The influence of culture on romantic relationships
Within a culture there may be many different sources of influence that can affect romantic relationships. In your exam pick 2 or 3 of the following to cover in detail. Also try and include the paragraph that says culture has no influence (Buss) as another AO2 point.
Religion AO1
The religion of a culture can have a huge influence on the romantic relationships people get involved in. Certain religions can impose strict rules upon
their follows about the nature of romantic relationships. For example Muslim men and women do not enter into one-on-one intimate relationships,
spending time alone together, "getting to know each other" in a very deep way before deciding whether that's the person they will marry like they do
in the West. Rather, in Islam pre-marital relationships of any kind between members of the opposite sex is forbidden.
Religion AO2
Supporting AO2
P: There has been empirical evidence to support the notion that the religion of a culture can influence relationships
E: Batson (1993) found a negative correlation between religiosity and pre-marital sexual relationships
E: This shows that the more religious a person is, the less likely they are to engage in sex before marriage. As western cultures are generally less
religious than non-western this could explain why sex before marriage is more common is western cultures
L: This supports the idea that the religion of a culture can influence romantic relationships.
Contradictory MAID
P: However much research that supports the notion that the religion of a culture can influence relationships is based on correlational evidence
E: Batson (1993) looked at the relationship between religiosity and pre-marital sexual relationships and found a negative correlation
E: However a correlation can only predict a relationship between two variables and cannot establish a cause an effect. It could be that other factors
had caused both high religiosity and low pre-marital sexual relationships such as a person’s personality, and is therefore a circular argument.
L: Because of this, the validity of the supporting research is reduced, as you can’t be certain that it is the cultural influence that has affected romantic
relationships. This therefore reduces the credibility of the notion that culture can influence romantic relationships as the supporting evidence lacks
validity.
Norms and rules AO1
Norms are general descriptions of what is considered appropriate behaviour within a particular relationship. These act as guidelines for behaviour,
and influence how we act out any given relationship. One such norm, that plays a key part in personal relationships, is the norm of reciprocity i.e. for a
benefit received, an equivalent benefit should be returned. Ting-Toomey (1986) found that in individualist cultures reciprocity tends to be voluntary,
but in collectivist cultures it is more obligatory. In such cultures, failure to return a favour is seen as a failure of ones’ moral duty. In Japanese culture,
for example, there are specific rules about gift-giving and reciprocating, whereas no such formal norms exist in Western cultures.
Norms and Values: Rules AO2/MAID
Support AO2
P: There is empirical evidence to support the idea that a cultures norms and values can influence relationships.
E: Argyle et al. (1986) examined the presence and nature of relationship rules in the UK, Italy, Hong Kong and Japan. They found that rules relevant to
relationships were different across the four cultures (e.g. the rules for close friendships)
E: This supports the idea that different cultures promote different relationship rules as each of the countries treated friendships differently.
L: Therefore the notion that the cultural influence of norms and rules can influence relationships has increased credibility, as there is research to
support it.
Contradictory AO2
P: However it is worth noting that although differences were found between cultures, similarities were also found.
E: Argyle et al. (1986) found that all cultures acknowledged the importance of relationship rules such as showing courtesy and respect and avoiding
social intimacy.
E: This shows that although the specific rules may differ between cultures, all cultures use rules within relationships.
L: This somewhat weakens the support for the idea that norms and rules influence relationships, as there seems to be a universal use of rules within
relationships.
Contradictory MAID
P: Argyle et al’s study can be said to lack temporal validity.
E: The research was carried out almost thirty years ago, meaning that the results cannot be generalised to todays society
E: The results can’t be generalised to today’s society as a lot has changed over the last thirty years in terms of relationships. There are many more
intercultural relationships due to people meeting on the internet. The internet has also meant that people in non-western cultures have easier access
to western media such as magazine articles and films. This has meant that cultural influences that may have been strong 30 years ago, may have been
diluted by this access to a westernized view of relationships.
L: This means that the results of the study lack validity which reduces its support for the idea that a cultures norms and rules influence relationships
Norms and Values: Voluntary and non-voluntary relationships (arranged marriages) AO1
Another difference between cultures is whether a relationship is voluntary or non voluntary. This again could be explained by looking at the social
norms for a particular culture. A feature of many Western cultures is that we live in predominantly urban settings, with relatively easy geographical
and social mobility. This means that, on a daily basis, we voluntarily interact with a large number of people, many of whom are first acquaintances
(new people). Western cultures, therefore, seem to be characterized by a high degree of choice in personal relationships and a greater ‘pool’ of
potential relationships.
Non-western cultures have fewer large urban centres, and less geographical and social mobility, and people therefore have less choice about whom
they interact with on a daily basis. Interactions with strangers are rare. Many of their relationships are tied to other factors, such as family or
economic resources (arranged marriages etc)
Norms and Values: Voluntary and non-voluntary relationships (arranged marriages) AO2
Supporting AO2
P: There is empirical evidence to support the idea that culture can effect whether or not a relationship is voluntary
E: It has been found that 90% of marriages in India are arranged, compared with 50% of the marriages on average across the world
E: This supports the idea that culture affects voluntary relationships. If there weren’t a cultural influence, then you would expect the percentages of
arranged marriages to be the same across the world.
L: Therefore the notion that culture can affect relationships, and in particular whether or not a relationship is voluntary, is strengthened, as there is
empirical evidence to support it.
