Jan. 2011
6 – How far did ideas about the cause of disease change from the
Roman period to the end of the Middle Ages?
From the Roman period to the end of the Middle Ages the ideas about the cause of
disease changed very little as in both periods they continued to use the Theory of
the 4 Humours and Galen’s Theory of Opposites, the idea that diseases had
supernatural causes and that miasma was also a cause.
In the Roman period Galen was very influential as he was the doctor to the Emperor
Marcus Aurelius and he had a great reputation. He strongly believed that diseases
had natural causes and he used Hippocrates’ Theory of the 4 Humours to diagnose
and treat his patients. This theory said that the human body was made up of 4
humours or liquids and when a person is well, these liquids are balanced, but when
a person has a disease; one of these liquids is not balanced. Doctors observed one
or more of these liquids to be in excess as it was visibly coming out of the body eg
when you have a cold, water comes out through the nose and eyes. Therefore,
cures were based on natural treatments to re-balance the liquids, such as bleeding
out a vein when there is too much blood. Galen used this theory, especially the
bleeding and purging elements to re-balance the humours. He also adapted this
theory to include his own ideas, the Theory of Opposites, where he would prescribe
a treatment which was the opposite of what was wrong with the patient eg if a
patient had a cold and was shivering, Galen would advise hot foods such as
peppers. In the Middle Ages, Galen’s work was used in the training of doctors and
so his ideas about the cause and treatments of diseases continued to be used,
especially as his work was approved by the Church whose influence over medicine
and medical training was extremely important. This shows that there wasn’t much
change in the ideas about the cause of disease from the Roman period to the end of
the Middle Ages.
Continuity between these periods is also shown in the belief that the supernatural
was both a cause and a cure for illnesses. In Roman times, people were very
superstitious and they would offer prayers and sacrifices to the Gods to keep them
safe from dangers and illnesses. Many would go to the Asclepion, the temple
complex dedicated to Asclepios, the God of Healing. Here people could pray, relax,
exercise and eat well before falling asleep and then being visited by the God who
would cure their illness during the night. For many, this ‘health spa’ offered time
away from pressures at home and work and they felt revived, so much so that they
truly believed they had been cured by a God. Many others continued to wear lucky
charms to keep them free from illnesses believing that the Gods had made them ill.
Some of these ideas were continued into the Middle Ages as many people believed
that God (the Christian God) also had the power to make them ill or to cure them.
They, too, would offer prayers and give money to the Church in order to be safe.
Many believed that touching a holy relic, such as a part of the holy cross, or a
pilgrimage to a holy shrine, would cure them of any illnesses. Most people relied on
a priest or friar rather than doctors when they were ill. They believed that God would
make them ill if they had sinned. Indeed, during the Black Death, a group of people
went around the country whipping themselves. They were called the ‘flagellants’
and they believed that if God could see that they were punishing themselves for
their sins, then God would stop punishing them and take away the disease. This
shows continuity between Roman times and the end of the Middle Ages.
In Roman times people believed that ‘bad air’ caused diseases and ensured that
camps, towns and cities were not sited near to stagnant, dirty water as this would
mean people could get ill. They also built aqueducts to bring fresh water into towns
so that people didn’t get ill drinking dirty water. In the Middle Ages people believed
that miasma cause diseases. Miasma was the bad smells caused by rotting rubbish
in the streets of the towns and villages. In order to avoid these smells, people would
carry posies of small, sweet-smelling flowers in the hope that they could breathe in
the good smells from the flowers and avoid the bad smells which could cause them
to get sick. Some people had birds flying around in their houses to try to keep the air
moving to prevent the smells and they even believed that lighting fires would destroy
the bad smells. Although in both the Roman period and the Middle Ages, people
believed in the idea that miasma was a cause of disease, people in the Middle Ages
placed lesser emphasis on public health and so disease such as the plague
emerged and spread very quickly due to the unhygienic conditions. The idea of
miasma was both a continuity and a change between the two time periods.
However, there were also some changes in the ideas about the cause of diseases
between these the Roman period and the Middle Ages and these include the belief
in astrology, a better understanding of diseases and an increase in the reliance of
God.
In the Middle Ages people relied on astrology as a cause of disease and so believed
that the position of the planets determined whether or not you became ill. This
meant that people could not be treated as nothing could be done until the planets
altered course. No treatments would be offered and it was hoped the patient would
get better after the planets had moved. This was different to Roman times. People
in the Middle Ages also had a better understanding that some serious illnesses were
spread through contact. They could not explain this but ensured that people
suffering from some diseases such as the Black Death and leprosy were isolated
from others in the community to prevent the spread of the disease. Indeed, leper
hospitals were set up for just this purpose and people with the plague were told to
stay in their houses. The main change between the Roman times and the Middle
Ages is in their belief about the causes was that there was a greater reliance on God
in the Middle Ages. God could make you ill and cure all illnesses but the patient had
to be worthy, and repent their sins. This could be done through prayer, pilgrimages
and donations to the Church. This greater reliance on God meant that less people
would be developing new treatments and remedies for any illnesses as these
wouldn’t work unless God wanted them to. This shows that there was some change
between the Roman times and the end of the Middle Ages.
Overall, there was much more continuity in ideas about the cause of disease
between Roman times and the end of the Middle Ages than there were changes.