Hwa Chong Institution
Integrated Humanities 2014 – Sec 2 Geography
Topic: Population Studies
Handout 3: Population Studies
Name: …………………………………………(
)
Date: ………………
Class: ……………
Sections
1. Prelude
2. Key terms in population studies and their definitions
a. Birth rate
b. Death rate
c. Rate of natural increase
d. Infant mortality rate
e. Life expectancy
f. Age dependency ratio
3. Factors affecting population distribution
a. Population density
b. Physical environment
c. Level of technology
4. High rate of population growth
a. Population pyramid of a fast-growing population: Triangle
b. Reasons for high birth rate
c. Reasons for low death rate
d. Consequences of a fast-growing population
e. Actions to mitigate the detriments of a fast-growing population
5. Low rate of population growth
a. Population pyramid of a slow-growing population: Beehive or inverted
triangle
b. Reasons for low birth rate
c. Reasons for low death rate
d. Consequences of a slow-growing population
e. Actions to mitigate the detriments of a slow-growing population
Prelude
This chapter on Population Studies is very different from those on Land and Water
Resources that you’ve just covered. Thus, pay special attention to the way that I’ve
structured this topic.
Point 2 of the above table of contents contains a list of terms you need to know for
Population Studies – these are important to help you accurately answer questions on
DRQ such as “Describe the trend of Japan’s life expectancy over the past two decades”. A
follow-on question that is very likely to come up will be “suggest reasons why this is so”.
To answer the follow-on question, you will need to use textbook knowledge on why
Japan’s life expectancy might be rising over the past decades. That’s the extent to which
you’ll be tested on these key terms.
Point 3 is a self-contained sub-chapter: all you need to do here is describe population
distribution in terms of population density and suggest reasons why some places have
denser populations than others. The two reasons are physical environment and level of
technology.
Points 4 and 5 are the meat of this topic – you’ll realize that we’re only learning about
two types of population growth: fast-growing and slow-growing. You need to know
three things about them: reasons for this rate of growth, consequences that might arise
from them, and the measures that can be taken to address the negative consequences.
Evaluation will come in for the “solutions” bit of this topic. Just to remind you,
evaluation is simply asking the question “What are the benefits and disadvantages of the
solution?” You will need to demonstrate a sound awareness of the possible evaluations
to every “solution” you read about.
Read this set of handouts together with your textbook for a complete understanding of
the topics.
Key terms in population studies and their definitions
For more, refer to page 12 of your textbook.
1. Birth rate
a. The birth rate refers to the number of live births per 1000 people per year.
b. Birth rates are lower in developed countries like Germany (8), Japan (8),
Singapore (10), and higher in developing countries like Nigeria (42), and
Sierra Leone (37).
2. Death rate
a. The death rate refers to the number of deaths per 1000 people per year.
b. Death rates are lower in developed countries like Germany (11), Japan (10),
and Singapore (5), and higher in developing countries like Nigeria (13), and
Sierra Leone (17)
3. Rate of natural increase
a. The rate of natural increase is simply the difference between birth and death
rates of a country: it tells you how fast a population is growing, without
taking migration into account.
b. 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝐵𝑖𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 – 𝐷𝑒𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
4. Infant mortality rate
a. The infant mortality rate is the number of infants dying before reaching one
year of age, per 1,000 live births in a given year. It can give you a hint as to
the state of the country’s healthcare facilities and sanitation – higher rates
suggest that the country may fare poorer on both counts. Why?
b. Infant mortality rates are lower in developed countries like Luxembourg (2)
and Singapore (2), and higher in developing countries like Angola (100).
5. Life expectancy
a. The life expectancy indicates the number of years a newborn infant would
live if prevailing patterns of mortality persist.
b. Life expectancies tend to be higher in developed countries such as Hong Kong
(83; very long considering how stressful life in that city must be!), and South
Korea (81), while they tend to be lower in developing countries such as Sierra
Leone (45), and Angola (51).
