INQUIRY
1. Apply inquiry-based and problem-solving processes and skills to scientific investigations.
a. Conduct a scientific investigation demonstrating safe procedures and proper care of laboratory equipment. (DOK 2)
Safety rules and symbols
Proper use and care of the compound light microscope, slides, chemicals, etc.
Accuracy and precision in using graduated cylinders, balances, beakers, thermometers, and rulers
Scientific Equipment
Compound Light
Microscope (LM)used to enlarge an
image
Graduated
Cylinder - used to
measure the volume
of liquids
Microscope Slide supports an item
being examined
under the microscope
Cover slip - covers
specimen on a slide
Beaker - holds liquids
while they are being
stirred or heated
Test Tube Brush used to clean test
tubes
Evaporating Dish used for heating
solids
Watch Glass - used
on top of beakers
when heating
Funnel - assists in
transferring liquids to
containers with
smaller openings
Striker - used to
ignite a burner
Test Tubes - holds
liquids for observation
or testing
Safety goggles protects the eyes
from damaging
substances
Pipet pump dispenses known
volumes of liquids
Eyedropper - used
to transfer small
amounts of liquids
Forceps - used to
hold or lift specimens
Magnifying glass enlarges the image
of an object
Crucible - containers
used for "strong"
heating
Test Tube Rack holds test tubes
during observation
or testing
Wash Bottle - used
for rinsing solids out
of a container
Pipet - used for
exact
measurements of
liquids
Spatula - chemical
spoons used to
transfer solids from
their original
container to a scale
for weighing
Wire Gauze - adds
additional support
for containers held
on tripods or O-rings
Crucible Tongs used for picking up
crucibles & crucible
covers
Mortar & Pestle used to grind solids
into powders
Florence Flask used to store liquids
Erlenmeyer Flask used to store
solutions
Dissecting Pan holds specimen being
dissected
Test Tube Holder holds test tubes
while heating
Electronic Balance used for weighing
substances
Bunsen Burner heat source
Thermometer - used
to measure
temperature
Stopper - used to
cap flasks
containing liquids
Scalpel - used for
cutting specimens
being dissected
Tubing - hose used
for connecting
glassware
Petri Dish - plate
used to culture
microorganisms
Triple Beam
Balance - used for
weighing
substances
O-Ring - used with
ring stands to support
heated vessels
Volumetric Flask used to mix precise
volumes of liquids
Compound light microscope
Proper way to carry a compound light
microscope
b. Formulate questions that can be answered through research and experimental design. (DOK 3)
c. Apply the components of scientific processes and methods in classroom and laboratory investigations (e.g., hypotheses,
experimental design, observations, data analyses, interpretations, theory development). (DOK 2)
Data- Information gathered from an experiment or observation.
Hypothesis- A statement that can be tested by an experiement.
Theory- A scientific principal that has been tested over a long period of time.
Observations- process of noticing and describing events or processes in a careful, orderly way.
Experiment- a test of a hypothesis
Independent variable- the variable that is changed in an experiment the “ what is being tested”
Dependent variable- the result of changing what is being tested.
Scientific Method
Biology is one of the major sciences. Scientists have acquired biological knowledge through processes known as scientific methods.
There is no one scientific method. The steps of a scientific method make up an orderly way of gaining information about the biological
world. The knowledge gained is sometimes useful in solving particular problems and is sometimes simply of interest without any
practical application at the time.
A scientific method requires a systematic search for information by observation and experimentation. The basic steps of any scientific
method are stating a problem, collecting information, forming a hypothesis, experimenting to test the hypothesis, recording and
analyzing data, and forming a conclusion.
Observation
The first step in a scientific method is stating a problem based on observation. In this stage, the scientist recognizes that something has
happened and that it occurs repeatedly. Therefore, the scientist formulates a question or states a problem for investigation. The next
step in the scientific method is to explore resources that may have information about that question or problem. Here, the scientist
conducts library research and interacts with other scientists to develop knowledge about the question at hand.
Hypothesis, experimentation, and analysis
Next, a hypothesis is formed, meaning that the scientist proposes a possible solution to the question, realizing that the answer could be
incorrect. The scientist tests the hypothesis through experiments that include experimental and control groups. Data from the
experiments is collected, recorded, and analyzed.
Conclusion
After analyzing the data, the scientist draws a conclusion. A valid conclusion must be based on the facts observed in the experiments. If
the data from repeated experiments support the hypothesis, the scientist will publish the hypothesis and experimental data for other
scientists to review and discuss.
Theory and law
Other scientists may not only repeat the experiments but may carry out additional experiments to challenge the findings. If the
hypothesis is tested and confirmed often enough, the scientific community calls the hypothesis a theory. Then numerous additional
experiments test the theory using rigorous experimental methods. Repeated challenges to the theory are presented. If the results
continue to support the theory, the theory gains the status of a scientific law. A scientific law is a uniform or constant fact of nature. An
example of a law of biology is that all living things are composed of cells.
Safety Guidelines
1. Safety goggles/glasses & aprons must be worn at all times in the laboratory.
2. Tie back long hair & secure lose clothing.
3. No horseplay is allowed in the lab.
4. No food or drink is allowed in the laboratory.
5. Practice good “housekeeping” techniques. Return items to proper places in good condition. Avoid cluttering your work area.
6. Never use chemicals from unlabeled containers. Check each label before dispensing a chemical, & do not return a chemical to a
bottle without the teacher’s permission.
7. Unless told otherwise, treat all chemicals as poisonous or corrosive. Wash hands immediately with plenty of water if chemical gets on
them and always wash your hands before leaving lab.
8. No unauthorized lab work may be done, & a teacher must be present to do lab work.
9. Read & study each lab assignment before coming to lab. Pay attention to safety notes in the lab manual and from the instructor.
Some common lab concerns:
* Never pipette by mouth
* Never use chipped or cracked glassware
* Do not heat a closed system
* Do not point heated containers at yourself or another person
* Use a fume hood for noxious fumes
* Place heated glass on wire gauze until cool
* Do not use flammable material near open flame
* Wear gloves when dispensing irritating chemicals
* Dilute concentrated acids by adding acid to water
* Turn off burners and water faucets when not in use & before leaving lab
* Only heat glassware marked Kimex or Pyrex
* Use glycerin and a twisting motion to insert glass tubing into stoppers
* Use tongs, test tube holders, or heat-resistant gloves to handle hot glassware
* Use pins to secure dissecting organisms to the dissecting tray before cutting with a scalpel
* Wash hands before and after dissecting and keep hands away from your face
10. Report all accidents IMMEDIATELY to the teacher.
11. Know the location and proper use of all safety equipment in the lab.
d. Construct and analyze graphs (e.g., plotting points, labeling x-and y-axis, creating appropriate titles and legends for circle, bar, and
line graphs). (DOK 2)

A graph contains five major parts:
a. Title
b. The independent variable
c. The dependent variable
d. The scales for each variable
e. A legend
Title- tells the viewer exactly what they
are looking at
Line graph – used to show a change over time.
Pie graph- used to comepare a percentage of the
same group.
Bar graph- used to compare more than one
group.
e. Analyze procedures, data, and conclusions to determine the scientific validity of research. (DOK 3)
f. Recognize and analyze alternative explanations for experimental results and to make predictions based on observations and prior
knowledge. (DOK 3)
PHYSICAL SCIENCE
2. Describe the biochemical basis of life and explain how energy flows within and between the living systems.
a. Explain and compare with the use of examples the types of bond formation (e.g., covalent, ionic, hydrogen, etc.) between or among
atoms. (DOK 2)
Subatomic particles and arrangement in atoms. Importance of ions in biological processes
Elements and Atoms
All living things on earth are composed of fundamental building blocks of matter called elements. More than 100 elements are known to
exist, including those that are man-made. An element is a substance that cannot be chemically decomposed. Oxygen, iron, calcium,
sodium, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen are examples of elements.
Each element is composed of one particular kind of atom. An atom is the smallest part of an element that can enter into combinations
with atoms of other elements.
Atoms consist of positively charged particles called protons surrounded by negatively charged particles called electrons. A third type
of particle, a neutron, has no electrical charge; it has the same weight as a proton. Protons and neutrons adhere tightly to form the
dense, positively charged nucleus of the atom. Electrons spin around the nucleus.
