Running Head: MATH ANXIETY AND ACHIEVEMENT
Math Anxiety and Achievement and the Impact to Education and Society
Susannah M. Maxwell
Georgia Gwinnett College
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Math Anxiety and Achievement and the Impact to Education and Society
Richardson and Suinn define math anxiety as “feelings of tension and anxiety that
interfere with the manipulation of mathematical problems in a wide variety of ordinary life and
academic situations” (Woodard, 2004, p. 1). Math anxiety is felt at all educational levels but
probably starts early in a child’s education. When math anxiety is not dealt with, it can change
the educational goals of a student because they try to avoid choices that require math classes
(Woodard, 2004). In this paper, I will examine the reasons that people fear math and how
educators contribute to this issue. I will also review the results of this fear and its impact on our
economy and society, as well as steps our government has taken to resolve this problem.
How do we know when a student is math-anxious? Math anxiety can be assessed using
the Mathematical Anxiety Rating Scale (MARS). MARS is a reputable evaluation tool that was
developed in 1972. It has 98 questions giving descriptions of behavioral situations which the
participants answer to rate themselves. Teachers can also recognize math anxiety by looking for
a student who is nervous, lacks concentration, blanks out when asked to answer a question, and
feels sick when facing a math test. These types of students can be helped to overcome their fears
by examining each individual for the cause of this anxiety and what steps can be taken to resolve
related issues (Woodard, 2004).
Next, I considered the reasons that students become math-anxious. These reasons range
from teaching style and methods to self image of the student. Many of these issues have been
historically controversial and hotly debated. Constance Kamii, Ph.D., University of Alabama at
Birmingham professor of early childhood education, believes that math is taught incorrectly and
results in math anxiety. She believes that mathematics is taught as a set of rules with little
application to real life. Students learn the rules, but do not learn problem solving skills since
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they apply their knowledge to uninteresting and irrelevant questions. Kamii prefers a
constructivist approach where children are allowed to create their own solutions. Her approach
uses board games to supply the problems for students to solve. Her techniques are being used
across the U.S. (Sullivan, 1998).
Equally important is the impact that parents have on their children’s view of math. Math
phobia is everywhere, not just among students. We hear it in comments like “I’m not good at
math” and “math is very hard”. Females are particularly affected. Comments like “your father
will have to help you with math” and “Girls aren’t good at math” are an indicator of this math
anxiety. If students know their parents are frightened about math, they will be influenced by that
fear. Parents need to have a more math-positive attitude so that they can help their children.
Parents can include children in daily math activities to strengthen their problem solving skills,
like grocery shopping and cooking (Sullivan, 1998).
Specifically, girls face even more obstacles in math learning which increases their
nervousness about math. Female students not only learn math from their teachers, but sometimes
female teachers can also teach them to fear math. A study performed at the University of
Chicago looked at 17 first- and second-grade teachers and 52 male and 65 female students for an
entire year. First, they judged the teachers’ levels of math anxiety. Then, the study measured
student achievement on math tests at both the beginning and end of the school year. The third
aspect they looked at was acceptance of gender stereotypes, again at the beginning and end of the
school year. At the start of the school year, they found that there was no relationship between
teacher math phobia and student test scores in either boys or girls. To examine math stereotypes,
they told stories about students who were successful at math and reading without specifying
gender. The students were then asked to draw a picture of the story. The researchers reviewed
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the drawings to see what gender was drawn. At the end of the school year, girls who spent a year
with a math-anxious teacher more often believed that “boys are good at math and girls are good
at reading" (University of Chicago, 2010, p. 1). This was seen in their pictures of the story; these
girls illustrated the story using male students doing math. Boys didn’t seem to accept the
stereotype. The stereotype carried over to math achievement - girls that bought the stereotype
scored six points lower on testing than those girls who did not accept the stereotype, and lower
than boys as a group. They concluded that math phobia of female teachers can lead to lower
math achievement in female students but has no impact on boys. Sian Beilock, Associate
Professor of Psychology at the University of Chicago and expert on anxiety as it applies to
education, states "Having a highly math-anxious female teacher may push girls to confirm the
stereotype that they are not as good as boys at math, which in turn, affects girls' math
achievement" (University of Chicago, 2010, p. 1). The impact of female math teachers on
female students is important because 92% of math and science teachers in grades K-4 are
females, according to the Report of the 2000 National Survey of Science and Mathematics
Education (Weiss, Banilower, McMahon, & Smith, 2001, p. 23). Also, research completed by
Beilock and her associates stated that “elementary education majors are largely female and have
the highest levels of math anxiety of any college major” (University of Chicago, 2010). So, it
appears that the U.S. is not counteracting the math phobia of teachers, which will have a major
impact on today’s female math students. Beilock’s study advocates better elementary teacher
preparation by requiring more mathematics education courses and by addressing teacher
candidates’ issues of math attitudes and phobia (University of Chicago, 2010).
