CTOPP
Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing
Tessa Hupp, Dwight Myers
1. Introduction of Test:
A. Overview of CTOPP:
3 kinds of phonological processing appear to be needed for mastery of written language:
phonological awareness, phonological memory, and rapid naming. Phonological
awareness (measures an individual’s awareness and access to the phonological structure
of oral language), phonological memory (measures an individual’s ability to code
information phonologically for temporary storage in working or short-term memory, and
rapid naming (measures the individual's efficient retrieval of phonological information
from long-term or permanent memory, as well as the ability to execute a sequence of
operations quickly and repeatedly).
A deficit in one or more of these kinds of processes is viewed as the most common cause
of learning disabilities and reading disabilities. Effective mathematical calculation,
listening comprehension and reading comprehension is also affiliated with phonological
processing abilities.
This test helps with early reading. Satisfies six different phonological abilities: measures
reading related phonological skills, provides examiner with a comparative index of
phonological processing strengths and weaknesses, are reliable that the examiner can
have confidence in their results, are valid that the examiner will know what abilities are
being measured, are short enough that the fatigue of both the examiner and examinee is
held at a minimum.
There are 13 subtests, each subtests follows the main 3 kinds of phonological processing,
and they are classified below:
Ages 5 and 6
Phonological awareness: Elision, Blending Words, Blending Nonwords, Sound Matching
Phonological memory: Memory for Digits, Nonword Repetition
Rapid Naming: Rapid Color Naming, Rapid Object Naming
Ages 7-24
Phonological awareness: Elision, Blending Words, Blending Nonwords, Segmenting
Nonwords.
Phonological memory: Memory for Digits, Nonword Repetition
Rapid Naming: Rapid Digit Naming, Rapid Letter Naming, Rapid Color Naming, Rapid
Object Naming, Phoneme reversal.
B. Main uses and population:
There are four main uses:
1. To identify individuals who are significantly below their peers in important
phonological abilities
2.To determine strengths and weaknesses among developed phonological processes
3.To document individual’s progress in phonological processing as a consequence of
special intervention programs
4.To serve as a measurement device in research studies investigating phonological
processing
Population:
This test is designed to help those from kindergarten to college, who can profit from these
skills. Because of the large span of ages, there are two versions of the test.
First version is for individual’s ages 5 and 6. There are 7 subtests and 1 supplemental test.
Core subtests include: elision, rapid color naming, blending words, sound matching, rapid
object naming, memory for digits, nonword repetition. The 1 supplemental subtest is
blending nonwords.
The second version is for individuals ages 7-24, second grade to college. There are 6
subtests and 6 supplemental tests. The core subtests include: elision, blending words,
memory for digits, rapid digit naming, nonword repetition, rapid letter naming. The 6
supplemental subtests include: rapid color naming, phoneme reversal, rapid object
naming, blending nonwords, segmenting words, segmenting nonwords.
Both versions are hand scored and individually administered, taking about 30 minutes to
complete the core subtests.
C. Norming sample and procedures:
Normative samples for the CTOPP came from samples that were large and diverse. The
CTOPP was normed on a sample of 1,656 individuals, reflecting the demographic status
of the US population in 30 states. The CTOPP norms were tested in1997. Individuals
participating in this effort were sent materials to test between 20-30 examinees in 4
different US geographic locations.
The demographic characteristics of the normative sample include: 4 different U.S.
regions, both genders, white/black/other races, urban/rural residences, several ethnicities,
a variety of family incomes, a variety in parents education, disability/no disability, and
the age group of 5-24. Between 76 to 155 students were included in each age range, with
the greater representation in the youngest age ranges.
There are 3 types of normative scores that accompany the CTOPP.
-Standard scores for the subtests and composite scores: Norms for the CTOPP subtests
are presented in terms of standard scores having a mean of 10 and standard deviation of
3. Composite scores are based on a distribution having a mean of 100 and a standard
deviation of 15. Standard scores are determined from raw scores using Appendix A for
subtests and Appendix B for composite scores.
-Percentiles: Provided for the CTOPP subtests and composite scores. Although
percentiles can be convenient and popular, the examiners should be familiar with their
advantages and disadvantages.
-Age and grade equivalents: These indicate the age/grade level that corresponds to a raw
score made by an individual. The average scores are computer of all individuals in each
age interval. Lines were drawn to connect the average scores, then it was easy to
determine the age levels that correspond to each possible raw score by reading the graph.
D. Cautions, limitations, or drawbacks:
The most reliable of tests that possess acceptable levels of reliability still have an
alarming amount of error in them. Examiners should be cautious in interpreting the
results of even those tests that are reliable at the highest levels because they still possess
some error. Therefore, when making judgments about individuals, tests results must be
handled carefully.
Test results are observations, and not diagnoses. Test results can be useful when
diagnosing, but are simply “aids” to clinical judgment.