The electron arrangement in an atom plays an essential role in the chemistry of the atom. Atoms are most stable when their outer shell
of electrons has a full quota. The first electron shell has a maximum of two electrons. The second and all other outer shells have a
maximum of eight electrons. Atoms tend to gain or lose electrons until their outer shells have a stable arrangement. The gaining or
losing of electrons, or the sharing of electrons, contributes to the chemical reactions in which an atom participates.
b. Develop a logical argument defending water as an essential component of living systems (e.g., unique bonding and properties
including polarity, high specific heat, surface tension, hydrogen bonding, adhesion, cohesion, and expansion upon freezing). (DOK 2)
c. Classify solutions as acidic, basic, or neutral and relate the significance of the pH scale to an organism’s survival (e.g.,
consequences of having different concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxide ions). (DOK 2)
pH Scale
This is a measure of how acidic or alkaline a substance is. The initials pH stand for "Potential of Hydrogen." Acids have pH
values under 7, and alkalis have pH values over 7. If a substance has a pH value of 7, it is neutral-neither acidic or alkaline.
Acids are chemical compounds that release hydrogen ions (H+) when placed in water. For example, when hydrogen chloride is placed
in water, it releases its hydrogen ions and the solution becomes hydrochloric acid.
Bases are chemical compounds that attract hydrogen atoms when they are placed in water. An example of a base is sodium hydroxide
(NaOH). When this substance is placed in water, it attracts hydrogen ions, and a basic (or alkaline) solution results as hydroxyl (—OH)
ions accumulate.
d. Compare and contrast the structure, properties, and principle functions of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids in living
organisms. (DOK 2) Basic chemical composition of each group. Building components of each group (e.g., amino acids,
monosaccharides, nucleotides, etc.) Basic functions (e.g., energy, storage, cellular, heredity) of each group
Summary of Biological Macromolecules:
Macromolecule
Building Blocks
Functions
Polysaccharides
Sugars


Energy storage (4 Cal/gm)
Structure (cell walls, exoskeletons)

Energy storage (9 Cal/gm)

Cell membranes






Cell structure
Enzymes
Molecular motors (muscle, etc)
Membrane pumps & channels
Hormones & receptors
Immune system: antibodies

Storage of hereditary information
(genetic code)
(monosaccharides)
Lipids (Triglycerides)
Fatty acids, glycerol
Lipids (Phospholipids)
Fatty acids, glycerol,
phosphate group
Proteins
Amino acids
(20 types)
Nucleic Acids: DNA
(forms a double helix)
Nucleic Acids (RNA)
3 types:
 m-RNA
 t-RNA
 r-RNA
(usually a single strand)
4 Bases: A, C, G, T
Deoxyribose sugar
Phosphate
Subunits called
nucleotides
4 Bases: A, C, G, U
Ribose sugar
Phosphate
Subunits called
nucleotides
Protein synthesis:
 m-RNA: working copy of genetic
code for a gene (transcription)
 t-RNA & r-RNA: translation of the
code
e. Examine the life processes to conclude the role enzymes play in regulating
biochemical reactions. (DOK 2)
Enzyme structure Enzyme function, including enzyme-substrate specificity and factors that affect enzyme function (pH and
temperature)
As an enzyme works it combines with its substrate and converts it to product(s).
How Enzymes Work

Important properties of catalysts are:
Only a small amount is needed change the speed of reactions
They remain unchanged at the end of the reaction. They are "reusable".
Enzymes are biological catalysts that changes the speed of chemical reactions without themselves being changed at the end of
the reaction.
 Properties of Enzymes:
Enzymes are made of proteins.
They speed up chemical reactions inside the cytoplasm.
They are needed only in small amounts
They remain unchanged after each reaction and can therefore be reused.
Each enzyme can only work on one chemical reaction. For example, catalase will only work on hydrogen peroxide (to form
water and oxygen). They are highly specific.The Substrate is the chemical that the enzyme is working on.
They are affected by temperature, pH, concentration.
Therefore, how fast the enzyme can catalyze or work on the chemical reaction depends on factors like temperature and pH.
Enzymes can be denatured - they change shape so much that they are no longer effective
Effect of Temperature on an Enzyme
Effect of pH on an Enzyme
The activity of enzymes increases when the temperature
increases (and therefore the reactions that they work on, or
catalyze, will also become faster).
At very low temperatures, enzymes are inactive.
Each enzyme has a special temperature that they are most
active. This is the optimum temperature for that enzyme.
Each enzyme has its own optimum temperature. -When the
temperature is too high, the enzymes are destroyed, or
denatured.
Different enzymes work best at different pH.
The pH that makes the enzyme most active is known as the
optimum pH. - If the pH is very high or very low, enzymes
can be denatured.
Other factors that affect the speed of enzyme reactions are:
Concentration of substrate - when substrate concentration increases, the speed of reaction increases
Concentration of enzymes - the higher the concentration of enzyme, the faster the speed of reaction.
f. Describe the role of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in making energy available to cells. (DOK 1)
ATP structure
The chemical substance that serves as the currency of energy in a cell is adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is referred to as
currency because it can be “spent” in order to make chemical reactions occur. The more energy required for a chemical reaction, the
more ATP molecules must be spent.
An ATP molecule consists of three parts. One part is a double ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms called adenine. Attached to the
adenine molecule is a small five-carbon carbohydrate (sugar) called ribose. Attached to the ribose molecule are three phosphate units
linked together by covalent bonds.
ATP function
ATP powers most of the energy-consuming activities of cells, such as:







Most anabolic reactions. Examples:
o joining transfer RNAs to amino acids for assembly into proteins
o synthesis of polysaccharides
o synthesis of fats
active transport of molecules and ions
nerve impulses
maintenance of cell volume by osmosis
adding phosphate groups (phosphorylation) to many different proteins
muscle contraction
beating of cilia and flagella
g. Analyze and explain the biochemical process of photosynthesis and cellular respiration and draw conclusions about the roles of the
reactants and products in each. (DOK 3) Photosynthesis and respiration (reactants and products) Light-dependent reactions and light
independent reactions in photosynthesis, including requirements and products of each
Aerobic and anaerobic processes in cellular respiration, including products of each and energy differences
Photosynthesis
Aerobic respiration
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Where?
When?
Input
Output
Energy sources
Energy result
Chemical reaction
Energy carrier(s)
In cholorophyll-bearing cells
In the presence of light
Carbon dioxide and water
Reduced carbon compounds, oxygen, and water
Light
Energy stored
Reduction of carbon compounds
NADP
RESPIRATION
In all cells
All the time
Reduced carbon compounds and oxygen
Carbon dioxide and water
Chemical bonds
Energy released
Oxidation of carbon compounds
NAD and FAD
LIFE SCIENCE
3. Investigate and evaluate the interaction between living organisms and their environment.
a. Compare and contrast the characteristics of the world’s major biomes
(e.g., deserts, tundra, taiga, grassland, temperate forest, tropical rainforest). (DOK 2)
Plant and animal species
Climate (temperature and rainfall)
Adaptations of organisms
b. Provide examples to justify the interdependence among environmental elements. (DOK 2)
Biomes
Definition - large biotic regions influenced by temperature, precipitation, wind, humidity, latitude, and topography
characterized by different climates, plants, and animals
Tundra
subsoil permanently frozen
rolling plane with lakes, ponds, and bogs
weather - frequent freezes with brief cool summers
vegetation - few trees, mosses, lichens, grasses, perennial herbs, colored flowers
animals - number of species small, including flies, birds, raindeer, wolves, foxes, hares, polar bears
Taiga
heavy snow prevents deep freezes
lots of lakes, ponds, and bogs
vegetation - dominated by coniferous forests; some deciduous
animals - moose, black bear, wolves, lynx,wolverine, porcupines, small rodents, flying insects, and birds
Deciduous Forests
temperate climate
lots of rainfall
Vegetation-dominated by deciduous (broadleaf) trees
Animals-squirrel, deer, fox, and bears; large variety of insects and birds
Tropical Rain Forests
warm temperatures
abundant rainfall
widest diversity of species of plants and animals
dominant trees are tall
Grasslands
found in temperate and tropical climates
low uneven and seasonal annual rainfall (10-30 cm)
grasses and scrub forests
herbivores and rodents
Deserts
rainfall less than 25 cm per year
extreme temperature fluctuations (40oC or more)
drought-resistant shrubs, cactus, herbs
rodents, reptiles, birds, insects
Biotic and abiotic factors in an ecosystem (e.g., water, carbon, oxygen, mold, leaves)
Energy flow in ecosystems (e.g., energy pyramids and photosynthetic organisms to herbivores, carnivores, and decomposers)
Biotic factor- any living organism in an ecosystem. (bacteria, plants, animals, fungi)
Abiotic factor- any non living thing in an ecosystem. (air, temperature, water, light)
1.
Plants are called producers because they are able to use light energy from the Sun to produce food (sugar) from
carbon dioxide and water.
2.
Animals cannot make their own food so they must eat plants and/or other animals. They are called consumers.
There are three groups of consumers.
3.

Animals that eat ONLY PLANTS are called herbivores.