Other teacher behaviors also tend to make girls feel less important than boys or
encourage the girls to question their math ability. Girls then are less interested in math than
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boys, and tend to see themselves as not very good at math. Feedback that is given to boys is
different than what is given to girls, even when the teacher thinks that gender stereotypes don’t
exist. Boys get specific feedback that helps the boys improve, while girls get non-specific
feedback, like a nod, that encourages lack of interest. Studies have also noted that boys are given
more time to answer questions than girls. Teachers tend to jump in and “help” the girls or go on
to another student. This gives boys more of a chance to practice thinking skills which develop
into better math performance. The girls take this as a subtle sign that they have weaker math
skills. Girls who attend all-girl schools are two to four times more likely to pursue a math or
science career, as opposed to girls who attend co-ed schools. Researchers believe that boys in
class tend to discourage girls from taking leadership roles in math classes. Several researchers
have hypothesized that math and science curricula don’t address girls’ learning styles. Most girls
learn by hands-on activities, which are not included enough in math curriculum that stresses rote
memory and problem solving (Sullivan, 1998).
However, it is not always girls who are discouraged from thinking of themselves as math
wizards. Traditionally, math has been taught by placing students in groups by ability and
teaching those groups at their level of understanding. Placement is done by scores on math tests.
This is referred to as tracking or ability grouping. Many believe that U.S. schools implement
tracking to find and focus on high achievers. This has been applied frequently over the last
several decades in language arts and mathematics. But identifying students correctly is a huge
problem. These decisions impact not only short term performance but also long term
achievement and future success for all students. But the decisions are made based on limited
information. Many times a single test score on a math placement exam can mean the difference
between one group and another lower group. Researchers have found that students at the upper
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border of a lower group understood at the same level as students at the lower border of a higher
group, pointing out that the line between groups can be easily misplaced (Boaler, 2008).
Another fact noted by researchers about ability grouping is its relationship to
achievement. Comparing the students at the border of groups, students who were placed in the
higher group do better at the end of the school year on math tests because of their placement in
the higher group. This finding points out a sad fact about ability grouping – students who barely
miss a higher placement are at an unnecessary disadvantage specifically because of their
placement (Boaler, 2008).
Furthermore, ability grouping can limit a student’s exposure to material they might learn
if given a chance. Over and over again, researchers claim that the foundation for school success
is “opportunity to learn”. This has usually been understood to mean that to create a high
achieving student, create an environment that challenges and provides high level work for them.
This statement would lead to discontinuing ability grouping, allowing all students to be exposed
to higher level math work while they work at their own pace. This has the impact of allowing
students to learn as much as they can, rather than what a teacher expects a lower group to
understand. No need to group, and everyone gets the same opportunity to learn. It also avoids
the obstacle of teachers’ low expectations of student ability. Teachers will not be able to “talk
down” to the lower level students, since they will be included in the larger group which includes
students with higher ability. Studies have shown that when teachers think that the students are at
a higher ability, they produce students who score higher on IQ tests, even when there was no
grouping done (Boaler, 2008).
How does math grouping lead to math phobia? Fear and ability are closely related.
When students do not feel capable, they can turn that feeling to worry and finally to outright fear
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of the subject and avoidance of it entirely. It doesn’t even have to be related to the student’s real
ability, but many times it is more the student’s perception of their ability that matters. The
examples given above indicate ability grouping’s effect on ability perception. So, unless ability
grouping gives a student a positive perception of their ability, it will feed the negative feelings of
math anxiety (Boaler, 2008).
Since ability grouping has so many flaws, I compiled a list of benefits of the opposite
approach, called mixed ability grouping. Mixed ability groups do not allow teachers to simply
teach to the median student, assuming that all students are at approximately the same level.
These types of groups dictate that the teacher presents the material in a way that all students can
attain their highest potential. This would result in students learning to solve harder math
problems just by being in a group that is attempting them. Mixed ability groups also provide
resources in addition to the teacher and textbook for students. Higher level students can help
lower level students understand more difficult concepts. The higher level students also get
something in return; explaining material to others helps them understand it better and find areas
where they need more study. This benefit for the high achiever has been a surprising result.
