well as photothermal therapeutics, have been shown to be more efficient in
the utilization of gold nanorods. Similar to Huang, imaging with the use of gold nanorods
visually separates the nonmalignant cells from the malignant cells, enabling physicians to
survey the cancer cells in an area. As such, not only do they contribute to clearer imaging, gold
nanorods are used as reagents for “selective photothermal therapy,25” through the use of nearinfrared radiation.
Another current research involving the use of nanotechnology is the scanometric array
detection system. Simply, as Taton claims, “…the sensitivity of this scanometric array detection
system exceeds that of the analogous fluorophore system by two orders of magnitude.26” That
is, through a signal amplification from “nanoparticle-promoted reduction of silver (I),27” the
labeling of nucleotides is more sensitive than fluorophore. Consequently, consistent with Taton,
gold nanoparticles increased the specificity and the sensitivity of oligonucleotide sequences. As
such, DNA detection, through gold nanoparticles’ selectivity, becomes the genetic foundation
to which medical diagnosis of disease and treatment begins.
Tools and Techniques
In order to understand what and how nanotechnology uses science, we must explore the tools
and techniques employed in nanotechnology. Simply, as Lapshin asserts, “Scanning probe
microscopes, such as AFMs, allow surface topography imaging with ultra-high resolution, as a
result of proper actuation combined with the sharpness of tips.28” That is, precise measurement
of details can be measured by using scanning probe microscopes. Thereby, by using such
instruments, the construction of structures in the nanoscale would be helpful in “electronics to
optics, from mechanics to bio-medicals.29” Consequently, similar to Lapshin’s assertion, atomic
force microscopes, or AFMs, operate at a high speed and offers “excellent lateral resolution.30”
24
Huang, Xiaohua, et al. "Cancer cell imaging and photothermal therapy in the near-infrared region by using gold
nanorods." Journal of the American Chemical Society 128.6 (2006): 2115-2120.
25
Huang, Xiaohua, et al. "Cancer cell imaging and photothermal therapy in the near-infrared region by using gold
nanorods." Journal of the American Chemical Society 128.6 (2006): 2115-2120.
26
Taton, T. Andrew, Chad A. Mirkin, and Robert L. Letsinger. "Scanometric DNA array detection with nanoparticle
probes." Science 289.5485 (2000): 1757-1760.
27
Taton, T. Andrew, Chad A. Mirkin, and Robert L. Letsinger. "Scanometric DNA array detection with nanoparticle
probes." Science 289.5485 (2000): 1757-1760.
28
Lapshin, Rostislav V. "Availability of feature-oriented scanning probe microscopy for remote-controlled
measurements on board a space laboratory or planet exploration rover." Astrobiology 9.5 (2009): 437-442.
29
Lapshin, Rostislav V. "Availability of feature-oriented scanning probe microscopy for remote-controlled
measurements on board a space laboratory or planet exploration rover." Astrobiology 9.5 (2009): 437-442.
30
Sahin, Ozgur, et al. "An atomic force microscope tip designed to measure time-varying nanomechanical
forces." Nature nanotechnology 2.8 (2007): 507-514.
Simply, AFMs can rapidly and clearly map “properties31” in the nanoscale while offering an
“increased force sensitivity.32”
Another technique used in nanotechnology is acoustic microscopy. Simply, as Khuri-Yakub
states, “Acoustic microscopy is maturing into a very useful technology for imaging the
variations of the mechanical properties of materials.33” That is, through acoustic microscopy,
the properties of nanomaterials can be examined using a much more resolved imaging.
Consequently, consistent with Khuri-Yakub, by using sound waves, “subsurface imaging,34” can
also be examined through the use of acoustic microscopy. As such, through acoustic
microscopy, the mechanical properties of nanotechnology and nanostructures can be altered
and monitored with much more ease than traditional optical microscopes.
Applications
Identifying the uses of nanotechnology grants us the knowledge of the modern applications of
nanotechnology. Simply, as Misra 2010 posits, “Nanotechnology has become an enabling
technology for personalized oncology.35” That is, the spectrum of therapeutic available to a
population becomes readily individualized through nanotechnology. Thereby, through
nanotechnology, “each individual’s tumor molecular profile36” leads to a diagnosis. As such,
nanotechnology also leads to the prediction of oncogenic “development, progression, and
clinical outcomes” through “genetic and/or molecular markers. 37” Consequently, the process of
identifying cancers becomes individualized through the utilization of nanotechnology.
Another application of nanotechnology is microalgae cellular extraction. Simply, as Zhang 2013
asserts, “Nanomaterials could efficiently achieve the extraction from microalgae cells, and
appropriate selection on nanomaterials could even prevent harming microalgae.38” That is,
through nanotechnology, lipid extraction from microalgae cells is more efficient than solvent
extraction using “organic solvents.39” Consequently, similar to Zhang, Lu observed that by using
31
Sahin, Ozgur, et al. "An atomic force microscope tip designed to measure time-varying nanomechanical
forces." Nature nanotechnology 2.8 (2007): 507-514.
32
Sahin, Ozgur, et al. "An atomic force microscope tip designed to measure time-varying nanomechanical
forces." Nature nanotechnology 2.8 (2007): 507-514.
33
Khuri-Yakub, B. T. "Scanning acoustic microscopy." Ultrasonics 31.5 (1993): 361-372.
34
Khuri-Yakub, B. T. "Scanning acoustic microscopy." Ultrasonics 31.5 (1993): 361-372.
35
Misra, Ranjita, Sarbari Acharya, and Sanjeeb K. Sahoo. "Cancer nanotechnology: application of nanotechnology
in cancer therapy." Drug Discovery Today 15.19 (2010): 842-850.