Animals that eat OTHER ANIMALS are called carnivores.

Animals and people who eat BOTH animals and plants are called omnivores.
Then there are decomposers (bacteria and fungi) which feed on decaying matter.
These decomposers speed up the decaying process that releases mineral salts back into the food chain for
absorption by plants as nutrients.
Roles of beneficial bacteria
Interrelationships of organisms (e.g., cooperation, predation, parasitism, commensalism, symbiosis, and mutualism)
c. Examine and evaluate the significance of natural events and human activities on major ecosystems (e.g., succession, population
growth, technology, loss of genetic diversity, consumption of resources). (DOK 2)
4. Analyze and explain the structures and function of the levels of biological organization.
cell------>tissue--------->organ----------->organ system---------->organism
a. Differentiate among plant and animal cells and eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
(DOK 2)
Prokaryotic cell = cells that lack a nucleus and membrane bound organelles
Eukaryotic cells= Cells that have a nucleus and membrane bound organelles
Functions of all major cell organelles and structures (e.g., nucleus, mitochondrion, rough ER, smooth ER, ribosomes, Golgi bodies,
vesicles, lysosomes, vacuoles, microtubules, microfilaments, chloroplast, cytoskeleton, centrioles, nucleolus, chromosomes, nuclear
membrane, cell wall, cell membrane [active and passive transport], cytosol) Components of mobility (e.g., cilia, flagella, pseudopodia)
CELL
STRUCTURE
Cell Wall
Cell Membrane
Nucleus
Nuclear membrane
Cytoplasm
Endoplasmic
reticulum (ER)
Ribosome
Mitochondrion
Vacuole
Lysosome
LOCATION
DESCRIPTION
Plant, Fungi, &
Bacteria, but not
animal cells
Outer layer
Rigid & strong
plant (cellulose)
Fungi (chitin)
Bacteria (peptoglycan)
All cells
Plant - inside cell wall
Animal - outer layer; cholesterol
Double layer of phospholipids with
proteins
Selectively permeable
All cells except
prokaryotes
Large, oval
May contain 1 or more nucleoli
Holds DNA
All cells except
prokaryotes
All cells
All cells except
prokaryotes
All cells
Support (grow tall)
Protection
Controls movement of materials
in/out of cell.
Barrier between cell and its
environment
Maintains homeostasis
Controls cell activities
Contains the hereditary material
of the cell
Surrounds nucleus
Double membrane
Selectively permeable
Controls movement of materials
in/out of nucleus
Clear, thick, jellylike material (cytosol)
Organelles found inside cell membrane
Contains the cytoskeleton fibers
Supports and protects cell
organelles
Network of tubes or membranes
Smooth w/o ribosomes
Rough with embedded ribosomes
Connects to nuclear envelope & cell
membrane
Small bodies free or attached to ER
Made of rRNA & protein
All cells except
prokaryotes
Peanut shaped
Double membrane
Outer membrane smooth
Inner membrane folded into cristae
Plant cells have a
single, large vacuole
Fluid-filled sacs
Animal cells have
small vacuoles
Largest organelle in plant cells
Plant - uncommon
Animal - common
FUNCTION
Small and round with a single
membrane
Carries materials through cell
Aids in making proteins
Synthesizes proteins
Breaks down sugar (glucose)
molecules to release energy
Site of aerobic cellular
respiration
Store food, water, metabolic &
toxic wastes
Store large amounts of food or
sugars in plants
Breaks down larger food
molecules into smaller
molecules
Digests old cell parts
Chloroplast
Plants and algae
Green, oval containing chlorophyll
(green pigment)
Double membrane with inner
membrane modified into sacs called
thylakoids
Stacks of thylakoids called grana &
interconnected
Gel like innermost substance called
stroma
Uses energy from sun to make
food (glucose) for the plant
Process called photosynthesis
Release oxygen
Found inside the cell's nucleus
May have more than one
Disappear during cell division
Make ribosomes
All cells except
prokaryotes
Stacks of flattened sacs
Have a cis & trans face
Modify proteins made by the
cells
Package & export proteins
Cilia
Animal cells,
Protozoans
Have a 9-2 arrangement of
microtubules
Short, but numerous
Flagellum
Bacterial cells &
Protozoans
nucleolus
All cells except
prokaryotes
Golgi Apparatus
Centrioles
Cytoskeleton
Animal cells
All cells
Have a 9-2 arrangement of
microtubules
Long, but few in number
Paired structures near the nucleus
Made of a cylinder of microtubule pairs
Made of microtubules 7 microfilaments
Movement
Movement
Separate chromosome pairs
during mitosis
Strengthen cell & maintains the
shape
Moves organelles within the cell
Movement through the Plasma Membrane
In order for the cell cytoplasm to communicate with the external environment, materials must be able to move through the plasma
membrane. This movement occurs through several mechanisms.
Diffusion
One method of movement through the membrane is diffusion. Diffusion is the movement of molecules from a region of higher
concentration to one of lower concentration. This movement occurs because the molecules are constantly colliding with one another.
The net movement of the molecules is away from the region of high concentration to the region of low concentration.
Diffusion is a random movement of molecules down the pathway called the concentration gradient. Molecules are said to move down
the concentration gradient because they move from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. A drop of dye
placed in a beaker of water illustrates diffusion as the dye molecules spread out and color the water.
Osmosis
Another method of movement across the membrane is osmosis. Osmosis is the movement of water from a region of higher
concentration to one of lower concentration. Osmosis often occurs across a membrane that is semipermeable. A semipermeable
membrane lets only certain molecules pass through while keeping other molecules out. Osmosis is really a type of diffusion involving
only water molecules.
If the concentration of solute (salt) is equal on both sides, the water will move
back in forth but it won't have any result on the overall amount of water on either
side.
"ISO" means the same
The word "HYPO" means less, in this case there are less solute (salt) molecules
outside the cell, since salt sucks, water will move into the cell.
The cell will gain water and grow larger. In plant cells, the central vacuoles will fill
and the plant becomes stiff and rigid, the cell wall keeps the plant from bursting
In animal cells, the cell may be in danger of bursting, organelles called
CONTRACTILE VACUOLES will pump water out of the cell to prevent this.
The word "HYPER" means more, in this case there are more solute (salt)
molecules outside the cell, which causes the water to be sucked in that direction.
In plant cells, the central vacuole loses water and the cells shrink, causing wilting.
In animal cells, the cells also shrink.
In both cases, the cell may die.
This is why it is dangerous to drink sea water - its a myth that drinking sea water
will cause you to go insane, but people marooned at sea will speed up
dehydration (and death) by drinking sea water.
This is also why "salting fields" was a common tactic during war, it would kill the
crops in the field, thus causing food shortages.
Facilitated diffusion
A third mechanism for movement across the plasma membrane is facilitated diffusion. Certain proteins in the membrane assist
facilitated diffusion by permitting only certain molecules to pass across the membrane. The proteins encourage movement in the
direction that diffusion would normally take place, from a region with a higher concentration of molecules to a region of lower
concentration.
Active transport
A fourth method for movement across the membrane is active transport. When active transport is taking place, a protein moves a
certain material across the membrane from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration. Because this movement
is happening against the concentration gradient, the cell must expend energy that is usually derived from a substance called adenosine
triphosphate or ATP. An example of active transport occurs in human nerve cells. Here, sodium ions are constantly transported out of
the cell into the external fluid bathing the cell, a region of high concentration of sodium. (This transport of sodium sets up the nerve cell
for the impulse that will occur within it later.)
Endocytosis
The final mechanism for movement across the plasma membrane is endocytosis, a process in which a small patch of plasma
membrane encloses particles or tiny volumes of fluid that are at or near the cell surface. The membrane enclosure then sinks into the
cytoplasm and pinches off from the membrane, forming a vesicle that moves into the cytoplasm. When the vesicle contains particulate
matter, the process is called phagocytosis. When the vesicle contains droplets of fluid, the process is called pinocytosis. Along with
the other mechanisms for transport across the plasma membrane, endocytosis ensures that the internal cellular environment will be
able to exchange materials with the external environment and that the cell will continue to thrive and function.
b. Differentiate between types of cellular reproduction. (DOK 1)
Main events in the cell cycle and cell mitosis (including differences in plant and animal cell divisions
Binary fission (e.g., budding, vegetative propagation, etc.)
Significance of meiosis in sexual reproduction
Significance of crossing over
Cell Cycle: Cell Life Cycle. The repeating sequence of growth
and division through which eukaryotic cells pass each
generation.