Boaler’s discussions with students noted that higher level students “learned more and more
deeply from having to explain work to others” (Boaler, 2008, p. 115).
In fact, ability grouping is illegal in many countries, and is not used in countries that have
consistently high achievement in math across all student populations, such as Japan and Finland.
Ability grouping has been debated for decades in the U.S. The proponents of grouping say that a
student’s needs are better met in a group of like ability students, especially those in higher ability
groups. Many exceptionality educators and parents of exceptional children at both high and low
ends of the spectrum support this view. Grouping is the foundation for special education
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curricula prior to the era of inclusion. Teachers feel that it is easier to teach to groups of students
that are at the same level, and grouping allows them to address the educational level of the
students better. The opponents of ability grouping say that it is difficult to implement grouping,
and most of the time we get it wrong. This, in turn, puts some borderline students at a
disadvantage educationally. Also, they believe that grouping diminishes the opportunity to learn,
especially from peers (Boaler, 2008).
Consequently, ability grouping in the U.S. has had an impact on our standings among
other countries in math performance. A study done by researchers in the Third International
Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS - 1999) reported that the US ranked 19th out of 38
countries in math performance. Korea ranked first. Also found in the TIMSS databases were
other related facts. For example, the U.S. had the most tracking of all countries, while Korea had
the least tracking with the most equal groupings. The U.S. also had the strongest connections
between achievement and socio-economic level. This has also been linked to the use of tracking
in U.S. schools. The correlation of tracking and achievement was also noted in the Second
International Mathematics and Science Study done in the mid-1980’s. Researchers concluded
that countries using the least ability grouping had the highest achievement (Boaler, 2008).
Math anxiety in the U.S. has had a direct impact on our ability to compete with other
countries in terms of math achievement and has an immediate impact on our current place in the
global economy. In President Obama’s 2011 State of the Union address, he stated that things
have changed in terms of job availability and longevity. There was a time that anyone could get
a job without a college degree and keep it until retirement. That job would change little over the
several decades that a person was employed. That is no longer true of today’s job market, which
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is now driven by technology and our students are not being prepared to step up to the challenge
(Obama, 2011). President Obama (2011) states:
The rules have changed. In a single generation, revolutions in technology have
transformed the way we live, work and do business. Steel mills that once needed 1,000
workers can now do the same work with 100. Today, just about any company can set up
shop, hire workers, and sell their products wherever there's an Internet connection. (p. 2)
In the mean time, other countries like China and India are strengthening math and science in
their educational curricula. Mr. Obama (2011) makes a valid observation:
Maintaining our leadership in research and technology is crucial to America's success.
But if we want to win the future — if we want innovation to produce jobs in America and
not overseas — then we also have to win the race to educate our kids. (p. 4)
Within 10 years, 50% of all new job applicants will have to have more than a high school
diploma, but right now, almost one-fourth of students in the U.S. do not complete high school
and the U.S. is ranked ninth among nations in the percentage of college graduates. As previously
stated, the quality of U.S. math and science education compares poorly to other nations (Obama,
2011).
What is America’s response to this dilemma? The federal government has passed
legislation to improve math and science education in the U.S. One of these programs is the
America Creating Opportunities to Meaningfully Promote Excellence in Technology, Education,
and Science (COMPETES) Act of 2007, which was reauthorized in 2011. America COMPETES
calls for programs and funding that will enhance STEM (science, technology, engineering and
math) education in the U.S. to put America in a better position to compete globally. In a press
release supporting funding of the America COMPETES Act, U.S. Rep. George Miller (D-CA),
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the chairman of the House Education and Labor committee, states, “America won’t be able to
maintain our great legacy of innovation and discovery, let alone compete in today’s global
economy, unless we make investing in math and science education a top priority” (Miller, 2008,
p. 1). The National Mathematics Advisory Panel agrees. They claim math education in the U.S.
is “broken and must be fixed” (Miller, 2008, p. 1). The panel suggests a broad effort to improve
math education, including teacher professional development.
