AS EXAMINATION REVISION
MEST 1: SECTION A
TEXTS, CONCEPTS AND CONTEXTS
M – Media Language
I – Institutions
G – Genre
R – Representation
A – Audience
I – Ideologies and Values
N – Narrative
E – Economical, political, social,
historical
The Examination
Section A = 48 marks out of 80
Four compulsory questions (worth 12 marks each)
1. Forms (Language, codes and conventions)
2. Audience
3. Institution
4. Representations
You should spend 1 hour and 15 minutes on section A out of the 2 hours available. You should spend 15
minutes on reading time during which you observe, read or listen and make notes, and 1 hour answering
the questions, 15 minutes on each one.
Approaching the Unseen Text
You will be assessed on your ability to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of media concepts
and contexts. This means that you will be marked on how well you can analyse any media text, from
any media platform.
The unseen text:
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Moving image text (between 30 seconds and 3 minutes in length)
Audio based text
[These will be played three times and pauses for making notes in between]
Print text
E-media text
The Questions
Each question encourages you to show your understanding of a media concept by applying it to a
text.
To gain the higher marks you must:
1. Show you thoroughly understand each concept and can discuss it in relation to the unseen text
2. Give detail from the text to show evidence of your understanding
3. Use media terminology (key words relating to the key concepts and the technical terms that
relate to media language) when expressing your ideas and giving examples from the text.
4. Explore further than the actual text by moving beyond it to discuss further media ideas and
issues (theories of semiotics, narrative, genre, representation and audience. Information about
the media industry).
What questions will I be asked?
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Media Forms – Discuss the codes and conventions in the construction of the text
Media Representations – Consider the representations of peole and places in the text
Media Institutions – What does the text tell us about the media institutions involved?
Media Audiences – Explore some of the ways in which the text communicates with its target
audiences
Media Forms
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Give detailed examples of the codes and conventions used in relation to the target audience.
Describe angles, shots, framing, colours, sound, anchorage, typography and the desired or
intended effect on the audience.
Theory to support your points:
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Barthes came up with the theory of sign, signifiers and icons
‘If the text is analysed according to Barthes theory of signs, the audience could read the red
cloak as a symbol of anger and conflict.’
Hall came up with denotation, connotation, encoding and readings.
‘Using Hall’s theory of readings, it seems that the preferred reading of the text is….. However,
it could also be argued that an oppositional reading would see the More Four sequence as
highly sexist.’
Todorov came up with the theory of narrative structure of equilibrium, disequilibrium and new
equilibrium.
‘The narrative structure of the sequence shows the pattern of Todorov’s disequilibrium and
new equilibrium.’
Levi-Strauss came up with binary opposition in characters and narrative (e.g. good vs. evil, rich
vs. poor)
‘Katie Price is clearly positioned as Andre’s opposite, in terms of Levi Strauss’ theory of
character types’.
Propp came up with a more detailed theory of character types.
‘The female stuck in her car is presented like one of Propp’s character types, the princess or
damsel needing rescue’
Barthes also came up with the theory of narrative codes including the enigma code.
‘The trailer strongly suggests a Barthes narrative enigma leaving the audience wanting to solve
the mystery of the murders’.
Key terms to include:
• Codes and conventions
• Genre codes – narrative, iconography/icons, characters, settings
• Technical codes - shots & views, angles, editing, fades, focus, mise-en scene, lighting, diegetic &
non-diegetic sound
• Symbolic codes - body language, voice, tone, weather, colours, clothing, montage, mise-en-scene
• Written codes - typography, anchorage, transitions
• Photography – direct mode of address, contrast, composition, negative space, focus
• Signs, signifiers and Barthes
• Denotation (to denote) connotation (to connote) Barthes
• Readings – preferred, oppositional and polysemic Hall
• Mediation
• Narrative – structure & codes Todorov, Barthes
• Syntagm and Paradigm
• Juxtaposition
Types of Questions
How does the trailer use media language to catch the attention of the E4 viewing public?
