Psyc 100 Chapter 5 (Sensation and Perception) & 6 (Learning)

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15.11.2011 19:03:00

Chapter 5 Sensation and Perception

-Sensation: our sense organs’ detection and response to external stimuli

-Perception: the brain’s processing of detected signals that results in internal representations of stimuli

FIGURE 5.2 In the TEXT!

Stimuli must be Coded to be Understood by the Brain

Transduction: Process through which stimuli reaching the receptors are converted to neural impulses

Hythalamus- relay station-smell

Psychophysics: the study of our psychological experiences of physical stimuli

-Once our sensory systems are tuned to

-both adapt to constant levels of stimulation and

-detect changes in our environment

-By studying how people respond to different sensory levels, scientists can determine thresholds and perceived change

FIGURE 5.4!! LOOK AT!!

Psychophyscis:

Signal Detection Theory

-States that detecting a stimulus requires making a judgment about its presence or absence

Sensory Adaptation

-When a perceiver’s sensitivity to stimuli decreases over time

Gustatory Sense

-Uses taste buds to respond to the chemical substances that produce at least five basic sensations: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami (savory)

-The number and distribution of taste buds vary among individuals.

- Cultural taste preferences begin in the womb

Smell

-Olfaction: our sense of smell

-Olfactory Epithelium: thin layer of tissues in the nasal cavity embedded with smell receptors

-Receptors respond to chemicals and send signals to the olfactory bulb in the brain

-Females are significantly more accurate than males at detecting and identifying odors

FIGURE 5.11 LOOK!!!

Touch

-Haptic Sense: Relies on tactile stimulation to activate receptors for temperature, for sharp or dull pain, and for other sensations

FIGURE 5.12 LOOK!!

-Gate Control Theory: Neural “gates” in the spinal cord also control pain

-We can reduce pain perception by:

-Distraction

-Visualizing pain as more pleasant

-Being rested and relaxed

-Learning how to change brain activity that underlies pain perception

_ Taking drugs that interfere with the neural transmission of pain or render us unconscious

Hearing

-Sound originates from displacement or air molecules

-This “sound wave” travels the auditory canal, causes the eardrum to vibrate

-Activate different hair cells in the inner ear

-This results in neural firing

FIGURE 5.14 & 5.16 LOOOK!

Vision

-Light wave first pass through the cornea

-Pass through the lens, focuses image on the retina

-The pupil determines how much light gets in

-Receptors int eh retina detect different forms of light waves

-Rods-night vision

-Cones- vision in high illumination

DIFFERENCE BTW RODS AND CONES!? EXAM

Cones are about fine detil in high illumination*

From the Eye to the Brain

-Retinal photorecpetors translate light into neural impulses

-The message travels the optic nerve to the brain

-Processed by the thalamus and then sent to the primary visual cortex

Sensory Deprivation

-What happens when we limit sensory input?

November 7 th ,2011

Figure 5.19

The point at which the optic nerve exits the retina contains no rods or cones, creating a blind spot.

VISION CONTINUED:

Receptive Field:

-Particular visual neurons respond best to particular “tunings” (particular colors, shapes, motions).

-The region of space to which neurons in the primary visual cortex are sensitive is the receptive field.

Lateral Inhibition:

-Visual systems are sensitive to edges

-If a rod or cone is stimulated, it sends information to its neighboring receptors, inhibiting their activity

Figure 5.21

Color & Vision

-Color is determined by:

- wavelengths of light, which activate certain types of cones

- the absorption of wavelengths by objects

- or by mixing of wavelengths of light

Color Continued

-Subtractive color mixing: means the mixture occurs within the stimulus and is a physical process

-ie: paint mixing

-Additive color mixing : occurs when lights of different wavelengths are mixed

-ie: stage lighting

Color Vision

-An object appears to be a particular color because of the wavelengths it reflects

-Three cone populations are called “S” (short), “M” (medium) and “L” (long)

-Different colors are determined by the ratio of activity among the three types of cones

Figure 5.26- receptors adapt to the colors then you are centrally seeing there opposing colors..blue and red

Staring at the squares called the McCollough Effect vertical = puplue an horizontal = yellow

Simultaneous Contrast

-Simultaneous contrast: an optical illusion in which identical stimuli appear different when presented against different backgrounds.