Stages of Cell Growth:
1. G1 phase: primary growth phase. Cell does its 'job'.
2. S phase: DNA replication
3. G2 phase: Chromosome condensation, cell organelle
replication
4. M phase: mitosis (nuclear division) (Prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, & telophase)
5. C phase: cytokinesis (cytoplasmic division), daughter cells
form
c. Describe and differentiate among the organizational levels of organisms
(e.g., cells, tissues, organs, systems, types of tissues.) (DOK 1)
d. Explain and describe how plant structures (vascular and nonvascular) and cellular functions are related to the survival of plants (e.g.,
movement of materials, plant reproduction). (DOK 1)
5. Demonstrate an understanding of the molecular basis of heredity.
a. Analyze and explain the molecular basis of heredity and the inheritance of traits to successive generations by using the Central
Dogma of Molecular Biology. (DOK 3)
Structures of DNA and RNA
Processes of replication, transcription, and translation
DNA - DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID





blueprint of life (has the instructions for making an organism)
established by James Watson and Francis Crick
codes for your genes
shape of a double helix
made of repeating subunits called nucleotides
Gene - a segment of DNA that codes for a protein, which in turn codes for a trait (skin tone, eye color..etc), a gene is a stretch of DNA.
Nucleotide - consists of a sugar, phosphate and a base
Nucleotides (also called Nitrogen Bases)
Adenine, Thymine, , Guanine, Cytosine or A, T, G, C
Nucleotides pair in a specific way - called the Base-Pair Rule
Adenine pairs to Thymine (A-T)
Guainine pairs to Cytosine(C-G)
*The rungs of the ladder can occur in any order (as long as the base-pair rule is followed)
How the code works
For instance, a stretch of DNA could be AATGACCAT - which would code for a different gene than a stretch that read: GGGCCATAG.
Those 4 bases have endless combinations just like the letters of the alphabet can combine to make different words.
DNA REPLICATION
Replication is the process where DNA makes a copy of itself. Why does DNA need to copy? Simple: Cells divide for an organism to
grow or reproduce, every new cell needs a copy of the DNA or instructions to know how to be a cell. DNA replicates right before a cell
divides.
DNA replication is semi-conservative. That means that when it makes a copy, one half of the old strand is always kept in the new
strand. This helps reduce the number of copy errors.
RNA
DNA remains in the nucleus, but in order for it to get its instructions translated into proteins, it must send its message to the ribosomes,
where proteins are made. The chemical used to carry this message is Messenger RNA
RNA = ribonucleic acid.
RNA is similar to DNA except:
1. has on strand instead of two strands.
2. has uracil instead of thymine
3. has ribose instead of deoxyribose
mRNA has the job of taking the message from the DNA to the nucleus to the ribosomes.
Transcription - RNA is made from DNA
Translation - Proteins are made from the message on the RNA
Messenger RNA codon charts
b. Utilize Mendel’s laws to evaluate the results of monohybrid Punnett squares involving complete dominance, incomplete dominance,
codominance, sex linked, and multiple alleles (including outcome percentage of both genotypes and phenotypes.) (DOK 2)
Inheritance Patterns
Mendel was the first scientist to develop a method for predicting the outcome of inheritance patterns. He performed his work with pea
plants, studying seven traits: plant height, pod shape, pod color, seed shape, seed color, flower color, and flower location. Pea plants
pollinate themselves. Therefore, over many generations, pea plants develop individuals that are homozygous for particular
characteristics. These populations are known as pure lines.
In his work, Mendel took pure-line pea plants and cross-pollinated them with other pure-line pea plants. He called these plants the
parent generation. When Mendel crossed pure-line tall plants with pure-line short plants, he discovered that all the plants resulting from
this cross were tall. He called this generation the F1 generation (first filial generation). Next, Mendel crossed the offspring of the F 1
generation tall plants among themselves to produce a new generation called the F2 generation (second filial generation). Among the
plants in this generation, Mendel observed that three-fourths of the plants were tall and one-fourth of the plants were short.
Mendel's laws of genetics
Mendel conducted similar experiments with the other pea plant traits. Over many years, he formulated several principles that are known
today as Mendel's laws of genetics. His laws include the following:
1.
Mendel's law of dominance: When an organism has two different alleles for a trait, one allele dominates.
2.
Mendel's law of segregation: During gamete formation by a diploid organism, the pair of alleles for a particular trait separate,
or segregate, during the formation of gametes (as in meiosis).
3.
Mendel's law of independent assortment: The members of a gene pair separate from one another independent of the
members of other gene pairs. (These separations occur in the formation of gametes during meiosis.)
Mendelian crosses
An advantage of genetics is that scientists can predict the probability of inherited traits in offspring by performing a genetic cross (also
called a Mendelian cross). To predict the possibility of an individual trait, several steps are followed. First, a symbol is designated for
each allele in the gene pair. The dominant allele is represented by a capital letter and the recessive allele by the corresponding
lowercase letter, such as E for free earlobes and e for attached earlobes. For a homozygous dominant individual, the genotype would
be EE; for a heterozygous individual, the genotype would be Ee; and for a homozygous recessive person, the genotype would be ee.
The next step in performing a genetic cross is determining the genotypes of the parents and the genotype of the gametes. A
heterozygous male and a heterozygous female to be crossed have the genotypes of Ee and Ee.
During meiosis, the allele pairs separate. A sperm cell contains either an E or an e, while the egg
cell also contains either an E or an e.
To continue the genetics problem, a Punnett square is used. A Punnett square is a boxed figure
used to determine the probability of genotypes and phenotypes in the offspring of a genetic
cross. The possible gametes produced by the female are indicated at the top of the square,
while the possible gametes produced by the male are indicated at the left side of the square.
Figure 1 shows the Punnett square for the earlobe example.
Continuing, all of the possible combinations of alleles are
considered. This is done by filling in each square with the alleles
above it and at its left. This is done as shown in Figure 2 .
From the Punnett square, the phenotype of each possible genotype can be determined. For example,
the offspring having EE, Ee, and Ee will have free earlobes. Only the offspring with the genotype ee will
have attached earlobes. Therefore, the ratio of phenotypes is three with free earlobes to one with
attached earlobes (3:1). The ratio of genotypes is 1:2:1 (1 EE : 2 Ee : 1 ee).
Principles of Genetics
Mendel's studies have provided scientists with the basis for mathematically predicting the probabilities of
genotypes and phenotypes in the offspring of a genetic cross. But not all genetic observations can be
explained and predicted based on Mendelian genetics. Other complex and distinct genetic phenomena
may also occur. Several complex genetic concepts, described in this section, explain such distinct genetic phenomena as blood types
and skin color.
Incomplete dominance
In some allele combinations, dominance does not exist. Instead, the two characteristics blend. In such a situation, both alleles have the
opportunity to express themselves. For instance, snapdragon flowers display incomplete dominance in their color. There are two
alleles for flower color: one for white and one for red. When two alleles for white are present, the plant displays white flowers. When two
alleles for red are present, the plant has red flowers. But when one allele for red is present with one allele for white, the color of the
snapdragons is pink.
However, if two pink snapdragons are crossed, the phenotype ratio of the offspring is one red, two pink, and one white. These results
show that the genes themselves remain independent; only the expressions of the genes blend. If the gene for red and the gene for
white actually blended, pure red and pure white snapdragons could not appear in the offspring.
Multiple alleles
In certain cases, more than two alleles exist for a particular characteristic. Even though an individual has only two alleles, additional
alleles may be present in the population. This condition is multiple alleles.
An example of multiple alleles occurs in blood type. In humans, blood groups are determined by a single gene with three possible
alleles: A, B, or O. Red blood cells can contain two antigens, A and B. The presence or absence of these antigens results in four blood
types: A, B, AB, and O. If a person's red blood cells have antigen A, the blood type is A. If a person's red blood cells have antigen B,
the blood type is B. If the red blood cells have both antigen A and antigen B, the blood type is AB. If the red blood cells have neither
antigen A nor antigen B, the blood type is O.
The alleles for type A and type B blood are co-dominant; that is, both alleles are expressed. However, the allele for type O blood is
recessive to both type A and type B. Because a person has only two of the three alleles, the blood type varies depending on which two
alleles are present. For instance, if a person has the A allele and the B allele, the blood type is AB. If a person has two A alleles, or one
A and one O allele, the blood type is A. If a person has two B alleles or one B and one O allele, the blood type is B. If a person has two
O alleles, the blood type is O.
Polygenic inheritance
Although many characteristics are determined by alleles at a single place on the chromosome, some characteristics are determined by
an interaction of genes on several chromosomes or at several places on one chromosome. This condition is polygenic inheritance.
An example of polygenic inheritance is human skin color. Genes for skin color are located in many places, and skin color is determined
by which genes are present at these multiple locations. A person with many genes for dark skin will have very dark skin color, and a
person with multiple genes for light skin will have very light skin color. Many people have some genes for light skin and some for dark
skin, which explains why so many variations of skin color exist. Height is another characteristic probably reflecting polygenic
characteristics.