How does the text use the conventions of an advertisement?
How does the sequence catch and hold the attention of the viewer?
How is the sequence constructed to engage the audience?
Media Institutions
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Make sure you have good understanding of the main institutions and their off-shoots in British
media – BBC and BBC3 & 4, ITV and ITV 2, 3, 4, Channel 4 and E4, More 4 etc.
Have a general understanding of which film companies are Independents (Film4, Lionsgate,
Summit Entertainment) and which are Majors or part of Conglomerates (MGM, Paramount,
20th Century Fox, Warner Bros, RKO).
For advertising – viral and mainstream consider the global reach of the company and whether
they are one of the major brands/companies)
Link your answers on Institution to how the Institution reaches the target audience.
Theory to support your points:
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Katz and Blumler came up with audience Uses and Gratifications theory claiming that
audiences use media for a variety of purposes including Diversion (escapism), personal
identity (value judgments and self-understanding), surveillance (information), personal
relationships (conversation and companionship)
‘Using the uses and Gratifications theory, it could be argued that the audience use the brand
for personal identity purposes, reassuring themselves that they are wearing a quality and up
market piece of clothing’
Key Terms to include:
• Commercial, Public Service Broadcasting
• Independent, conglomerate
• Regulation and regulatory bodies (Ofcom, BBFC, ASA, PCC)
• Ownership and control
• Mission statement or key objectives
• Audience – mass, target, primary, secondary, niche
• Audience classification
• Market segmentation
• Sponsorship, synergy
• Convergence
• Brand identity/image – positive, negative
• Dominant ideology
• Mass and elite, media producers
• ‘We’ media, Democratization, UGC
Types of questions:
How effectively does Channel 4 promote itself as Public Service Broadcaster?
What values and characteristics of BBC are evident in the sequence?
How does the programme try to create a positive brand image for Levi Jeans?
How is the brand image of Nike promoted in the Viral Advert?
Audience
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Consider the intended or preferred reading of the text by the target audience.
Remember our understanding of audience classification now tells us that psychographics
(lifestyle, aspirations, and values) are much more important than traditional classifications
(age, gender, geographical location).
Theory to support your points:
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Katz and Blumler came up with audience Uses and Gratifications theory claiming that
audiences use media a variety of purposes including Diversion (escapism), personal identity
(value judgements and self-understanding), surveillance (information), personal relationships
(conversation and companionship).
‘Using the Uses and Gratifications theory, the audience are likely to use the channel, aimed at
a younger audience, for diversion, as most programmes are entertainment focused.
Two-Step theory (no one is directly credited with this) is when opinion leaders spread the word
about ‘cool’ ‘worthwhile’ media texts and people share information and the texts through web,
social networking, print media etc.
‘The trailer will encourage the two-step sharing of opinion, as people upload and spread it
through web and social networking because of the ‘shock’ factor associated with it.’
Hypodermic needle outdated view that media injects messages into the brain of the viewer.
Widely disputed especially in discussions revolving around TV violence.
‘If we believed the hypodermic needle theory, the teenage audience will all be behaving like
the characters of Skins after watching each episode.’
Moral Panic the term was coined by Stanley Cohen to describe an escalating sense of anxiety
over an issue reported on through the mass media. Modern examples include the dangers of
social networking, virus’ etc.
‘The representation of the young protagonist in the text feeds into the existing moral panic
about the behaviour of teenagers’.
Reception Theory that audiences are active and individualise their understanding of media
texts. Meaning does not exist until created by the audience and their reading could be
preferred, oppositional or negotiated.
‘The text producers include typical icons of celebrity to create a preferred reading of aspiration
when audiences relate to the main character.’
Marxist theory is the view that the institutions, like society and the media are owned and
controlled by the bourgeoisie ruling classes, the minority elite. The masses are dominated buy
this group who force ideals and ideology upon us. Marxist theory refers to power of any kind
not just political.