There are many factors that can cause a person to perform in a particular way on a test.
Social, economic deprivation, etc, so the examiner requires information that goes far
beyond what is available from the test results.
Test results do not necessarily translate directly into daily planning for individuals. The
subtests assess too few areas to implement instruction. Interpreting the CTOPP results is
the first step in doing a comprehensive evaluation of a student’s problem in phonological
processing.
2. Test demonstration: overview of each 13 subtests.
The subtests that make up the 5 and 6 year old version and the 7-24 year-old version, all
measure aspects of phonological processing.
The Basal/Entry Points-regardless of age-is to begin each subtest with the first item.
However, if the examinee is unable to complete the practice items, the subtest must be
discontinued.
#1 Elision: Measures the extent to which an individual can say a word, then say what is
left after dropping out designated sounds. An example would be to say, “bold”, and they
say old.
Administration and scoring information: The examiner sits next to the examinee and
reads the instructions from the Examiner Record Booklet. Feedback is given to the
examinee for each practice item and the first five test items in the subtest. This subtest is
made up of 20 items. Record correct answers as 1 and incorrect answers as 0. The total
raw score for this subtest is the total number of correct test items up to the ceiling.
Basal and ceiling rules: No Basal. Ceiling is to stop after child misses 3 test items in a
row.
Materials needed: none
#2 Blending Words: Measures the ability to synthesize sounds to form words. An
example would be: “what word do these sounds make? T-oi?” Correct response is toy.
Administration and scoring information: The examiner sits next to the examinee and
reads the instructions from the Examiner Record Booklet while operating the cassette
recorder. Feedback is given to the examinee for the practice items and the first 3 test
items only. This subtest is made up of 20 items. Record correct answers as 1 and
incorrect answers as 0. The total raw score for this subtest is the total number of correct
test items up to the ceiling.
Basal and ceiling rules: No Basal. Ceiling is to stop after the examinee misses 3 test
items in a row.
Materials needed: CD player and Track 1 for ages 5 and 6, and Track 5 for ages 7-24.
#3 Sound Matching- Measures the ability to select words with the same initial and final
sounds. An example would be to open the picture book and show the examinee a picture
of a sock. Tell them to look at the other two pictures and point to the one that begins
with the letter “S”.
Administration and scoring information: For the first 10 items, the individual is asked
to point to the picture that corresponds to the word that starts with the same sounds as the
first word the examiner said. The last 10 items, the same procedure is used but the
individual is asked to point to the picture of the word that ends with the same last sound
as the first word.
This subtest is made up of 20 items. Record correct answers as 1 and incorrect answers as
0. The total raw score for this subtest is the total number of correct responses up to the
ceiling.
Basal and ceiling rules: No basal. Ceiling is to stop when child misses 4/7 test items but
examiner must give at least 7 test items.
Materials needed: Picture book
#4 Memory for Digits- Measures the ability to repeat numbers accurately. An example
would be to say “on this one, you will hear some numbers, one after another on the CD
player. After you hear the numbers, I want you to say them in the same order that you
heard them. I can’t repeat the numbers.”
Administration and scoring information: Play the cassette pausing after each trial to
allow the examinee to respond. This subtest is made up of 21 items. Score 1 point for
each test trial completed without error. If examinee wants trial to be repeated, say you
are unable to do so.
Basal and ceiling rules: No Basal. Ceiling is to stop after examinee misses 3 test trials
in a row.
Materials needed: CD player and Track 2 of CD for ages 5 and 6, and Track 6 for ages
7-24.
#5 Nonword Repetition- Measures the ability to repeat nonwords accurately. An
example of this would. Example is the individual hears the tape sounds “nigong”, to
which the correct response is “nigong”.
Administration and scoring information: The examinee is told to listen to an
audiocassette recorded made up word and repeat it exactly as he or she heard it. If
examinee asks to have an item repeated, say “I can only play the recorded sounds once”.
This subtest is made up of 18 items. Record correct answers as 1 and incorrect answers
as 0. The total raw score for this subtest is the total number of correct test items up to the
ceiling.
Basal and ceiling rules: No basal. Ceiling is to stop after examinee misses 3 test items in
a row.
Materials needed: CD player and Track 3 of CD for ages 5 and 6, and Track 7 of CD for
ages 7-24.
#6 Rapid Color Naming- Measures the speed with which an individual can name the
colors of a series of different colored blocks printed on two pages.
Administration and scoring information: The picture book contains two different
pages for this subtest; each has four rows and nine columns of randomly arranged colors.