Other Sensory Systems

- In addition to the five “basic” senses, humans and other animals have:

*Kinesthetic sense

-ability to judge where one’s limbs are in space

*Vestibular sense

-abiltiy to compare one’s bodily position to the upright position

-Some animals can use sound waves and disruptions in an electrical field to navigate

Evidence for Extrasensory Perception (ESP) Is Weak or Nonexistent

-Little or no evidence supports the intriguing idea that some people have additional sensory systems (Ie: to read minds or predict the future)

-The Intention Experiment

Critical thinking Skill

-Understanding that perception can be deceiving

-Magic tricks are designed to fool your basic senses

Body Image Distortion: A Case if Distorted Perception

25% larger than what we are

50% think larger abdomen men do not distort about themselves.. however that is changing now a days

What Kind of factors influence this: media, mood,

Chapter 6 ; learning

Three Major Areas

-Classical conditioning

-Operant Conditioning

-Social learning

What is learning?

-Learning is a relatively enduring change in behavior resulting from experience

-If two events occur close together, people will form an association between them.

Why is learning important?

Learning is essential to our survival

Understanding how we develop fears

Understanding how to create new association, or change old ones

Understanding and predicting behavior

Origins of learning theory

Key players

Pavlov

J.b Watson

…..

Key theories

Classical conditioning

B.F skinner .… Operational conditioning

Albert Bandura … social learning

Pavlov:

Russian scientist studying the digestion of dogs

Noted that dogs began salivating before food even arrived

Discovered that the sound of the researcher approaching elicited salivation in the dogs.

The dogs had been conditioned to salivate then because of repeated pairings of footsteps+ food.

FIGURE 6.3

His theory: Classical conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

-Stimulus that already evokes a response

Unconditioned response (UR)

- Response that already follows the stimulus

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

-New stimulus that evokes response after conditioning

Conditioned response (CR)

Response that now follows conditioned stimulus

The UCR (think “natural” or “unlearned”) and CR( think “learned”) are the same, but elicited by a different stimulus.

-Acquisition: the gradual formation of an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.

-Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus (CS) no longer predicts the unconditioned stimulus (US)

Spontaneous recovery

Extinction burst!

Watson

Can fears be conditioned?

“Little Albert”

Repeated pairings of US (loud noise) with CS (white rat)

After several trails- fearful reaction (CR) to white rat

Tidbit: Creating a Fetish

One of the theories of how Fetishism develops is:

-Via classical conditioning

Conditioning & Advertising: The “celebrity endorsement”

B.F. Skinner

Considered to be the founder of operant conditioning

Focused on the observable behaviors of pigeons and rats rather than the study of the mind through introspection

Skinner’s systematic studies led to many of the principles of learning we know today and have been influential in many areas from classrooms to clinics

What is operant conditioning?

A learning process in which the consequences of an action determine the likelihood that it will be performed in the future.

How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning?

Classical conditioning is a passive associational process that does not take into account when organisms engage in instrumental behavior (to achieve some purpose).

Operant (aka instrumental) conditioning is the learning process in which an action’s consequences determine the likelihood that the action will be performed in the future.

Some key terms to know!

Reinforcement

-Positive vs. negative

-Primary vs. secondary

Punishment

-Positive punishment

-Negative punishment

Positive reinforcers: anything that follows a behavior that increases the likelihood that that behavior will reoccur

Negative reinforcer: anything that, when removed, increases the likelihood that a behavior will reoccur. like PR’s, NR’s increase a behavior. Unlike PR’s, NR’s are aversive stimuli.

Promotes escape and avoidance

Reinforcement Increases Behavior:

Reinforceres can be grouped into 2 types;

Primary: those satisfying basic biological needs.

Secondary: those that do not satisfy basic biological needs- learned through classical conditioning. …. “ tuck shop with kids”

Premack Principal

David Premack : the premack principle (AKA grandma’s rule) suggests that more valued activities can be used to reinforce less valued activities.

“Grandma’s Rule”-> “ first you finish your broccoli, then you get your desert.”

Operant Conditioning: Punishers

Punishers: anything that follows a behavior that decreases the likelifhood of that behavior reoccurring.

(Punishers differ from NR’s in that punishers decrease a behavior while NR’s

increase (via escape and avoidance) a behavior)

- Punishment can involve the application of an aversive or removal of a positive

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