Gene linkage
A chromosome has many thousands of genes; there are an estimated 100,000 genes in the human genome. Inheritance involves the
transfer of chromosomes from parent to offspring through meiosis and sexual reproduction. It is common for a large number of genes to
be inherited together if they are located on the same chromosome. Genes that are inherited together are said to form a linkage group.
The concept of transfer of a linkage group is gene linkage.
Gene linkage can show how close two or more genes are to one another on a chromosome. The closer the genes are to each other,
the higher the probability that they will be inherited together. Crossing over occurs during meiosis, but genes that are close to each
other tend to remain together during crossing over.
Sex linkage
Among the 23 pairs of chromosomes in human cells, one pair is the sex chromosomes. (The remaining 22 pairs of chromosomes are
referred to as autosomes.) The sex chromosomes determine the sex of humans. There are two types of sex chromosomes: the X
chromosome and the Y chromosome. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one X and one Y chromosome. Typically, the
female chromosome pattern is designated XX, while the male chromosome pattern is XY. Thus, the genotype of the human male would
be 44 XY, while the genotype of the human female would be 44 XX (where 44 represents the autosomes).
In humans, the Y chromosome is much shorter than the X chromosome. Because of this shortened size, a number of sex-linked
conditions occur. When a gene occurs on an X chromosome, the other gene of the pair probably occurs on the other X chromosome.
Therefore, a female usually has two genes for a characteristic. In contrast, when a gene occurs on an X chromosome in a male, there is
usually no other gene present on the short Y chromosome. Therefore, in the male, whatever gene is present on the X chromosome will
be expressed.
An example of a sex-linked trait is colorblindness. The gene for colorblindness is found on the X chromosome. A woman is rarely
colorblind because she usually has a dominant gene for normal vision on one of her X chromosomes. However, a male has the
shortened Y chromosome; therefore, he has no gene to offset a gene for colorblindness on the X chromosome. As a result, the gene for
colorblindness expresses itself in the male.
Another example of sex-linked inheritance is the blood disease hemophilia. In hemophilia, the blood does not clot normally because an
important blood-clotting protein is missing. The gene for hemophilia occurs on the X chromosome. As females have two X
chromosomes, one X chromosome usually has the gene for normal blood clotting. Therefore, the female may be a carrier of hemophilia
but normally does not express hemophilia. Males have no offsetting gene on the Y chromosome, so the gene for hemophilia expresses
itself in the male. This is why most cases of hemophilia occur in males.
c. Examine inheritance patterns using current technology (e.g., pedigrees, karyotypes, gel electrophoresis). (DOK 2)
Chromosome Structure
Chromosome Numbers
Each organism has a distinct number of chromosomes, in humans, every cell contains 46 chromosomes. Other organisms have
different numbers, for instance, a dog has 78 chromosomes per cell.
Somatic Cells - body cells, such as muscle, skin, blood ...etc. These cells contain a complete set of chromosomes (46 in humans) and
are called DIPLOID.
Sex Cells - also known as gametes. These cells contain half the number of chromosomes as body cells and are called HAPLOID
Chromosomes come in pairs, called Homologous Pairs (or homologs). Imagine homologs as a matching set, but they are not exacly
alike, like a pair of shoes.
Diploid cells have 23 homologous pairs = total of 46
Haploid cells have 23 chromosomes (that are not paired) = total of 23
Homologous Chromosomes
Sex Determination
Chromosomes determine the sex of an offspring. In humans, a pair of chromosomes called SEX CHROMOSOMES determine the sex.
If you have XX sex chromosomes - you are female
If you have XY sex chromosomes - you are male
During fertilization, sperm cells will either contain an X or a Y chromosome (in addition to 22 other chromosomes - total of 23). If a
sperm containing an X chromosome fertilizes an egg, the offspring will be female. If a sperm cell containing a Y chromosome fertilizes
an egg, the offspring will be male.
Creation of a Zygote
When two sex cells, or gametes come together, the resulting fertilized egg is called a ZYGOTE
Zygotes are diploid and have the total 46 chromosomes (in humans)
Karyotype
A karyotype is a picture of a person's (or fetus) chromosomes. A karyotype is often done to determine if the offspring has the correct
number of chromosomes. An incorrect number of chromosomes indicates that the child will have a condition, like Down Syndrome
Compare the Karyotypes below
Notice that a person with Down Syndrome has an extra chromosome #21. Instead of a pair, this person has 3 chromosomes - a
condition called TRISOMY (tri = three)
Trisomy results when chromosomes fail to separate - NONDISJUNCTION - when sex cells are created. The resulting egg or sperm has
24 instead of the normal 23.
Other conditions result from having the wrong number of chromosomes:
Klinefelters Syndrome - XXY (sex chromosomes)
Edward Syndrome - Trisomy of chromosome #13
Pedigree
d. Discuss the characteristics and implications of both chromosomal and gene mutations. (DOK 2)
Significance of nondisjunction, deletion, substitutions, translocation, and frame shift mutation in animals
Occurrence and significance of genetic disorders such as sickle cell anemia, Tay-Sachs disorder, cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, Downs
Syndrome, color blindness
6. Demonstrate an understanding of principles that explain the diversity of life and biological evolution.
a. Draw conclusions about how organisms are classified into a hierarchy of groups and subgroups based on similarities that reflect their
evolutionary relationships. (DOK 2)
Characteristics of the six kingdoms
number of Cells
energy
cell type
examples
archaebacteria
unicellular
some autotrophic, most chemotrophic
prokaryote
methanogens
halophiles
thermophiles
all are known as "extremophiles"
eubacteria
unicellular
autrophic and heterotrophic
prokaryote
bacteria, E. coli
fungae
most multicellular
heterotrophic
eukaryote
mushrooms, yeast
plantae
multicellular
autotrophic
eukaryote
trees, grass
animalia
multicellular
heterotrophic
eukaryote
humans, insects, worms
protista
most unicellular
heterotrophic or autotrophic
eukaryote
ameba, paramecium, algae
Major levels in the hierarchy of taxa (e.g., kingdom, phylum/division, class, order, family, genus, and species)
Body plans (symmetry)
Methods of sexual reproduction (e.g., conjugation, fertilization, pollination)
Methods of asexual reproduction (e.g., budding, binary fission, regeneration, spore formation)
b. Critique data (e.g., comparative anatomy, Biogeography, molecular biology,
fossil record, etc.) used by scientists (e.g., Redi, Needham, Spallanzani,
Pasteur) to develop an understanding of evolutionary processes and patterns.
(DOK 3)
c. Research and summarize the contributions of scientists, (including Darwin, Malthus, Wallace, Lamarck, and Lyell) whose work led to
the development of the theory of evolution. (DOK 2)
d. Analyze and explain the roles of natural selection, including the mechanisms of
speciation (e.g., mutations, adaptations, geographic isolation) and applications
of speciation (e.g., pesticide and antibiotic resistance). (DOK 3)
e. Differentiate among chemical evolution, organic evolution, and the evolutionary steps along the way to aerobic heterotrophs and
photosynthetic autotrophs.
Gregor Mendel - Czech-Austrian monk who is often called the "father of genetics" for his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants
Charles Darwin British naturalist, often called the father of evolution. Published his revolutany ideas about evolution in a book titled
“On the Origin of Species”. Sailed on the H.M.S. Beagle around the world while he was formulating his theory of evolution.
Thomas Robert Malthus- reasoned that if the human population grew unchecked, there wouldn’t be enough living space and food for
everyone.
Alfred Russel Wallace- Wallace wrote to Darwin about speculation on evolution by natural selection, based on his studies of the
distribution of plants and animals.
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck- Lamarck published his hypotheses of the inheritance of acquired traits 1809. The ideas are flawed, but he is
one of the first to propose a mechanism explaining how organisms change over time.
James Hutton proposed that slow-acting geological forces shaped the planet. He estimates earth to be millions of years old, not
thousands.
Charles Lyell- In his Principles of Geology, Lyell explains that over long periods, the same processes affection earth today have
shaped earth’s ancient geological features.
Rosalind Franklin created a process of X-ray Diffraction that showed the 3D shape of DNA. Franklin’s X-ray diffraction Photograph
was used by Watson and Crick to created a 3D model of DNA.
James Watson & Frances Crick were the first to build a 3D model of DNA that explained the specific structure, properties and
function.
James Watson In 1990, Watson was appointed as the Head of the Human Genome Project at the National Institutes of Health.
Carolus Linnaeus was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of binomial
nomenclature. He is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also considered one of the fathers of modern ecology. Many of
his writings were in Latin, and his name is rendered in Latin as Carolus Linnæus (after 1761 Carolus a Linné).