They are told to name the colors on the first page as quickly as possible; they start with
the colors on the top row, from left to right. After they completed to first page, they move
to the second page. This subtest is made up of 72 items. The score for this subtest is the
number of seconds that it takes the examinee to name all of the colors on form A and B
combined. Items are marked incorrect if examinee skips the color or gives it the wrong
name. If they skip a line, score the first color on the skipped line as incorrect and try to
redirect them to the correct line. If they hesitate for more than 2 seconds on a certain
color, mark it incorrect and go on to the next color.
Basal and ceiling rules: No basal. No ceiling for this subtest because it is timed,
discontinue testing if on the practice items the examinee cannot name all of the colors
correctly after error correction. If examinee makes more than 4 errors on form A,
discontinue testing. If examinee makes more than 4 errors on either form, do not score
the subtest.
Materials needed: Stopwatch, color naming pages in the picture book (form A and B).
#7 Rapid Object Naming- Measures the ability to rapidly name a series of objects. The
picture book has two different pages for this subtest, each has four rows and 9 columns f
six randomly arranged drawings of objects.
Administration and scoring information: The individual is instructed to start naming
the objects on the top row, left to right. After they complete the first page, they are to do
the same on the second page. This subtest is made up of 72 items. The score is the
number of seconds that it takes the examinee to name all of the objects on form A and B
combined. Items are marked incorrect if the child skips the object or gives it the wrong
name. If the child skips a line, score the first object on the skipped line as incorrect and
try to redirect the child to the correct line. If he or she hesitates on an object for more
than 2 seconds, mark as incorrect and point to next object.
Basal and ceiling rules: No basal. No ceiling for this subtest because it is time,
discontinue testing if on the practice items, the child cannot name all of the object
correctly. If the child makes more than 4 errors on form A, do not give form B. If the
examinee makes more than 4 errors on either form, do not score the subtest.
Materials needed: Stopwatch, object naming pages in picture book (form A and B).
#8 Rapid Digit Naming- Measures the speed with which an individual can name the
numbers on two pages. The picture book has two different pages, with four rows and 9
columns of 6 randomly selected numbers.
Administration and scoring information: The examinee is instructed to start naming
the numbers on the top row, from left to right. After they complete the first page, they
move to the second page and do the same procedure. This subtest is made up of 72 items.
The score is the number of seconds it takes the examinee to name all of the numbers on
form A and B combined. Items are marked incorrect if the examinee skips the number or
gives it the wrong name. If the examinee skips a line, score the first number on the
skipped line as incorrect and try to redirect them back to the correct line. If the examinee
hesitates on a certain number for more than 2 seconds, mark it as incorrect and point
them to the next number.
Basal and ceiling rules: No basal. No ceiling for this subtest because it is timed,
discontinue testing if on the practice items the examinee cannot name all of the numbers
correctly, even after error correction. If the examinee makes more than 4 errors on form
A, do not give form B. If the examinee makes more than 4 errors on either form, do not
score the subtest.
Materials needed: Stopwatch and digit naming pages in the picture book (form A and
B).
#9 Rapid Letter Naming- Measures the speed with which an individual can name the
letters. The picture book has two different pages; each has 4 rows, 9 columns of 6
randomly arranged letters.
Administration and scoring information: The examinee is instructed to start naming
the letters from top row, left to right. After they do the first page, they move to the
second page. This subtest is made up of 72 items. The score is the number of seconds it
takes the examinee to name all of the letters on form A and B combined. Items marked
incorrect if the examinee skips the object or gives it the wrong name. If the examinee
skips a line, score the first letter on the skipped line as incorrect and try to redirect the
examinee to the correct line. If the examinee hesitates for more than 2 seconds on a
letter, mark it as incorrect and point them to the next item.
Basal and ceiling rules: No basal. No ceiling for this subtest because it is timed,
discontinue testing if on the practice items the examinee cannot name all of the letters
correctly, even after error correction. If the examinee makes more than 4 errors on form
A, do not give form B. If the examinee makes more than 4 errors on either form, do not
score the subtest.
Materials needed: Stopwatch, letter naming pages in the picture book (form A and B).
#10 Blending Nonwords- Measures an individual’s ability to combine speech sounds to
make nonwords. The individual listens to a series of audiocassette recorded separate
sounds, and is asked to put these separate sounds together to form a nonword. An
example would be when the examinee is asked “what made up word do these sounds
make?” “Nim-by”. Correct response would be the examinee saying nimby.
Administration and scoring information: Tell the examinee to listen to the CD player
and they will hear some made up words in small parts, one part at a time. Tell them to
listen carefully and put the parts together to make a made-up word. If the examinee asks
you to repeat the sounds, you may play the recorded sounds one more time. When the
examinee gives no response, you may replay the item. This subtest is made up of 18
items. Record correct answers as 1 and incorrect answers as 0. The total raw score for
this subtest is the total number of correct items up to the ceiling.
Basal and ceiling rules: No basal. Stop after the examinee misses 3 test items in a row.