36
Misra, Ranjita, Sarbari Acharya, and Sanjeeb K. Sahoo. "Cancer nanotechnology: application of nanotechnology
in cancer therapy." Drug Discovery Today 15.19 (2010): 842-850.
37
Misra, Ranjita, Sarbari Acharya, and Sanjeeb K. Sahoo. "Cancer nanotechnology: application of nanotechnology
in cancer therapy." Drug Discovery Today 15.19 (2010): 842-850.
38
Zhang, X. L., et al. "Biodiesel production from heterotrophic microalgae through transesterification and
nanotechnology application in the production."Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 26 (2013): 216-223.
39
Zhang, X. L., et al. "Biodiesel production from heterotrophic microalgae through transesterification and
nanotechnology application in the production."Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 26 (2013): 216-223.
a certain kind of nanomaterial would prevent the use of a toxic extraction, such as organic
solvents, that may otherwise decrease the amount of lipid extracted. Thereby, through
nanotechnology, biodiesel production from lipid extraction of microalgae cells would be
enhanced since nanomaterials “may affect the lipid metabolism.40”
Nanotechnology is also applied in dental materials. Simply, as Mitra 2003 posits,
“…nanocomposite system would be useful for all posterior and anterior restorative
applications.41” That is, the nanocomposite system, composed of “nanomeric particles and
nanoclusters,42” optimized polish retention and “superior esthetics,43” compared to “existing
composites.44” Consequently, similar to Mitra, nanofillers are more resistant to wear than
microfillers. Thereby, through nanotechnology, fracture resistance and flexural strength are
statistically better than microfillers.
Implications
In order to understand the repercussions of the usage of nanotechnology, we would need to
explore the implications of it first. Simply, as Roco asserts, “...unwanted nanoparticles may
enter cells or nanostructures tissues may not be biocompatible, and the risks need to be
investigated.45” That is, although the intended purpose of nanotechnology is for “drug synthesis
and delivery, medical visualization, and tissue regeneration and replacement,46” the side effects
from using nanotechnology may do more harm than good. Consequently, similar to Davis,
“systematically administered nanoscale objects47” have the potential to harm a patient’s
physiology. As such, compromising such physiology negates the “intended application48” of
nanotechnology.
40
Zhang, X. L., et al. "Biodiesel production from heterotrophic microalgae through transesterification and
nanotechnology application in the production."Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 26 (2013): 216-223.
41
Mitra, Sumita B., Dong Wu, and Brian N. Holmes. "An application of nanotechnology in advanced dental
materials." The Journal of the American Dental Association 134.10 (2003): 1382-1390.
42
Mitra, Sumita B., Dong Wu, and Brian N. Holmes. "An application of nanotechnology in advanced dental
materials." The Journal of the American Dental Association 134.10 (2003): 1382-1390.
43
Mitra, Sumita B., Dong Wu, and Brian N. Holmes. "An application of nanotechnology in advanced dental
materials." The Journal of the American Dental Association 134.10 (2003): 1382-1390.
44
Mitra, Sumita B., Dong Wu, and Brian N. Holmes. "An application of nanotechnology in advanced dental
materials." The Journal of the American Dental Association 134.10 (2003): 1382-1390.
45
Davis, S. S. "Biomedical applications of nanotechnology—implications for drug targeting and gene
therapy." Trends in biotechnology 15.6 (1997): 217-224.
46
Davis, S. S. "Biomedical applications of nanotechnology—implications for drug targeting and gene
therapy." Trends in biotechnology 15.6 (1997): 217-224.
47
Cuenca, Alex G., et al. "Emerging implications of nanotechnology on cancer diagnostics and
therapeutics." Cancer 107.3 (2006): 459-466.
48
Cuenca, Alex G., et al. "Emerging implications of nanotechnology on cancer diagnostics and
therapeutics." Cancer 107.3 (2006): 459-466.
Another implications of nanotechnology is cytotoxicity. Simply, as Cuenca 2006 posits, “Because
of their composition of heavy metals and previous reports of cytotoxicity, the potential use of
quantum dots in humans may be limited.49” That is, a development in nanotechnology called
quantum dots was shown to be toxic to humans. Consequently, similar to Cuenca, “uncoated or
nonpolymer-protected quantum dots,50” through their heavy metallic composition and
cytotoxicity, release a toxic compound called cadmium in the presence of ultraviolet radiation.
As such, engineering of nanotechnology into quantum dots, rather than provide therapeutic
relief, may pose physiologic consequences.
Regulation
Gauging some understanding of the laws concerning the use of nanotechnology will allow us to
explore the significance behind these regulations. Simply, as Bowman posits, “Without
consensus on definitions, common nomenclature and standards for classification and testing of
nanotechnology and nanomaterials, it is extremely difficult to define or classify the objects or
processes to be regulated.51” That is, because there is no clear definition for nanotechnology, it
is challenging to categorize objects as nano-objects. Consequently, similar to Bowman’s
assertion, the difficulty of categorization of nano-objects obstructs the fabrication of a specific
kind of laws that prohibit or limit the use of nanotechnology.
49
Cuenca, Alex G., et al. "Emerging implications of nanotechnology on cancer diagnostics and
therapeutics." Cancer 107.3 (2006): 459-466.
50
Cuenca, Alex G., et al. "Emerging implications of nanotechnology on cancer diagnostics and
therapeutics." Cancer 107.3 (2006): 459-466.
51
Bowman, Diana M., and Graeme A. Hodge. "A small matter of regulation: an international review of
nanotechnology regulation." Columbia Sci Technol Law Rev 8.1 (2007).