Robert Hooke- English- used microscope to view cork wood. Coined the term “cell”.
Anton van Leeuwenhoek- Dutch- mid 1600’s, An eyeglass lense grinder who built microscopes and used them, The first scientist to
describe living cells as seen through a simple microscope
Robert Brown- first wrote about the cell nucleus.
Rudolf Virchow first predicted that the nucleus contained genetic material and was responsible for cell reproduction.
Matthias Schleiden- German, 1830’s, proposed that all plants were made of cells.
Theodore Schwann- German, 1830’s, proposed that all animals are made of cells.
John Needham-tried to prove spontaneous generation but his experimental procedures have been called into question especially
those dealing with steril conditions.
Lazzaro Spallanazani-performed experiments to disprove spontaneous generation of maggots from rotting meat.
Francesco Redi-performed experiments to prove that microbes which contaminate broth come from the air and not spontaneously
generated by the broth.
Louis Pasteur-disproved spontaneous generation using specially formed flasks that trapped microbes in the neck of the flask.
Oparin-performed experiments to determine if life could have arisen from organic substances
Miller / Urey-determined that amino acids (building blocks of proteins) could form from naturally occurring compounds found on early
Earth.
Erwin Chargaff-determined the nitrogen base pairing rule that adenine equals thymine and cytosine equals guanine in DNA
Hershey & Chase-discovered that DNA was the genetic material in viral bacteriophages in 1952.
Frederick Griffith-discovered the process of bacterial transformation in 1928.
abiotic:
nonliving
adapt:
change of structure, function or form that allows a better adjustment of an organism to its environment
aerobic:
in the presence of oxygen; using oxygen
algae:
usually an aquatic plant-like organism that contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis; found in oceans to a depth of about 150
meters or live suspended in open water (plankton); also in fresh water; in terrestrial habitats in soil; part of the kingdom
Protista
any salt or mixture of salts that neutralizes acids, found in some desert soils; alkali is bitter-tasting in water and has a pH
higher than 7. Alkali metals have only one electron in their outer shell and easily combine with other ions. Alkali metals
include lithium, sodium and potassium.
alkali:
allele:
an alternative form of a gene. Example: in people we either have a straight hairline over our forehead or a widow's peak in a
V shape. Those are two forms of the gene for the kind of hairline a person has.
allele frequencies:
how often an alternative form of a gene occurs in a population.
amino acid:
the building block of proteins, with an amino group (NH2), an acid group (COOH), and a base or R group.
anaerobic:
without oxygen
anaphase:
The third stage of mitosis, where condensed chromosomes begin to separate from their sister chromatids and become
individual chromosomes.
antibody:
a protein produced in response to a foreign antigen.
asexual reproduction:
reproduction that requires only one parent. Asexual reproduction does not allow for the exchange of genetic material and
uses only mitosis for cell replication.
atom:
the smallest particle of a chemical element that can take part in a chemical reaction without being permanently changed;
contains all the properties of that element.
ATP:
adenosine triphosphate: a nucleotide used for energy in cells. ATP <-> ADP + P + energy.
autotroph:
an organism that can make organic nutrients from an inorganic source.
benthic:
living on the ocean floor
bias:
a source of error in experiments; a prejudice, one-sidedness, slant or "spin" that can alter the way information is interpreted
and/or presented.
binary
fission:
a form of asexual reproduction, where the parent cell divides into two equal-sized daughter cells.
binomial
nomenclature:
a system of two names for an organism, the first is the genus, the second the species. For example, Homo sapien is the
scientific name for humans.
biodegradable:
a substance that can be broken down by living organisms and returned to the natural cycles of matter.
biodiversity:
the genetic, species, and ecological variation in an area.
bioengineered:
or genetically modified plants, animals, or bacteria that have foreign DNA introduced into their cells. This transferred DNA
may make the organism more resistant to pests, viruses or herbicides, or give them the ability to produce products needed by
humans, like human insulin produced by altered bacteria.
biologist:
a scientist who studies living organisms.
biology:
the study of living organisms.
biomass:
the total weight of all the living organisms in a given area.
biome:
broad regions of Earth with characteristic types of plants and animals. For example, a forest biome or desert biome
biosphere:
the zone surrounding the earth where life is located
biotic:
having to do with living organisms; environmental factors created by living organisms.
biotic
potential:
the maximum population growth rate under ideal conditions.
camouflage:
the ability an organism, especially an animal, to blend in with its environment.
canopy:
the highest levels of vegetation in an area. In a forest, the tallest trees which shade all the organisms below.
carbohydrate:
a simple sugar or a more complex molecule made of sugar units. 4 calories/gram, they are used for structure, energy, and
transport.
carnivore:
an animal that kills and eats other animals
carrying capacity:
the largest population that can be sustained in a particular environment without causing damage to other biotic or abiotic
elements of the habitat.
catalyst:
a substance that changes the speed of a chemical reaction while undergoing no permanent change in composition itself.
Biological catalysts are enzymes and ribozymes.
cell:
the smallest unit of living organisms, composed of cytoplasm and surrounded by a plasma membrane
cell
membrane:
or plasma membrane: a selectively permeable membrane surrounding a cell, made of a phospholipid bilayer with sites where
protein and carbohydrates can attach or pass through. It regulates the entry into and exit of substances from the cell
cellulose:
a polysaccharide made of parallel fibers, it is the major substance in plant cell walls. Provides fiber used for paper, cloth and
other materials. Usually indigestible by humans, cellulose is one of the dietary fibers recommended for colon health.
cell wall:
a structure that surrounds a cell to provide cell shape and rigidity
Centigrade:
o
centrioles:
a pair of organelles in animal cells that organize the spindle fibers and direct chromosome movement during cell division
chitin:
a polysaccharide made of glucose and amino acid molecules, it is found in the exoskeletons of insects, crabs and in the cell
walls of fungi. Pronounced "kite-n"
chloroplast:
an organelle containing the pigment chlorophyll that absorbs solar energy. Used in the process of photosynthesis where
energy from the sun is converted into chemical energy and stored as a sugar or starch in plants.
chromosome:
a strand of DNA composed of many genes that contains the instructions for building proteins and other molecules, and
transmits genetic information from one generation to another
climate:
overall weather conditions in an area that include temperature and rainfall
climax community:
a relatively mature and stable, long-lasting community of plants and/or animals that can be self-sustaining, dependent on soil
and climate
cloning:
organisms produced asexually from a single ancestor. May be produced by grafting, as in plants, by fission, as in singlecelled organisms, and by forming buds, as in hydras.
commensalism:
a symbiotic relationship where one species is benefited and the other is neither benefited nor harmed
community:
the populations of different species that interact with each other in an local area
compound:
more than one type of molecule chemically bonded together
consumer:
a heterotroph that feeds on tissues and stored nutrients of other organisms
control:
the part of an experiment that doesn't change. A control group is a sample that is subjected to all experimental conditions
except the experimental or independent variable.
convergence:
the tendency of organisms not closely related to develop similar characteristics when living under the same environmental
conditions. Example: cactus of SW deserts (USA) and certain Euphorbia species of Africa
critical
thinking:
a systematic, purposeful way to assess information, to think about thinking
cytokinesis:
the movement (kinesis) of the cytoplasm when a cell divides
cytoplasm:
the gel-like contents of a cell between the cell membrane and the nucleus
cytoskeleton:
the system of microtubules and fibers that give support and structure to a cell
data:
the facts found or results of an experiment, often given in a table, graph or pictorial form
C or Celsius. A measurement of temperature where 0oC is freezing and 100oC is boiling for water.
deciduous:
plants that lose their leaves either annually or in response to certain environmental conditions. For example: Some desert
plants like the Ocotillo are drought deciduous - they lose their leaves when weather conditions are very dry. Most hardwood
trees, like hickory, lose their leaves each fall.
decomposer:
a heterotroph that gets its energy from the dead remains or waste products of organisms. May include detrivores, insect
larvae, worms, and other organisms
deforestation:
large-scale removal of trees from a forest or an area of a forest; may be a result of natural conditions, but often is a human
impact
denatured:
a process that changes a protein molecule (including enzymes, hormones, and others) from functioning to nonfunctional.
Denaturing changes the shape of the molecule and can be caused by high temperatures, or a pH outside its tolerance level.
density:
the weight of a certain volume of material; or, the number (or estimate) of organisms living in a particular area
detritus:
partly decomposed remains of organic matter
diploid:
an organism that has pairs of chromosomes that match up
dispersal:
spatial distribution of individuals within a population. For animals, some individuals may leave a colony or family group to
establish a home territory in another location. For plants, seeds can be dispersed in several ways: by gravity, wind, insects,
birds, other animals, or in other ways.