Exam Questions: a) Discuss the importance of culture on romantic relationships (8 + 16)
Continuity and discontinuity (life long relationships and divorce) AO1
Another difference between cultures is the continuity of relationships- whether people stay in one relationship for life, or if they get divorced. This again
could be explained by looking at the social norms for a particular culture. Using a comparison of Chinese and North American societies, Hsu (1953) described
the Chinese regard for heritage and ancestry, and the suspicion with which change is generally viewed. American culture emphasises progress, with change
seen as inevitable and important. Things that are ‘old-fashioned’ are view with distain. This cultural difference is consistent with the types of relationships
found in Western and non-Western cultures. Non-Western cultures that emphasise continuity are likely to be dominated by permanent relationships.
Western cultures emphasise change and discontinuity, and therefore tend to favour more temporary relationships- divorce is more common.
Supporting AO2
P: There is empirical evidence to support the idea that culture can effect the continuity of relationships
E: It has been found that the countries with the highest divorce rates are western countries such as USA and UK, whereas the lowest divorce rates come from
non-western cultures that have a strong religious population such as Saudi Arabia.
E: This supports the idea that culture effects continuity of relationships. If there wasn’t a cultural influence then you would expect the divorce rate to be the
same across all cultures.
L: Therefore the notion that culture can affect relationships, and in particular the continuity of relationships is strengthened as there is empirical evidence to
support it.
Other MAID points you could make: Information may not be accurate as divorce is seen as taboo in some cultures meaning results are low in internal validity.
Correlational- just because divorce rates are high in western cultures, doesn’t mean that the culture caused the divorce rates, can’t establish a cause and
effect etc.
Culture has no influence AO2
P: However it could be argued that culture had little if not no effect on romantic relationships
E: Buss (1989) explored what males and females look for in a marriage partner. The study involved over 10,000 people from 37 different cultures and found
similarities across all of the cultures. The finding show that women desired ‘good financial prospects’ more than men did, and men placed more importance
on physical attractiveness than women, in all cultures.
E: This shows that across all cultures men and women look for the same things in a prospective partner, suggesting that mate choice is innate
L: This weakens the notion that culture has an influence on romantic relationships, as mate choice is the same across the world, regardless of culture.
See also Argyle who found similarities across cultures
Issue: Socially Sensitive
P: Some of the research into the influence of culture on the permanence of romantic relationships could be considered to be socially sensitive.
E: Hsu (1953) stated that non-western cultures such as china value continuity and heritage and are therefore more likely to have permanent romantic
relations while western cultures value change and newness which may result in them having impermanent romantic relations.
E: Such research increases the perceived differences between western and eastern cultures, which could lead to individuals in each having negative views
about the members of the opposite culture. For instance, this research suggests that individuals in the west are less proud of their heritage and are obsessed
with novelty seeking causing them to divorce often. This could cause individuals in eastern cultures to believe that western people are fickle and are poor
willed. Thus resulting in poor relations between the east and west
L: Therefore for such research to go ahead a cost-benefit analysis will have been carried out to conclude on whether the benefit of the research into our
understanding of cultural influence on relationships outweighed the cost of such research to intercultural relations and stereotypes.
Debate: Reductionism vs. holism
Reductionism vs. Holism – One positive of the suggestion that relationships are influenced by culture is that it is holistic. This is because it incorporates many
aspects into its explanation of relationships. It includes cultural influences such as social norms, voluntary and involuntary relationships, and individual and
group relationships etc. rather than just focusing on one aspect. However this can make researching cultural influences as a whole very difficult, as it is made
up of so many different aspects. It could also been seen as being quite reductionist as it reduces the cause of relationships differences down to culture, and
ignores evolutionary factors such as wanting to be in a relationships to gain resources to ensure the survival of your offspring. Overall, cultural influences
provide a more complete view than many other explanation of relationships, but could still incorporate other factors to be more holistic. It does
nevertheless, have good explanatory power.
Debate: Nature vs. Nurture
Another issue with the notion that culture influences relationships is that it takes the view that relationships are due to nurture, for example what religion
you are part of or whether you are from and individualist culture can influence what kind of relationship you become part of. It doesn’t take into account any
factors that can be classed a nature i.e. the innate drive to reproduce and form relationships in order to gain resources to support your offspring. Argyle
(1986) found similarities across all cultures which suggests that certain factors that contribute towards romantic relationships are innate and due to nature.
Because it is very hard to separate out innate factors it is therefore difficult to distinguish between the roles of nature vs. nurture. Therefore the notion that
culture influences relationships is less credible as it doesn’t take into consideration any factors that may come from nature.
Debate: Determinism vs. free will
Another weakness of the notion that culture influences relationships is that it could be argued to be deterministic. This is because it suggests that the culture
you are a part of will determine what kind of romantic relationship you become involved with. Simply because someone is brought up in a collectivist
culture, or is part of a religion doesn’t mean that they are predetermined to only have sex after marriage, or become divorced. It doesn’t account for free will,
in that a person from a strict religious may choose to marry the person they love rather than have an arranged marriage, or that a person from a western
culture may choose to wait until they are married to have sex. It could be that the person has a choice over romantic relationships and the idea that culture
affects this does not allow for free will. This weakens the notion that culture influences relationships, as it doesn’t give a full account of romantic
relationships.
Approach: Evolutionary Explanation
P: It has been suggested that there may be an evolutionary basis for love and that it why it is found in both western and eastern cultures. Pinker (2008)
suggests romantic love increased survival and reproduction rates as it ensures committing to long term partnership.
E: Jankowiak and Fischer (1992) studied 166 cultures and found evidence for romantic love in all but one of them.
E: This would indicate that the nature of relationships across cultures may differ but the outcomes of the partnerships will have universal characteristics. L:
These studies show that, because love is consistent between cultures, there is could be an evolutionary basis for relationships and that cultures do not play a
part in influencing relationships.
b) Discuss research into romantic relationships between different cultures.