6. Age dependency ratio
a. The age dependency ratio is the ratio of dependents--people younger than 15
or older than 64--to the working-age population--those ages 15-64. While it is
a ratio, it is most commonly expressed in percentage terms.
b. Singapore’s dependency ratio is 33% - for every 100 working adults, there
are 33 dependents in the population. What does a high number signify? Is it
economically better if the percentage were high or low?
Exam note: As mentioned, you are likely to be tested on these concepts only in the DRQ.
Hence, memorize their definitions and be ready to “give reasons why” a certain country has a
high or low indicator. The “reasons” will be explained later in the handout.
Factors affecting population distribution
Population distribution is the spread of people over an area of land. Most of the
world’s population lives on only 10% of the Earth’s land surface. Even within this 10%
of land, people are not evenly spread out. Some places have more people living within
an area than others.
How does one measure population distribution? The indicator we use is Population
Density:
𝑃𝑜𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑘𝑚2 )
The population densities of different countries can vary greatly – what follows is a table
that gives you an idea of what constitutes dense and sparsely populated countries
Country
Monaco
Singapore
China
Russia
Canada
Population
(millions)
0.033
4.8
1 350
140
34
Area (km2)
1.95
683
9 500 000
17 000 000
9 900 000
Population Density
(est.)
16 900
7 000
141
8
3
We say that countries like Monaco and Singapore are densely populated, while
countries like Russia and Canada are sparsely populated.
What makes some areas more densely populated than others? The two main
reasons (that you need to know for Geography) affecting population distribution boil
down to the physical environment and the application of technology.
1. Physical environment
a. The different elements of the physical environment can make some land
areas more livable than others, resulting in an influx of people into the area.
b. [Climate] Sunny, warm climates in places like California, Florida and
Singapore make for a pleasant living environment all year round; hence,
places with these characteristics tend to have a denser population. Areas with
forbidding climates such as Russian tundras have sparser populations
because of the extreme cold – temperatures in Siberia can fall to -40 degrees
C!
c. [Soil] Places with fertile soil such as Thailand, Vietnam and Malaysia make it
possible for agriculture to be On the other hand, arid land such as desert
areas in the Middle East and the cold tundras of Russia make it difficult for
people to cultivate agriculture in the area, or even gain access to water for
daily needs – hence, population tends to be sparser in places of such poor
soil.
d. [Relief] Relief refers to the differences in heights over an area of land. Areas
with uneven relief (mountainous regions) such as the Swiss Alps and Eastern
Malaysia tend to have sparser populations due to the inconveniences of the
region; it is difficult to build and maintain infrastructure such as roads and
canals in these places. Conversely, areas with low-lying and even relief such
as Singapore and other metropolitan cities have denser populations.
2. Level and application of technology
a. Technology here refers to water irrigation technologies – many currently
densely populated places were previously dry, arid lands with little water;
Las Vegas and Dubai being prime examples. Irrigation arising from the
completion of the Hoover Dam in 1936 along the Colorado River was key to
meeting Las Vegas’ water needs, contributing to its development as the
world’s premier casino industry.
Exam note: This topic is likely to appear in your Structured Questions (2 – 6 marks). Be sure
to cover as many points as you can to get all your 0.5 marks!! Feel free to bring in the last
factor I didn’t mention here “monsoon & precipitation” if you need to.
High rate of population growth
Population pyramid: Pyramidal
Suppose you get a pyramid like the above; which parts of the pyramid should you look
at and describe?
1. Overall Shape – Triangular or Pyramidal
2. Broad Base – This suggests a high birth rate.
3. Narrow Top that doesn’t stretch very high (few people in the 70+ age group)–
Life expectancy may not be very high.
4. Large drop in terms of people in a particular age group compared to the next –
suggest that DR might be quite high.
5. Gender ratio – Is it skewed, or even?
Exam note: If you’re asked to “State the % of population above a certain age…”, you need to
give an exact percentage! Otherwise, description like what we did above will do.