DNA:
deoxyribonucleic acid, a nucleotide that contains the genetic code and instructions for an organism. The molecule is
composed of a sugar, deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing base. DNA has two complementary
strands.
ecosystem:
community of organisms, interacting with each other plus the environment in which they live and also interact, such as a lake,
forest, grassland or tundra. The abiotic components include minerals, organic compounds, temperature, rainfall and other
physical factors; the biotic components usually include several trophic levels - autotrophic producers, heterotrophic
consumers and decomposers.
electron:
a negatively charged particle that orbits the nucleus of an atom. In biology, we consider that has essentially no mass.
element:
a substance that cannot be broken down into smaller parts with the same properties, made of one kind of atom
embryology:
the study of developmental stages of different organisms
endangered species:
species in immediate danger of becoming extinct; may need protection or other human intervention to survive; even with
human intervention some species may no longer have the genetic diversity necessary to return to their natural habitat; often
the primary threat to the species is loss or modification of their habitat
endemic:
organisms whose distribution is restricted to a particular geographical region or locality, such as an island or continent.
Sometimes used to describe a species native to the habitat in which it evolved.
endoplasmic reticulum: (ER) an organelle in the cell, made of a system of sacs and channels
rough ER: has ribosomes, for protein synthesis
smooth ER: without ribosomes, for lipid synthesis
energy:
the capacity or power to do work possessed at any instant by a body or system. May be electrical, mechanical, thermal, or
nuclear but is always measured by the work done.
entropy:
a measure of randomness, or disorder
environment:
the living and nonliving things around an organism or group of organisms
enzyme:
a protein catalyst that speeds up a specific chemical reaction without being used up in the process
equilibrium:
a state of balance or a condition when opposing forces balance or equal each other
eukaryote:
a cell with a true nucleus and organelles
eutrophication:
usually rapid increase in the nutrient status of a body of water, both natural and occurring as a by-product of human activity.
May be caused by run-off of fertilizers from agricultural land, or by input of sewage or animal waste.
evolution:
the change in genetics of a population over time
extinct:
a species that no longer exists anywhere in the world
Fahrenheit:
o
F. An English system of measurement of temperature where 32oF is freezing and 212oF is boiling for water.
fatty acids:
a simple lipid with carbon-hydrogen chains with an alcohol at one end
fermentation:
enzymatic and anaerobic breakdown of organic substances, typically sugars and fats, to yield simpler organic products. A
classic example is alcohol production by yeasts. The term is sometimes used synonymously with anaerobic respiration, but
this is incorrect.
fertilization:
when a sperm unites with an egg; OR adding organic or synthetic chemicals (especially nitrogen, phosphorous and/or
potassium) to increase plant production
fission:
the splitting of an atomic nucleus into two parts. Fission releases huge amounts of energy when the nuclei of heavy elements,
especially uranium and plutonium, are split.
fitness:
the difference in reproductive success of an individual or genotype relative to another; regarded as a factor affecting survival
or longevity
food chain:
the order of who eats who, and their flow of energy in an ecosystem
food web:
an interrelated flow of energy in an ecosystem, it includes all the organisms that make up the diet of each organism included
in each food chain
fossil:
anything found in the strata of earth which is recognizable as the remains or traces of an organism of a former geological age.
fungi:
plural of fungus; a major group of nonmotile, filamentous organisms that lack chlorophyll and absorb their nutrients from dead
or living organisms; includes mushrooms, toadstools, and yeast
fusion:
the combining of two smaller atomic nuclei to produce a nucleus of greater mass. Fusion releases tremendous amounts of
energy; fusion is the energy source of the sun.
gamete:
a haploid cell, sperm or egg, carrying genetic information for the next generation in sexual reproduction
gene:
a unit of heredity located on a part of a DNA molecule, responsible for traits in organisms
gene flow:
the sharing of genes between two populations by interbreeding
gene frequency:
or allele frequency; the relative number of different alleles for a trait that are carried by the individuals of a population
gene pool:
all the genes carried by all the individuals of a given population
genetic drift:
the change in gene frequencies of small populations, due to chance or random events
genetic engineering:
the selective alteration of a cell's DNA so that new genes from the DNA of another cell can be inserted into the DNA. That
new DNA then directs the synthesis of proteins needed by that cell or products that we need that cell to produce, like
hormones.
glycolysis:
the process of breaking (lysis) a sugar (glucose) molecule to extract energy for ATP; the first step for both aerobic respiration
and anaerobic fermentation
global
warming:
one aspect of climate change
glycogen:
a polysaccharide with many side branches of glucose that is used as high energy storage in animals
Golgi
apparatus:
an organelle in a cell that processes, packages and distributes products made in the endoplasmic reticulum
greenhouse effect:
re-radiation of solar energy in the earth's atmosphere resulting in an increase in earth's surface temperature; created by the
accumulation of carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofluorcarbons (CFCs), nitrous oxide, ground-level ozone and water vapor in
the atmosphere
ground
water:
water held under ground in gravel or porous rock layers called aquifers
H+
hydrogen ion, basically a single proton
habitat:
the place where an organism lives, finds food, water, mates, and is able to survive and reproduce
haploid:
a cell that only has one of each of a pair of chromosomes, frequently a sex cell, sperm or egg
herbivore:
an animal that eats only plants
heterotroph:
an organism that must eat its food, it cannot make its own
heterozygous:
two different alleles at the same locations on paired chromosomes, for example, Aa
holistic:
considering all factors that contribute to the whole
homeostasis:
maintaining a stable internal environment by self regulation
homozygous:
two identical alleles at the same locations on paired chromosomes for example AA or aa
hybrid:
offspring resulting from a mating (cross) between two genetically non-identical individuals. Commonly used where the parents
are from different populations or different taxa.
hydrolysis:
the splitting (lysis) of a compound by the addition of a water molecule
hydrophilic:
a molecule that is attracted to and is soluble in water. Since most cells are 70 to 90% water, the ability to react with water is
very important.
hydrophobic:
a molecule that is not soluble in water; because it is nonpolar it does not react with water, for example, oil or fat.
hydrosphere:
all water on or near the earth's surface
hypothesis:
an "educated guess" as to the outcome of a problem, it can be tested by experimentation, used in the scientific method
interphase:
a stage in mitosis where the cell is going through normal growth and activity. It is also preparing to divide by duplicating the
DNA and cell organelles.
introduced species:
an exotic species; non-native species that has been introduced to an area
invertebrate:
an animal without a backbone; includes all species of insects and most organisms with exoskeletons
ion:
an atom with a different number of electrons than a neutral atom of the same element; an ion always has either a positive or
negative charge
isotope:
an atom with a different number of neutrons and thus a different mass than the normal element; it is often radioactive
kinetic
energy:
caused by or producing motion; energy a body has because it is in motion
law:
a scientific rule that accurately describes the behavior of a natural phenomenon
lichen:
a mutual symbiotic association of an alga, which photosynthesizes and is often able to fix nitrogen, and a fungus, with
specialized organs than can penetrate rock; primary colonizers, lichens dominate the flora in mountain and artic regions;
sources of food, medicine, poison, dye, cosmetics and perfumes, they also can be used as indicators of air pollution
limnetic
zone:
the aquatic, productive, sunlit body of a lake where most photosynthesis occurs
lipid:
a greasy or oily compound of carbon and hydrogen that doesn't dissolve well in water. 9 calories/gram, used as energy for
cells and structure in membranes.
lysosome:
an organelle in a cell that contains enzymes to break down organic substances
mass:
how much matter is in an object that gives inertia; not dependent on gravity
matter:
anything that has mass and can exist as a solid, liquid or gas; all matter is composed of atoms
meiosis:
the division of the nucleus of a cell from pairs of chromosomes to single chromosomes, through sexual reproduction.
metabolism:
the sum of all the chemical reactions that take place in a cell during growth and repair.
metaphase:
The second phase of mitosis, where the condensed chromosomes line up in the middle of the equatorial plate.