Another program to address STEM education is the U.S. Department of Education’s
Race to the Top (R3T). R3T urges education reform and innovation in classrooms and provides
$4.35 billion in grants to initiate that reform. R3T is looking for states that will follow three
important steps. The first step is to use globally accepted standards and tests that prepare
students for success and will help America compete in the global economy. This includes
building the systems to measure student achievement. The second step addresses strengthening
the teachers and principals in American schools by attracting and retaining those teachers, as
well as improving their methods. The last step is a commitment to bringing low performing
schools up to speed. Many R3T states are specifically addressing the math curriculum to help
the U.S. strengthen its ability to fill technology jobs (Duncan, 2009). In his 2011 State of the
Union address, President Obama stated, "If you show us the most innovative plans to improve
teacher quality and student achievement, we'll show you the money" (Obama, 2011, p 5).
It appears that programs like America COMPETES have made some improvements in
technology education, but it is too soon to tell if we have made enough progress. What we do
know is that the numbers of people entering technology jobs is still too low. In 2000, nearly 80
percent of the 114,000 science and engineering Ph.D.s awarded globally were from colleges
outside the United States, and this statistic has not improved since. This highlights the issue –
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people cannot enter technology fields because we are still not educating them to do so. We seem
to be talking a lot about the problem and creating programs to address the issues, but we are not
making progress toward a solution (Hutchison, 2010).
I agree that math education in the U.S. needs work. We need teachers that are more
comfortable with math as a subject. This is only going to happen if we fix math education. This
will produce more students who are confident in their math skills and some of them will become
teachers who will be better at teaching math and science. This cycle will continue to strengthen
the ability of the U.S. to compete in the technology driven global marketplace. I believe that we
need to stop ability grouping students. My personal experience with grouping started in first
grade with resource classes for reading and math. While this did help strengthen my abilities
initially, it eventually didn’t allow me to reach my potential. I was “tracked” as a low achiever,
and I soon believed that stereotype. I made little academic progress in second grade because my
teacher’s attitude was “poor Susie”. Her low expectations of me gave me no reason to work
hard. This didn’t start to turn around until 5th grade, when my school went to a more inclusionbased program. My parents also advocated for me in middle school and had me moved back into
the regular education curriculum a course at a time. There were certainly ups and downs, but I
feel that mixed ability groups in regular education were very beneficial to my learning
environment. With success in math classes achieved by inclusion and more hands-on learning
with skilled teachers, I was able to overcome my math phobia and be successful.
In conclusion, based on a comparison of the U.S. to other countries in terms of math
achievement, the U.S has a lot of work to do to improve that position. Most of the high ranking
countries have done away with ability grouping, and the U.S. needs to move away from that
approach to see improvement in both math anxiety and achievement. We need more hands-on
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teaching of math and science and other strategies to improve the learning environment for all
students. As our leaders have noted, we cannot compete in the global economy successfully if
we do not increase math literacy, and they are prepared to provide funding to get there.
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References
Boaler, J. (2008). What’s math got to do with it? How parents and teachers can help children
learn to love their least favorite subject. New York, NY: Viking Penguin.
Duncan, A. (2009, July 24). President Obama, U.S. Secretary of Education Duncan Announce
National Competition to Advance School Reform. Retrieved from
http://www2.ed.gov/news/pressreleases/2009/07/07242009.html
Hutchison, K. (2010, July). Building Upon the America COMPETES Act. Retrieved from
http://aps.org/publications/capitolhillquarterly/201007/backpage.cfm
Miller, G. (2008, July 22). Stronger math and science education key to boosting U.S.
competitiveness, witnesses tell House Education Committee
Congress should build on its commitment to improving math and science by fully
funding America COMPETES Act. Retrieved from
http://www.house.gov/apps/list/speech/edlabor_dem/RelJuly22MathScience.html
Obama, B. (2011, January 25). Obama State of Union speech 2011: Full text & video. Retrieved
from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/01/25/obama-state-of-the-union_1_n_813478.html
Sullivan, E. (1998). Fear of math: who feels it and why?. UAB Magazine, 18 (2). Retrieved
from http://main.uab.edu/show.asp?durki=45963
University of Chicago. (2010, January 25). Female teachers can transfer fear of math and
undermine girls' math performance. Retrieved from
http://news.uchicago.edu/article/2010/01/25/female-teachers-can-transfer-fear-math-andundermine-girls-math-performance
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Weiss, I., Banilower, E., McMahon, K., Smith, P. (2001, December). 2000 National Survey of
Science and Mathematics Education. Retrieved from http://2000survey.horizonresearch.com/reports/status.php
Woodard, T. (2004). The effects of math anxiety on post-secondary developmental students as
related to achievement, gender, and age. Inquiry, 9 (1). Retrieved from
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