Reasons for high birth rate
1. Lack of family planning
a. Birth rates can be high in developing countries due to a general lack of family
planning. In rural areas, people are less likely to consider the economic costs
of having children, and are thus less resistant to having more children.
b. Moreover, the lack of knowledge on birth control means that couples are
unaware of the contraceptive options, or skeptical about their potential side
effects to health. Thus, there tends to be a lower rate of contraceptive use in
developing countries, leading to higher rates of childbirth.
2. Early marriages
a. Females from developing countries tend to have earlier marriages than their
counterparts in developed countries. For example, the average marriage age
for females in India is 22, compared to that of Singapore’s at 28. These
younger marriage ages can be a result of arranged marriages, a concept still
prevalent in rural and traditional societies, or a general lack of educational
opportunities for women. Marrying earlier means more time to have children
(duh), resulting in the rise of birth rates
3. Preference for sons
a. Another reason resulting in higher birth rates in developing countries is the
preference for sons. The first reason for this preference is cultural: traditional
societies place a higher value on sons, as they are able to carry on the family
name and are assigned larger roles by tradition. In the Indian tradition, the
son carries heavier responsibilities in ceremonial rites – take for example
funerals, where only sons are permitted to light the funeral pyre. These
traditional mindsets convince people that they need to have more sons – the
birth rate increases when they “try for sons” but get daughters instead. (Don’t
write like this verbatim in the exam, but you know what I mean!)
4. Source of labour on farmland
a. The other reason for preference of sons in rural areas is that sons are a better
source of labour on farms. The average male is physiologically stronger than
the average female, and thus is better suited to the arduous work on farms.
Moreover, as females tend to move away to their husbands’ families after
marriage, sons tend to be a more permanent source of labour on farmlands.
Reasons for low death rate
1. Better sanitation and hygiene
a. Improvements in public sanitation and hygiene in developing countries have
contributed to lower death rates over the past decades. Such improvements
include access to cleaner drinking and tap water, and sanitation facilities such
as toilets with flushes. For example, only 34% of the population in China had
access to “improved sanitation facilities” (as defined by the World Bank) in
1995 – the number in 2012 stands at 65%. Better accesses to cleaner
sanitation facilities help prevent diseases such as diarrhea (number one killer
of children under five years of age in Africa) and cholera. Such prevented
deaths lower the death rates.
2. Better nutrition
a. Better nutrition has also led to improvements in death rates in developing
countries. The extent of malnutrition in the poor world has been decreasing –
according to The Economist (my favorite magazine, please give it a try next
year!), the incidence of under-nutrition amongst young children in poor and
middle-income countries dropped from 40% in 1990 to 26% in 2011. Better
nutrition comes in the form of higher-quality food (no longer just
Macdonald’s or other cheap food) that provided key nutrients for growth
such as vitamin A (protects organs) and iron (to combat anemia). This leads
to fewer deaths caused by starvation, and allows people to live to an older
age.
3. Better healthcare
a. Improved healthcare facilities have also lowered death rates in developing
countries. Specifically, the provision of immunization and vaccinations to
children in developing countries have helped to reduce the spread of deadly
diseases such as Tuberculosis and hepatitis B. As a result, fewer deaths have
resulted from these diseases, which contributes to the lower death rates.
Consequences of a fast-growing population
1. Higher demand for resources leading to shortages
a. Having too large a population may result in overwhelming competition for
resources, such as housing, food and water. Paying special attention to
housing, areas suffering from overpopulation may be spotted with slums,
which are plots of land teeming with temporary shelters made of thin iron
sheets and cardboards. Moreover, food shortages may be so severe as to
result in government rationing of food supplies. Shortages of these essential
goods for daily life lower the standard of living for the citizenry at large.
2. High unemployment leading to social unrest
a. High unemployment refers to a situation whereby the number of jobs
available in a country is insufficient for the number of people of working age
– as a result, many who are of working age are jobless. A case in point would
be Nigeria, where the population has been increasing at a clip of 2.6% per
annum over the past decade. As the economy hasn’t grown fast enough to
provide sufficient jobs, the unemployment hovered around 24% in 2011.
(Employment and other economic indicators are notoriously unreliable in
African countries, so take with a pinch of salt). Widespread unemployment
may lead to increased crime rates as people resort to robberies to sustain
their livelihood.
