This is what you should know:
The parts of speech – WHERE AND HOW THEY ARE USED
I. Nouns
A. Know the definition of a noun.
B. Where are nouns used in sentences?
1. Subject
2. Objects
a. Direct object
b. Indirect object
c. Object complements
3. Subject complement – Predicate nominative
4. Appositive
C. Common nouns
D. Proper nouns
E. Collective nouns
II. Pronouns
A. Know the definition of a pronoun.
B. Personal pronouns
C. Reflexive pronouns
D. Intensive pronouns
E. Relative pronouns
F. Interrogative pronouns
G. Cases of personal pronouns (when to use them)
1. Nominative
2. Objective
3. Possessive
III. Adjectives
A. Know the definition of an adjective.
B. What do they modify?
C. What questions do they answer?
1. What kind?
2. Which one?
3. How many?
4. How much?
D. Proper adjectives
E. Forms of adjectives
1. Positive
2. Comparative
3. Superlative
F. Know where adjectives are used in sentences.
1. Near nouns they modify
2. Predicate adjectives
IV. Adverbs – Know the definition of an adverb.
A. What do they modify?
B. What questions do they answer?
1. How?
2. When?
3. Where?
4. Why?
5. How often?
(Next page – OUTLINE CONTINUED)
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6. To what extent?
7. Under what condition(s)?
V. Verbs – Know the definition of a verb.
A. Know the definition of a verb.
B. Types of verbs
1. Action
2. Linking
3. Helping
VI. Conjunctions –
A. Know the definition of a conjunction.
B. Know how to use a conjunction.
1. Coordinating
2. Subordinating
3. Correlative
VII. Prepositions – Know the definition of a preposition.
VIII. Interjections – Know the definition of an interjection.
Phrases
A group of related words is called a phrase. It is a group of related words without a subject and its verb. Often, phrases
can function as single parts of speech. The key distinction between phrases and clauses is that clauses contain subject
and their verbs (predicates). Phrases NEVER contain subjects and their verbs.
Types of phrases:
Verb phrases
Verb phrases consist of verbs and their related helpers.
Example: I should have been more careful.
Prepositional Phrases
Prepositional phrases consist of prepositions, their objects, and all related modifiers of the objects of the preposition.
Example: With her mother’s help, she baked cupcakes for the birthday party.
Prepositional phrases generally function as adjective or adverbs; grammarians often call them adverb phrases or
adjective phrases when they answer the questions that adjectives or adverbs answer.
For example, in the sentence above “With her mother’s help” explains HOW she baked the cupcakes. Adverbs answer
the question HOW?, so this prepositional phrase functions as an ADVERB PHRASE. The phrase “for the birthday party”
modifies cupcakes by answering WHAT KIND? Adjectives answer WHAT KIND, so this phrase functions as an adjective
phrase.
(Next page – VERBAL PHRASES)
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Verbal Phrases
Verbal - a verb form that acts as another part of speech; three types - participles, gerunds, and infinitives
participle - a verbal formed from the present participle or past participle of a verb. Participles function ONLY
as adjectives.
example:
the verb “break” : present participle - breaking; past participle - (have/has) broken
The breaking glass sounded awful. You sound like a broken record
Both breaking and broken modify nouns (glass and record).
Participle phrases contain all of the words that modify or complete the meaning of the participle.
example - Angered by the players’ strike, the owners decided to hold players’ paychecks.
“by the players’ strike” modifies angered (as a prepositional phrase functioning as an adverb - answers the
question HOW? they were angered)
"Angered by the players' strike" modifies owners (answers the question which ones?)
gerund - a verbal formed from the present participle of a verb (always ending in -ing) that always functions
as a NOUN.
REMEMBER - nouns can appear in five positions in a sentence (subject -S, direct object - DO, indirect object IO, predicate nominative - PN, and object of the preposition - OP)
example - the present participle of the verb sleep is “sleeping”
as a gerund:
I enjoy sleeping. - Sleeping functions as a noun in the position of the DO.