metric system:
the English system of measurement based on 10's, it uses grams for weight, meters for length, and liters for volume
microorganism:
an organism so small that it can only be seen under a microscope
microscope:
a tool used to magnify very small objects
migrate:
to move from one place to another with a change in seasons
mitochondria:
cytoplasmic organelles in eukaryotic cells using aerobic respiration; inner membrane is the site of the electron transport
system, the ATP-synthesizing complex, singular is mitochondrion
mitosis:
the process by which the nucleus of a cell divides to form two new nuclei, each containing the same number of
chromosomes; asexual reproduction
mixture:
a combination of elements or compounds that are not chemically combined; often there is a process that can separate
ingredients
molecule:
the union of two or more atoms of the same kind, ex) O2; or the smallest form of a compound that has the properties of that
compound, example: H2O (water)
morphological:
pertaining to the shape or structure of an organism
mortality:
death of an individual; the death rate of a population
motile:
an organism that can move from place to place at some time in their life time
multicellular:
an organism made of more than one cell
mutation:
a heritable change in the DNA structure for a trait in an organism; may be caused by prolonged exposure to UV radiation,
radiation, certain mutagenic chemicals, and/or mistakes in the order of DNA molecules when cells are reproducing
mutualistic:
a relationship between two organisms where both benefit
natural selection:
most widely accepted theory of the main causal mechanism of evolutionary change. The theory says, given both genetic
and phenotypic diversity among individuals of a species population, not all individuals will contribute equally to the make up of
a later population. The theory asserts that genetic composition will change through time by the non-random transmission of
genes from one generation to the next because not all gene combinations are equally suited to a given environment. Put
more simply, individuals best suited to their environment live long enough to reproduce and pass on genes for those traits
more than other individuals in the population.
negative feedback:
A feedback process that keeps input and output in equilibrium, often associated with endocrine regulation. Functions as a
control mechanism where the outcome determines the process that follows: if too much of a product accumulates, negative
feedback cancels the production of the product.
neutron:
a non-charged particle in the center of an atom. Mass of a neutron is considered to be one atomic unit (1 a.u.).
niche:
a particular function or habitat an organism fills in its environment
nonmotile:
an organism that doesn't have an ability to move; sessile; example: coral
non-renewable
resources:
resources that are present in fixed amounts or produced over geological time, examples: gold, oil
nuclear membrane:
a selectively permeable membrane surrounding cell contents, with nuclear pores for the passage of RNA material
nucleic acids:
molecules made of a sugar (ribose for RNA, deoxyribose for DNA), a nitrogen base, and a phosphate group
nucleolus:
a dark staining body in the nucleus of a cell that produces ribosomal RNA
nucleus:
the center of an atom or a cell
omnivore:
an animal that eats both plants and animals
organ:
organelle:
a group of tissues with a common function
a specialized structure inside a cell with a specific function
organic:
having to do with compounds containing carbon; a carbon-based molecule(s) found in or made by living organisms
organism:
an individual living thing
organ
system:
ovary:
a group of organs with a common function, example: circulatory system containing heart, blood vessels, blood
ozone:
a form of oxygen (O3), produced by electricity and present in the air; a strong oxidizing agent used in water purification; in the
upper atmosphere, it blocks ultraviolet (UV) radiation from space; in the lower atmosphere, it contributes to smog
paramecium:
a single celled protozoa that uses cilia to propel itself usually in fresh water; in the Kingdom Protista.
parasite:
an organism that lives in or on a living host and feeds from it. It may or may not kill its host.
parasitism:
an interaction of two species where one directly harms the other that serves as its host
pathogen:
a disease causing organism. Examples: bacteria, viruses, "germs"
perennial:
a flowering plant that lives longer than one growing season
pH:
a quantitative expression indicating the relative concentration of potential hydrogen ions (protons) in solution. A pH of 7
indicates a neutral solution. Lower than 7 indicates an acid; higher than 7 is a base or alkali solution.
phenotype:
what an organism looks like, regardless of its genotype. Physical appearance of an organism, determined by interaction
during development between its genetic constitution (genotype) and the environment. Different phenotypes may result from
identical genotypes, but it is unlikely that two organisms could share all their phenotypic characters without having identical
genotypes. Shared presence of a character in two organisms doesn't require identical genotypes for that character.
phospholipid bilayer:
the cell membrane is made of two layers of phospholipid molecules. The hydrophilic head of the molecule faces out and the
hydrophobic tail faces the tail of the second layer.
photosynthesis:
plants capture solar energy, combining carbon dioxide and water to produce organic molecules
sunlight + 6CO2 + 6H2O -> C6H12O6 + 6O2
phytoplankton:
a freshwater or marine community of floating or weakly swimming photosynthetic autotrophs, such as cyanobacteria, diatoms,
or green algae
plankton:
aquatic free-drifting microscopic organisms, algae and protozoan; actively swimming microorganisms are called nekton
pollutant:
impurity; any substance that contaminates the environment, especially if it leads to harmful effects to living or nonliving parts
of the environment; may be natural, like volcanic ash, or human caused, like industrial pollution or vehicle emissions
polyploidy:
an organism containing more than two of each chromosome
population:
a group of organisms of the same species living together in the same area
potential energy:
stored energy that is available to be used
predation:
an interaction of two species where the predator directly harms the prey
predator:
an organism that feeds on and may or may not kill its prey
prey:
an organism that serves as food for a predator
a female sex organ that produces haploid eggs
producer:
an organism that can produce the organic compounds the need using photosynthesis or chemosynthesis; commonly food for
other organisms; autotrophs
prokaryotes:
primitive organisms without a true nucleus, they have a circular strand of DNA in a nucleoid region, they include the bacteria
and cyanobacteria.
prophase:
The first stage of mitosis where the chromosomes condense, the nuclear membrane begins to disappear and the centrioles
travel to the poles.
protein:
a large organic compound made of chains of amino acids held together by peptide bonds. 4 calories/gram.
proton:
a positively charged particle in the nucleus of an atom. Considered to have a mass of one atomic unit (1 a.u.).
random:
from statistics. having to do with or involving the same or equal chances or probability of occurrence; without outside bias
recessive:
phenotypic characteristics that are only expressed when the genes determining them are homozygous. When heterozygous,
the allele for the character is either "silent" giving rise to no cell product, or its effect is masked by the presence of the other
allele.
host DNA and new inserted genes.
recombinant
DNA:
renewable resources:
resources that are replaced by natural processes, for example, timber, wind, solar energy
reproduce:
to produce offspring either sexually or asexually
resources:
the natural resources an organism needs to survive: water, food, shelter, space, sunlight, etc.
respiration:
the breakdown of food to produce energy, water, and carbon dioxide
ribosome:
an organelle in all cells, for making protein
RNA:
ribonucleic acid, a nucleotide, often a single-strand copy of DNA, containing the code for protein synthesis. A molecule of
RNA contains the sugar ribose, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing base. There are several kinds of RNA with
specific functions of moving information within a cell.
grasslands with a scattered drought-deciduous and evergreen trees occurring singly or in small clumps; transitional areas
between evergreen tropical rain forests and deserts or between prairies and temperate deciduous forests; annual rainfall and
temperatures have wide seasonal variations
savanna:
scavenger:
an organism that feeds on the dead bodies of other organisms
science:
a methodical, objective study of the natural world
scientific method:
an organized, systematic way of studying a problem in the natural world. It generally includes observation, hypothesis,
experimentation, data gathering and conclusions or interpretation
scientist:
one who studies the natural world in an organized, systematic way
sexual reproduction:
a form of reproduction that requires haploid gametes from two parents to produce a new offspring
speciation:
the evolution of a new species of organisms
species:
a group of interbreeding individuals who produce fertile, viable offspring
spontaneous generation: abandoned hypothesis that life arises from nonliving things
starch:
a polysaccharide used for energy storage by plants. It can be tested by adding iodine, and it will turn black
succession:
progressive change in species composition of a community of organisms; from initial colonization of a bare area (primary
succession) or an already established community (secondary succession) toward a largely stable (climax) community.
surface water:
water that is available from the surface of the earth; includes springs, streams, rivers, lakes, oceans
symbiosis:
a form of mutualism where organisms of different species can't grow and reproduce unless they spend their entire lives
together in intimate interdependence.
taxonomy:
the science of identifying, naming and classifying organisms based on their characteristics.
telophase:
The last stage of mitosis, where the condensed chromosomes reach the opposite poles and cytokinesis separates the two
cells.
theory:
explanatory hypothesis firmly supported by observation and experiment; they tend to have wider consequences than
hypotheses
tissue:
a group of similarly shaped cells with a common function
toxin:
any poison produced by a living organism as a result of its metabolism
trophic level:
theoretical term describing any of the stages in the transfer of matter and energy through a community; flow of food from one
population to another; includes producers, primary consumers, secondary carnivores, and decomposers
tundra:
a treeless, cold, arctic or alpine biome with a short summer growing season and permanently frozen subsoil
vacuole:
a membrane enclosed sac in a plant cell containing a variety of substances for storage or support
variable:
something that changes in an experiment, usually the focus of the experiment. Independent (experimental) variables are
controlled by the experimenter or are not controllable; dependent variables are measurable outcomes of experimental
conditions and variables
watershed:
the area of land that is drained by one river system
weight:
a measure of how heavy a body is when acted upon by gravity
zygote:
the new cell resulting from the union of an egg and sperm