3. Environmental problems
a. Widespread pollution of the environment may result as a consequence of
overpopulation. For example, overpopulation in Java, Indonesia, has resulted
in improper waste disposal in the Citarum River due to the lack of waste
treatment facilities (one example can use in two different topics; nice!). Air
pollution may also result from the population’s use of cars and motor
vehicles, which emit carbon emissions into the atmosphere.
Actions to control a high rate of population growth
1. Education on family planning
a. The government may educate the masses on the methods of family planning
so as to lower the birth rate. Family planning refers to couples thinking ahead
about the economic and social costs involved in having children and making
the necessary provisions.
b. In India, a government sponsored programme known as “Reproductive and
Child Health” targets rural families and aims to teach them about how large
populations negatively affects the quality of life. It also teaches couples about
the safe use of contraceptives.
c. [Evaluation: Benefits] The benefit of such solutions is that it aims to target
people’s mindsets, which is crucial to them realizing the need for adequate
family planning in the view of increasing costs of raising children.
d. [Evaluation: Limitations] However, the limitations of the solution are that
mindsets can be very difficult to change, particularly in traditional societies
where they place a strong emphasis on having boys to continue the family
line. Moreover, peasants may disagree with the need of having fewer children
as raising a child is relatively inexpensive in rural areas, and the child is likely
to be economically beneficial as help on the farm.
2. Incentives to have fewer children
a. The government may grant incentives to couples that have fewer children.
Such incentives are mainly monetary, and they include tax subsidies or cash
rewards.
b. In China, as part of the One Child Policy, housing subsidies are given to
couples that pledge to have only one child. Moreover, cash payments are
often made to encourage women to voluntarily undergo sterilization.
c. [Evaluation: Benefits] The benefit of such solutions is that it rewards and
incentivizes couples who understand the need to lower population growth
for society’s benefit and contribute to this outcome without
d. [Evaluation: Limitations] However, the limitations of the solution are that
mindsets can be very difficult to change, particularly in traditional societies
where they place a strong emphasis on having boys to continue the family
line. Moreover, peasants may disagree with the need of having fewer children
as raising a child is relatively inexpensive in rural areas, and the child is likely
to be economically beneficial as help on the farm.
3. Penalties on couples that have more children than stipulated
a. The government can also impose penalties on couples that have more
children than permitted. Penalties can be far ranging, from lower priority in
applying for housing and education, to monetary fines for infringing these
guidelines.
b. In Singapore back in the 1970s, as part of the “Stop at Two” Policy, the
government mandated higher hospitalization fees for pregnant women who
were conceiving their 3rd (or greater) child. In China, a “Social Compensation
Fee” was often imposed on couples that bore more than one child, a fee that
can go up to 4 times of a farmer’s annual income.
c. [Evaluation: Benefits] The benefit of such solutions is that couples would
hesitate before having more children, and some would be discouraged
altogether. This is effective in lowering the birth rate.
d. [Evaluation: Limitations] However, the limitations of the solution are that
these punitive measures can be improperly executed – in China; couples that
could not afford to pay the fines had their physical property forcefully
confiscated and sold. More egregiously, Chinese authorities would often force
pregnant women to abort their child if they could not afford the fines. These
would have tremendous economic and emotional costs on couples –
inhumane!
Low rate of population growth
Population pyramid: Beehive
Suppose you get a pyramid like the above; which parts of the pyramid should you look
at and describe?
1. Overall Shape – Beehive
2. Narrow Base – This suggests a high birth rate.
3. Relatively broad top (many people in the 70+ age group)– Life expectancy is
very high.
4. Small drop in terms of people in a particular age group compared to the next
(no drop observed from 0 to 25 years) – suggest that DR might be low.