He received a detention for sleeping. - noun as an OP
Sleeping is my hobby. - noun as a S
My hobby is sleeping. - noun as PN
I gave sleeping a try to ease my pain. - noun as IO
Gerund phrases contain gerunds and their objects and any other modifiers.
example - Growing plants in warehouses is my dad’s occupation.
“Plants” is a DO of the verb growing, so it must be included in the gerund phrase. “In warehouses” describes
where the growing takes place and functions as an adverb phrase modifying growing, so it must also be
included as a part of the gerund phrase.
(Next page – VERBAL PHRASES: INFINITIVES)
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Infinitives - verbals that are formed by adding the word “to” to a present tense verb. Infinitives function as
nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
examples - to smile, to laugh, to walk, to cry, etc.
as a noun - I like to run. “To run” functions as a direct object because it answers what? After the action verb.
as an adjective - My decision to run was silly. “To run” modifies decision (answers the question “which one?”)
as an adverb - I wanted a puppy to make me happy. The infinitive phrase “to make me happy” tells why I
bought a puppy, so it functions as an adverb.
Just as with participial phrases and gerund phrases, infinitive phrases contain infinitives plus any modifiers or
complements.
EX: He likes to buy electric trains when he is vacationing in the Northeast. The infinitive phrase “to buy electric
trains” functions as a noun in the position of the direct object. The word “trains” is the direct object of the
verb buy (What? does he like TO BUY). Because verbals are verbs in their purest forms, they can receive direct
objects.
REMEMBER Adjectives answer:
What kind? Which one? How many? or How much? and modify nouns and pronouns.
Adverbs answer:
How? When? Where? Why? How often? Under what conditions? To what degree? etc., and they modify verbs,
adjectives, and other adverbs
Nouns simply name people places, things, or ideas and function as S, DO, IO, OP, and PN.
Appositive phrases
Appositives - simply rename nouns by using other nouns and their modifiers
Example - Mr. McCain, an English teacher, teaches at MBJH. The word “teacher” simply renames Mr.
McCain and “an” and “English” modify teacher; this is an appositive phrase and “teacher” is the appositive.
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Remember, a phrase differs from a clause in one distinct way. A phrase
DOES NOT CONTAIN A SUBJECT AND ITS VERB!
Phrase construction: With a decidedly different point of view on the subject (no subject and verb)
Subject
verb
Clause construction: Because she has a decidedly different point of view on the subject
A clause ALWAYS HAS A SUBJECT AND ITS VERB!
(NEXT PAGE: CLAUSES)
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Clauses
A clause is ANY group of words that has a subject and its verb.
Clauses are divided into two types:
Independent clause – contains a subject and its verb (or subjects and their verbs); independent clauses
express a complete thought.
Subordinate clause – contains a subject and its verb (or subjects and their verbs); a subordinate clause DOES
NOT EXPRESS A COMPLETE THOUGHT! Subordinate clauses depend on independent clauses to complete their
meaning.
Subordinate clauses are divided into three types:
Adjective clauses: subordinate clauses that modify nouns or pronouns. Because they are always related to the
nouns they modify, adjective clauses are also known as RELATIVE CLAUSES. An adjective clause begins with
specific words:
relative pronouns – who, whose, whom, which, that
relative adverbs – where, when, why
Examples:
I know a place where people can be themselves.
People who really love college football know that the SEC rocks!
Teams whose fans cheer loudly generally win most of their games.
(NEXT PAGE: ADVERB CLAUSES)
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Adverb Clauses
An adverb clause is a subordinate (dependent) clause that behaves like an adverb. Like all clauses, an adverb clause
contains a subject and its verb. An adverb clause answers such questions as why, when, where, how, to what extent, in
what manner, and under what conditions. Adverb clauses can generally be recognized because they are introduced by
subordinating conjunctions.
