Appendix A2
Data analysis strategies
Case studies
Purpose
When the task is to investigate e.g. a certain contemporary phenomenon, decision,
individual, or even an event in a real-life context with no or little need for controlling
behavior during the research process, case studies can be an advantageous research strategy to
apply. Case studies can be used for exploratory research, descriptive research, explanatory
research, or for testing1 or generating a new theory.2
The purpose of a case study is not statistical generalization but analytic generalization.
Analytic generalization is when a template of existing theory is developed, and the empirical
results from the case(s) are compared with it. Statistical generalization is when an inference is
made about a population based on empirical data from a sample.3
A case study can be made by investigating a single-case or multiple-cases, combined
with an either holistic or embedded study.
When generating a new theory, Grounded Theory is probably the most well-known
strategy in this field. However, case studies can be useful when little is known about the
phenomenon, if there is little empirical substantiation or agreement, or if it suggested to find a
new perspective in existing research. In these situations, case studies can be appropriate
because generating theory based on case studies does not have to rely on previous literature or
prior empirical evidence.4
1
Yin, R. K: ” Case Study research. Design and Methods”, p. 1
Kathleen M. Eisenhardt: ”Building Theories from Case Study Research”
3
Yin, R. K: ” Case Study research. Design and Methods”, p. 31
4
Kathleen M. Eisenhardt: ”Building Theories from Case Study Research”, p. 548
2
Types of Research Question
Case studies normally deals with the research questions that begin with how or why.
The interest is not on frequencies or incidences such as “how often”, “how many”, “what
outcomes”, or “who”, since these research questions are more related to surveys. 5
Use of theory in the research process
Theory is used at different stages in the research process. No matter if the study is
exploratory, descriptive or explanatory or used to test or generate theory, a literature review is
developed to produce more knowledge in the area of study. If the researcher knows more
about the topic of interest, it sharpens the research questions to be asked and the entire
research design. The theory development will direct you in what data to collect, who/what is
my unit of analysis, what propositions should be made, and it sets criteria for interpreting the
findings and when analyzing data. The empirical results are also compared to the theory
development.6 The researcher will know if a new theory is generated or if the existing is
supported.
Demands for data collection
The data collected in a case study can be qualitative and/or quantitative – depending
on the research question. A triangulation is made possible since multiple data collection
methods can be used, e.g. interviews, documents, observations, archives, artifacts. This
provides stronger substantiation of constructs and hypothesis.7
5
Yin, R. K: ” Case Study research. Design and Methods”, p. 5-7
Yin, R. K: ” Case Study research. Design and Methods”, p. 27-29
7
Kathleen M. Eisenhardt: ”Building Theories from Case Study Research”, p. 538
6
In relation to the selection of unit(s) of analysis, case studies rely on theoretical
sampling is when cases are selected for theoretical reasons, i.e. cases are chosen when it is
assessed that they can assist in developing theory by adding new data.8
Degrees of Freedom Analysis
Purpose
The emphasis in Degrees of Freedom Analysis is on the theory testing. The research
strategy is doing that by dealing with pattern- matching between theoretical propositions and
observations in a set of data.9
The confidence of the theory that is tested by the Degree of Freedom Analysis can be
determined by these patterns that are mentioned. The confidence is high when we are able to
match a great deal of the patterns to each other, and this is illustrated in a so-called prediction
matrix, that is developed based on seven decision activities. They are 1. Problem definition, 2.
Solution search, 3. Data collection, analysis and use, 4. Information exchange, 5. Individual
preference formation, 6. Evaluation criteria and 7. Final choice.10
Even though Degrees of Freedom Analysis is about the understanding of qualitative
case date, the analysis done by pattern-matching is regarded quantitatively because the degree
of match to the theory is in consideration, where we use the expression hits and misses, that
can be compared to the term hypothesis, that is used in statistical testing.11
As earlier mentioned the Degree of Freedom Analysis emphasises on theory testing,
but the reverse case can also be true. Theory development is a possibility that can be done by
Degree of Freedom Analysis, in cases where there is a lack of previous theory in a specific
topic.12
Types of research question
8
Kathleen M. Eisenhardt: ”Building Theories from Case Study Research”, p. 537
Elizabeth J. Wilson & Arch G. Woodside: ”Degrees –of- Freedom Analysis of Case Data in Business Marketing
Research”, p.216
10
Elizabeth J. Wilson & Arch G. Woodside: ”Degrees –of- Freedom Analysis of Case Data in Business Marketing
Research”, p.219
11
Elizabeth J. Wilson & Arch G. Woodside: ”Degrees –of- Freedom Analysis of Case Data in Business Marketing
Research”, p.216+217
12 Elizabeth J. Wilson & Arch G. Woodside: ”Degrees –of- Freedom Analysis of Case Data in Business Marketing
Research”, p.217
9
In the case of Degree of Freedom Analysis there is talk about a survey strategy, where
the research questions can be who, what, where, how many and how much.13
Use of theory in the research process
Figure 1. The research process for degrees-of-freedom analysis
Existing theory, rival
theories, ”theory-inuse”
Step 1: Grounding in the Extant Literature
Step 2: Develop a Prediction Matrix
Existing findings or
competing findings
Transcribe interviews,
compile documents,
etc.