5. Gender ratio – Is it skewed, or even?
Reasons for low birth rate
1. Widespread education for women
a. Increased educational opportunities for women can result in lower birth
rates. Education empowers women to break away from the belief that “a
woman’s place is at home”. As they acquire the necessary skills to enter the
workforce, more women today find much fulfillment in their careers, which
they would not be willing to sacrifice to start families. As such, they tend to be
married only at a later age – (remember the average marriage age
comparison between Singapore (28) and India (22)? Use it!!). Marrying at a
later age may result in fewer births as women who marry late have fewer
reproductive years (who is to say that people can’t have children out of
wedlock, but ohwell “give chance” here k?), thus contributing to a lower birth
rate.
2. Preference for smaller families due to rising costs
a. There is a preference amongst younger couples for smaller families due to
the rising costs in raising a child. The costs associated with raising children
are tremendous – they range from expensive baby food and nutrition, to
kindergarten and tuition classes. Coupled with the rising costs of land (thus,
housing) in most urban cities, parents tend to prefer having fewer children,
leading to low birth rates.
Reasons for a low death rate
Your points in this section are really the same as the one above for developing
countries, with one crucial difference – death rates for developing countries are
lowering, while those of developed countries are already low. See the difference? When
explaining either of these points, be sure to phrase your words properly: when giving
reasons for low DR in developing countries, you want to say “nutrition is generally
improving, leading to fewer deaths from malnutrition, thus leading to lower DR.” When
talking about their richer counterparts, say, “the standard of nutrition and diet is
generally very high, which minimizes the number of people dying to malnutrition, thus
there is a low DR.” Subtle differences, but all the fun’s in how you say a thing!
1. High standards of hygiene and sanitation
a. Developed countries have a low DR due to high standards of hygiene and
sanitation. In countries such as Singapore, there is universal access to clean
water and sanitation facilities. This reduces the contact between people and
untreated wastewater, which results in fewer occurrences of and deaths from
water-borne diseases such as dysentery and cholera. This contributes to a
low DR.
2. High standards of nutrition and diet
a. Nutrition standards in the developed world are generally very high – people
have access to wholesome foods from birth, and are not lacking in crucial
minerals and vitamins for health, such as vitamin A, zinc and calcium. As a
result, fewer nutrition-related disorders develop in people from developed
countries, as compared to their counterparts in the developing world. This
leads to high life expectancies and fewer deaths from malnutrition.
3. High standards of healthcare
a. Advanced medical technologies available in developed countries contribute
positively to a low death rate. Technologies such as X-rays and MRI scan help
to diagnose medical illnesses at early stages, which makes possible
intervention and treatment before previously deadly diseases such as cancer
become full-blown. Further, vaccinations are widespread, which help to
combat a range of diseases – in Singapore, all children are vaccinated against
smallpox, measles and tetanus. Such medical advances help to prolong
lifespans and prevent premature deaths from treatable illnesses.
Consequences of a slow-growing population
1. Aging population leading to lower economic standard of living
a. With an increasing percentage of elderly people compared to the young in the
population, there might be a fall in the economic standard of living in the
country.
b. As old people tend to retire in their mid-60s or earlier, the workforce shrinks
with an aging population. As such, there will be fewer economically
productive people producing valuable goods and services in the economy. As
such, standard of living tends to fall as there are fewer goods and services to
be enjoyed in the country.
2. Higher tax burden on workforce
a. A slow-growing population will result in a higher tax burden on the smaller
workforce. Two trends will merge to result in a shrinking workforce: there
will be fewer people entering the workforce every year, (due to low BR),
while more people will retire and live to an old age (due to high life
expectancy).
b. Even though the workforce lessens, the government’s expenditure may
remain constant, or even increase. The government still has to finance
schools, infrastructure development such as building roads and MRTs, as well
as running hospitals. The taxes that fund these expenditures will have to be
collected from the smaller pool of working adults, thus increasing the tax
burden on each of these adults.
3. Smaller talent pool
a. An aging population brings with it a smaller workforce and talent pool for
industry and military to draw its manpower from. Creative industries like
publishing and graphic design tend to employ young artists for their
creativity and dynamism – as the workforce ages, these industries might face
a shortage of young artists who are most suitable for this line of work.
b. Moreover, the military may also face shortages in manpower, as there will be
fewer young adults to draw their strength from. In Singapore, the number of
conscripts heading into the armed forces is expected to dwindle in years to
come, if the birth rate does not increase.