‘A Marxist reading of Eastenders could suggest that the audience are being told what is family
life is like for the working classes in London – little aspiration, drugs, drink, murder and
prostitution.’
Hegemonic theory is developed from Marxist theory. It is the view that the masses agree and
accept the ideology of the controlling power group. We believe it is common sense and ‘go
along with it’ to keep society working properly even though we recognize there are inequalities
and injustices.
‘However, a hegemonic view of the text would state that we accept and participate in this
reading, by keeping viewing figures high, believing in this dominant ideology of the working
classes’
Mulvey came up with the theory of the Male gaze and feminist/post-feminist theory. She said
that media (film) is created with a white, heterosexual male viewer in mind and so women are
always present to be ‘gazed’ at by men.
‘Even programmes like the How to Look Good naked could be argued as having the male gaze
at the forefront of their construction. The women still must look ‘beautiful’ to look good,
according to the stereotypical rules of what is beauty’
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Audience as Product suggests that audiences are ‘sold’ to advertisers and that they are the
most powerful group in the media production.
Key Terms
• Classification and demographics – primary, secondary, niche
• Target audience
• Psychographics
• Uses and gratification Katz and Blumler
• Two step theory
• Readings – preferred (dominant) oppositional, negotiated
• Positioning of audience
• Interaction and participation
• Consumption
• UGC, audience as text producer, ‘We’ media
• Codes, icons and signs used to fix meaning
Types of Questions
What features of the advert encourage the audience to pass on the marketing message to others?
How does the sequence attempt to position the audience to take a sympathetic view of ______ ?
How does the trailer persuade audiences that __________ ?
Representation
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Step back from the person or place you are deconstructing and don’t just think about how they
represent themselves but how they have been ‘put together’ (camera angles, shots, music,
clothes, body language etc.) and represented by the text itself.
Consider the intended or preferred reading of the person or place by the target audience.
Theory to support your points:
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Representations have four main parts to them – the thing itself, the opinions of the people
doing the representing, the reaction of the viewer to the representation and the context of the
society where the representation is taking place. To consider representation you need to ask:
Who produced the text?
Which person or group is being represented?
How are they portrayed?
Why was this specific representation selected?
How are the audience being asked to identify or distance themselves from the representation?
(due to age, gender, social status, nationality, lifestyle?)
What has been left out of the representation?
Stereotypes in the media are constructed through dress and appearance, behaviour, codes
and conventions of construction and opposition.
Medhurst argued that stereotypes more common as a shorthand for quick identification in TV,
Advertising. Soap Operas for example may begin with stereotypical characters but may
develop these over time.
‘The characters in the advert highlight Medhurst’s theory of stereotypes allowing quick
identification. We can quickly see the roles of mum, dad and teenage son established in the
opening shot’.
Perkins argued that stereotypes are not always false but contain elements of truth. The
application of a general rule (the stereotype) occurs because of limited representations of
diverse groups. They can sometimes be positive but this is usually because it is beneficial for
the dominant power group.
‘The representation of Andre in this sequence demonstrates Perkin’s theory that not all
stereotypes are false, and our belief of celebrities: that they do have fantastic lifestyles and
only a few can achieve that status.’
Baudrillard believed that in the media saturated world a state of hyperreality exists, where our
reality is based upon the reality presented to us through the media.
‘Baudrillard’s hyperreality theory would suggest that the view of teenager as lout, yob and
criminal has become so normal and ‘real’ for us that it is hard to know what a teenager ‘is’ or
what a teenager wants from life’.
Propp’s Character types
Levi-Strauss binary opposition
Remember stereotypes and representations change over time. They are not static.
Key Terms
• Codes and conventions
• Stereotypes and Countertypes
• Values and Ideology (dominant ideology)
• Construction and Readings of…
• Hyperreality
• Binary Opposition
• Propp’s character types
Types of Questions
How is the video represented as ____?
How is celebrity represented in the sequence?
How is gender represented in the trailer?
How is technology represented in the advert?