Step 3: Conduct Fieldwork and Prepare Case Data
Step 4: Train Judges to Analyze Case Data
Step 5: Record Hints and Misses of Predictions to Observations
Sign test, chi-square
test, z-test
Step 6: Statistical Evaluation
Revise prior theory or
develop initial model/
framework
Step 7: Post-Hoc Review
Source: Elizabeth J. Wilson & Arch G. Woodside: “Degrees –of- Freedom Analysis of Case
Data in Business Marketing Research” , p. 224, figure 1.
As it is illustrated in figure 1, which shows the research process for the Degrees of
Freedom Analysis, it is necessary to be informed of the different existing theories of your
interest in study, before further steps are made in the process. Not only that, but it would also
be of interest if newer finding could be found in the literature, and that of your competition. It
is from here that it is possible to decide if the Degree of Freedom Analysis should put the
emphasis on the theory testing or the theory building.
13
Yin R.K: ”Case Study Research. Design and Methods”, p. 6, Figure1.1
Demands for data collection
In this section we talk about step 3 in figure 1, where the researcher is ready to
conduct fieldwork. Different possibilities are available on how to collect relevant data, and
one of the ways it could be done is by doing a semi-structured personal interview. This way
you are giving the interviewee more answering room, instead of controlling the interview with
close-end questions, but the reverse is also possible. Document analysis and participant or
nonparticipant observation could also be some part of the further methods of collecting data in
the Degree of Freedom Analysis. One of the important things that one has to be observant
about in data collection is to avoiding bias.14
Grounded theory
Purpose
Grounded theory’s purpose is to generate theory using both inductive and deductive
thinking. The theory development can be generated initially from data (in a continuous
interplay between data analysis and data collection),15 and/or it can be based on already
existing theories if modification and/or elaboration of these are seen as necessary.16 The
theory generated should be able to predict and explain behavior and be applicable in
practice.17
Type of research questions
The most common research questions used in Grounded Theory are broad and openended, e.g. how and why.18
Use of theory in the research process
Grounded theory is in terms of theory-use quite different from other research methods.
In the beginning of the research, the researcher does not need to review existing literature to
form a framework for the study.19 This can make the researcher open-minded for the
information that reveals during the research process, since it will minimize his/her
preconceptions.
14
Elizabeth J. Wilson & Arch G. Woodside: ”Degrees –of- Freedom Analysis of Case Data in Business Marketing
Research”, p. 217
15
Christina Goulding: “Grounded Theory: A Magical Formula or a Potential Nightmare”, p. 21
16
Strauss, A & Corbin, J.: ”Grounded theory methology: An overview”, p. 73
17
Christina Goulding: “Grounded Theory: A Magical Formula or a Potential Nightmare”, p. 22
18
Bryant & Charmaz: “ The SAGE Handbook of Grounded Theory”, p. 477
19
Christina Goulding: “Grounded Theory: A Magical Formula or a Potential Nightmare”, p. 23
When the researcher has coded the main ideas, and concepts have emerged from the
data, they are compared with a detailed literature review. It is then clear what contributions
the new theory has generated to existing literature.
The research process of Grounded Theory is based on the following layout:
Figure 2: Grounded theory proces outline
Demands for data collection
In Grounded Theory data can be gathered from interviews, seminars, meetings,
observations, and documents of all kinds etc.20 If it is seen as relevant for the research, even
surveys, experiments and case studies can complement in the data collection.21
Data collection and data analysis is an iterative process, where the researcher analyses the
data collected, and assesses whether additional data is needed. This process also determines
which additional respondents should be selected throughout the process i.e. theoretical
sampling, in order to develop the necessary categories and theory.22
Memos are recommended to be used during the data collection and analysis process. Memos
are writings of ideas that the researcher gets during the research process that can help in
developing the theory later on in the process. It can be about behavior, the scene, events, ideas
for coding, new categories, incidents’ relationships etc. as they emerge during coding
process.23+24
20
Strauss, A & Corbin, J.: ”Grounded theory methology: An overview”, p. 73
Christina Goulding: “Grounded Theory: A Magical Formula or a Potential Nightmare”, p. 24
22
Christina Goulding: “Grounded Theory: A Magical Formula or a Potential Nightmare”, p. 25
23
Christina Goulding: “Grounded Theory: A Magical Formula or a Potential Nightmare”, p. 24
24
Christina Goulding: “Grounded Theory: A Magical Formula or a Potential Nightmare”, p. 26
21
Comparison of the three strategies
The model below illustrates the three different strategies emphasis on theory-testing
and theory- building.
Emphasis is on
theory building
Grounded Theory
Case based approaches
(Yin, Eisenhardt)
Degrees-of-Freedom analysis
Emphasis is on
theory-testing
Figure 3: Comparison of the different research strategies
The table below outlines the compares the three different strategies based on purpose,
type of research question, use of theory and demands for data collection.
Table 1: Case Studies, DFA and GT in comparison