Actions to manage a low rate of population growth
1. Incentives to encourage marriage and promote childbirth
a. The government may provide incentives to couples to encourage marriage
and childbirth. Such incentives are largely monetary in nature.
b. In Singapore, couples are now encouraged to have more children through
incentives that provide tax breaks for women who have children at a younger
age. Moreover, the government provides subsidies for child-care centers and
maids to look after children, so as to ameliorate (lessen) the inconvenience of
a working couple that needs to care for their children.
c. [Evaluation: Benefits] The benefit of such solutions is that it provides a
strong incentive for couples to have children, with the reassurance that the
government will help lessen their financial burdens.
d. [Evaluation: Limitations] However, such incentives don’t seem to work very
well with couples that prefer to have few or no children owing to lifestyle
preferences. Couples may see children as an unnecessary hindrance to
leading their own fulfilling lives – monetary incentives may not change the
mindsets of such couples.
2. Meeting the needs of the elderly through social services
a. A wide array of social services will be necessary to meet the needs of the
elderly. The aged may have many forms of dependence – economic, social and
physiological.
b. Elderly care facilities will need to be built to house the aged whose families
cannot afford private care for them. Moreover, the elderly need to be kept
physically and socially active through regular exercise and interactive
programmes at community centers. These will help keep disorders such as
dementia at bay.
c. [Evaluation: Benefits] This solution has the benefit of taking good care of
our elderly population, so as to ensure that adequate amenities are available
to help them lead fruitful lives in retirement.
d. [Evaluation: Limitations] However, such solutions don’t solve the root
problem of an aging population, which is the low birth rate. It only
ameliorates the burden on the working population that comes with taking
care of the elderly. Therefore, this has to be combined with other solutions to
form a multi-pronged approach.
3. Raising the retirement age
a. One way which the government can ameliorate the economic detriments of
an aging population is to increase the retirement age of workers. This will
ensure that workers do not retire too early and not contribute economically
over their last few, albeit healthy, decades of life.
b. For example, Singapore raised the retirement age in 1996 from 60 to 62
years. At the same time, it has encouraged companies to retain old workers
who were proficient and well experienced with their job scopes past
retirement age.
c. [Evaluation: Benefit] This encourages elderly workers to remain active,
financially independent and play an important role in society.
d. [Evaluation: Limitations] However, such solutions cannot be continued
indefinitely as there will be a limit to how high the retirement age can go –
again, it is a solution that does not solve the root of the aging population.
Moreover, workers who look forward to retiring early may be displeased
with the changes, as raising retirement ages usually bring about implications
to their pension or CPF schemes (it means that you can withdraw money
form your CPF accounts only later!).
Exam note: Now that was a LONG section; it’d probably be the longest section in this
semester’s work, so do heave a sigh of relief and give yourself a pat on the back for finishing
it. HOWEVER, you may realize that my above list is not exhaustive; it does not cover ALL the
possible points you can use, just what I feel to be the most important. Use your discretion in
introducing other salient points.
Where should you put your focus on, or how do you develop strategies to cope with such a
large chunk of work?
Well first you need to know how much of this to know, and bring into the test; wherever I’ve
given you multiple examples or statistics, just choose one to remember! Giving me
overlapping examples will not earn you additional marks.
Remember this for a Structured Question (2 – 6 marks):
Point (0.5 mark), Explanation (0.5 mark)
Next, you’d like to focus on getting key points down. Think “will this bit earn me half marks if
I say it?” If yes, then commit it to memory! Sometimes, explanations don’t need examples –
other times, having an example helps you to explain your point. You decide when examples
are needed.
Sources Cited:
Earth Our Home: Secondary 2, Guidebook , Marshall Cavendish, 2010
Earth Our Home: Secondary 2, Textbook, Marshall Cavendish, 2010
Geography: A Comprehensive Study Guide: Secondary 2, CASCO Publications, 2009