The most common subordinating conjunctions:
Common Subordinating Conjunctions
after
although
as
as if
as long as
as though
because
before
even if
even though provided that
if
if only
in order that
now that
once
rather than
since
so that
than
that
though
till
unless
until
when
whenever
where
whereas
wherever
while
When you place a subordinating conjunction at the beginning of an independent clause (a complete sentence), you
reduce the clause to subordinate status. A subordinate clause cannot stand alone; you must attach a subordinate clause
to an independent clause in order for the subordinate clause to make any sense.
Independent clause: I am a junior high school student.
This clause has a subject, a verb, and a complete thought; therefore, it IS an independent clause.
If you attach a subordinating conjunction to the independent clause, you reduce the clause to subordinate status:
BECAUSE I am a junior high student
This clause also has a subject and its verb, BUT it does not express a complete thought; therefore, this clause is a
subordinate clause. In order to make this clause make sense, you must attach it to an independent clause because an
independent clause, by nature, is the only clause that expresses a complete thought.
Because I am a junior high student, I often study for upcoming tests.
Now, you must determine how the subordinate clause functions in the sentence. First, the clause is introduced by a
subordinating conjunction; this hints to a reader that this clause is most likely an adverb clause, but how can you be
sure?
What question does the subordinate clause answer? In this sentence, the clause “Because I am a junior high student”
answers “why I study,” so the clause must be an adverb clause. The clause in question is introduced by a subordinating
conjunction, and it modifies a verb (study) by answering why; therefore, the clause in question has to be an adverb
clause.
(NEXT PAGE: PERIODIC AND LOOSE SENTENCES; VERB SEQUENCE IN ADVERB CLAUSES; ELLIPTICAL CLAUSES)
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PERIODIC AND LOOSE SENTENCES
When an adverb clause begins a sentence, the sentence is classified as a periodic sentence because the main
(independent) clause ends with a period. Periodic sentences are punctuated by placing a comma after the introductory
adverb clause.
Because she is not going to be in class on Friday, she asked the teacher for the weekend homework.
When an adverb clause ends a sentence, the sentence is classified as a loose sentence. When an adverb clause ends a
sentence (a loose sentence) the adverb clause IS NOT SEPARATED FROM THE SENTENCE WITH A COMMA.
She asked the teacher for the weekend homework because she is not going to be in class on Friday.
VERB SEQUENCE WITH ADVERB CLAUSES
When the main verbs in the main clause and the adverb clause are in the past tense, but the action is not
simultaneous, the earlier verb must be in the past perfect tense.
Before we witnessed the accident, John had been driving erratically.
In this sentence, witnessed occurs AFTER had been driving. The earliest action must be in the past perfect tense.
Another example: Mr. Jones bought a new house after he returned from overseas. (incorrect)
Mr. Jones bought a new house after he had returned from overseas. (correct)
ELLIPTICAL ADVERB CLAUSES
An elliptical adverb clause is a clause in which the subject or the verb or both are understood but not stated. Elliptical
constructions are used for economy of writing.
Mr. McCain writes better than I. (write is understood)
Mary likes him better than me. (“she likes” is understood)
Matt Stafford throws the ball farther than Drew Brees. (“throws the ball” is understood)
Than and as are frequently used in elliptical adverb clauses.
She is better than I.
John is as good in math as she.
While and when are subordinating conjunctions also used in elliptical adverb clauses.
While studying for exams, I got a headache.
While (I was) studying for exams, I got a headache
Be sure to visit Fenway Park when in Boston.
Be sure to visit Fenway Park when (you are) in Boston.
(NEXT PAGE: NOUN CLAUSES)
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NOUN CLAUSES
A noun clause is a subordinate clause that fills a noun’s position in a sentence.
Noun clauses often begin with the words that, which, who, whom, or whose, the same pronouns used to begin adjective
(relative) clauses. Noun clauses can also begin with variants of these words such as whichever, whoever, or whomever.
Noun clauses may also begin with the words when, where, whether, why, how, if, what, or whatever. Many of these
words can also be a part of the noun clause.
Introductory words in a noun clause can also be FUNCTIONAL OR NONFUNCTIONAL. The word has no function when it
is not part of the clause. Nonfunctional words simply act as connectors to connect the clauses to the sentence.
Examples of nonfunctional introductory words:
I knew that I should not leave.
In the previous sentence, that does not have a function within the noun clause; therefore, it is considered
nonfunctional.
She asked whether we should go.
In the previous sentence, whether does not have a function within the clause; therefore, it is considered
nonfunctional.
When the introductory words within the noun clause actually function as a part of the clause, they are considered
functional.
Examples of functional introductory words:
No one knew where we were going.
In the previous sentence, where functions as an adverb; therefore, it is considered functional.
They did not tell us which car we should take.
In the previous sentence, the word which modifies car; therefore, it is considered functional.
A noun clause always functions in the position of a noun in a sentence: subject, direct object, indirect object, predicate
nominative, object of a preposition, and appositive.
1. A noun clause as a subject
Whoever wrote the best essay won a trip to Callaway Gardens.
Notice that the word whoever is functional.
That she was unhappy about her test was clear to everyone.
Notice that the word that is nonfunctional.
(NEXT PAGE: OTHER POSITIONS OF NOUN CLAUSES)
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2. A noun clause as a direct object
Mr. Hudson thought that we were too sloppy.
Because that we were too sloppy answers the question WHAT after an action verb, it is a direct object. That is
nonfunctional.
3. A noun clause as an indirect object
His look of hatred gave whoever saw him a feeling of fear.
Because whoever saw him answers TO WHOM and feeling is a direct object (because it answers WHAT after an
action verb), whoever saw him is an indirect object. Whoever is functional within the clause; it is the subject.
4. A noun clause as the object of a preposition
Use this material for whatever you choose.
Because whatever you choose follows the preposition for, it functions as an object of the preposition. The word
whatever actually functions as the direct object within the clause; it is the direct object of the verb choose and is
functional.
5. A noun clause as a subject complement (predicate nominative)
Our hope is that our brother will come home from Afghanistan soon.
Because that our brother will come home from Afghanistan soon renames hope, it functions as a predicate
nominative. In this sentence, that has no function; it is classified as nonfunctional.
6. A noun clause as an appositive (an apposition)
The fact that she cannot come home soon is troubling.
Because that she cannot come home soon renames the noun it follows, it is considered an appositive. That has
no function within the noun clause; therefore, it is nonfunctional.
SPECIAL NOTE ABOUT THE USE OF THAT IN NOUN CLAUSES AND ADJECTIVE CLAUSES
In noun clauses, that is NEVER functional. In an adjective clause, that is ALWAYS functional.
I read the news that he had left the team.
In the previous sentence, that is not functional; therefore, the clause is a noun clause.
I read the new that rocked the world.
In the previous sentence, that is the subject of the clause; therefore the clause is an adjective clause.
(NEXT PAGE: SENTENCE TYPES ACCORDING TO FORM AND FUNCTION)
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SENTENCE TYPES ACCORDING TO FORM
Simple sentence (S) – a sentence that contains one independent clause and NO subordinate clauses.
I am a life-long fan of college football.
Compound sentence (Cd) – a sentence that contains two or more independent clauses and no subordinate clauses.
I am a life-long fan of college football, and I try to watch at least one game every weekend.
Complex sentence (Cx) – a sentence that contains only one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
Because I am a life-long fan of college football, I try to watch at least one game every weekend.
Compound-complex sentence (Cd-Cx) – a sentence that contains two or more independent clauses and one or more
subordinate clauses
Because I am a life-long fan of college football, I try to watch at least one game every weekend, and I sometimes
watch more than one game.
SENTENCE TYPES ACCORDING TO FUNCTION
Declarative sentence – a sentence that makes a statement
Coaches sometimes make dumb decisions.
Imperative sentence – a sentence that gives a command
Submit your papers to the proper folder on the table at the front of the room.
Interrogative sentence – a sentence that asks a question
Will you be in class on Friday afternoon?
Exclamatory sentence – a sentence that expresses strong feeling or emotion
Stop yelling at me!
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