Materials needed: CD player and Track 4 of CD for ages 5 and 6, and Track 9 of CD for
ages 7-25.
#11 Segmenting Words- Measures an individual’s ability to say the separate phonemes
that make up a word. An example would be to tell the individual to say “best” and then to
say it one sound at a time, the correct response would be “b-e-s-t”.
Administration and scoring information: The examiner can prompt with “now say
____ one sound at a time”, if the examinee forgets to do so. The examiner can repeat an
item if the examinee mispronounces a word or asks to hear it again. This subtest is made
up of 20 items. Record correct answers as 1 and incorrect answers as 0. The total raw
score for this subtest is the total number of correct test items up to the ceiling.
Basal and ceiling rules: No basal. Stop after examinee misses 3 test items in a row.
Materials needed: None
#12 Segmenting Nonwords- Measures an individual’s ability to say the separate
phonemes that make up a nonword. An example would be that they listen to the cassette
sounds “ren”, and repeat the nonword and says the nonword one sound at a time. The
correct response should be “r-e-n.”
Administration and scoring information: The examiner can prompt with “say ___ one
sound at a time” if the examinee forgets to do so. The examinee listens to an
audiocassette recorded series of nonwords, repeats each nonword, and then says it one
sound at a time. This subtest is made up of 20 items. Record correct answers as 1 and
incorrect answers as 0. The total raw score for this subtest is the total number of correct
test items up to the ceiling.
Basal and ceiling rules: No basal. Stop after the examinee misses 3 test items in a row.
Materials needed: CD player and Track 10 of the segmenting nonwords CD.
#13 Phoneme Reversal- Measures the extent to which an individual can reorder speech
sounds to form words. An example would be after listening to the sounds “ood”, the
examinee is instructed to repeat “ood” and say it backwards, the response would be “do”.
Administration and scoring information: The individual listens to an audiocassette
recorded series of nonwords, is instructed to repeat the nonwords and is asked to say the
same nonword backwards to form a real word. If the examinee does not initiate a
response to an item within 10 seconds, say, “let’s try the next one”. Be sure to have the
examinee repeat the nonword stimulus immediately after it is given on the CD player.
This will ensure that they heard it correctly. If the examinee repeats the nonword
incorrectly, play it again and have the examinee say it over (up to 3 times) until they
pronounce it correctly. If it is not pronounce correctly after 3 times, count it as incorrect
and move on to the next test item. This subtest is made up of 18 items. Record correct
answers as 1 and incorrect answers as 0. The total raw score for this subtest is the total
number of correct test items up to the ceiling.
Basal and ceiling rules: No basal. Stop after the examinee misses 3 test items in a row.
Materials needed: CD player and Track 8 of the CD.
3. Test Interpretation
A. The CTOPP has six types of scores: raw scores, age and grade equivalents,
percentiles, and standard scores for the subtests, and composite scores. The scores are
very important to know and understand because with additional testing information,
observation, and knowledge, it will help develop a proper diagnosis for that particular
students phonological processing problem.
-Raw Scores are the total number of items scored correct for a subtest. Raw scores are
usually used for research purposes, to make group comparisons or compute correlations.
-Age and grade equivalents for the CTOPP are thought of as phonological processing
ages. The scores are derived by calculating average normative group scores. This
method has been problematic because of the process of interpolation, extrapolation, and
smoothing.
-Percentiles represent values that indicate percentages of the distribution of scores that is
either equal or below a particular score. An example would be if a student had a 33
percentile, it means that 33% of people in the same age range sample score at, or below
the examinee’s score. Percentiles are used when sharing test results with others and is
easy to understand.
-Subtest standard scores provide the clearest indication of an individual’s subtest
performance. They are converted from the raw score. There are guidelines that make
this very easy to understand.
-Composite scores are very reliable scores for the CTOPP. The composite scores are
derived by adding the subtest standard scores and converting to a composite score.
There are 3 main composite scores, they reflect on the examinee’s status and indicate
their ability relative to phonological awareness, memory and rapid naming.
The 3 composite scores are helpful for interpreting strengths and weaknesses and tend to
be highly reliable. These include: Phonological Awareness Composite Score,
Phonological Memory Composite Score, and Rapid Naming Composite Score.
Phonological Awareness Composite Score comprises the standard scores of 3 subtests
(Elision, Blending Words, and Sound Matching).
Phonological Memory Composite Score comprises the standard scores of 2 subtests
(Memory for Digits and Nonword Repetition).
The Rapid Naming Composite Score comprises the standard scores of 2 subtests (Rapid
Color Naming and Rapid Object Naming).
-It is preferable to use standard scores and percentiles when reporting results to parents
and other professionals because they are easy to understand to everyday people.
B. Page 45 in the handout describes the guide to interpreting subtest standard scores and
composite scores. The guide is very easy to follow and allows the examiner to see where
the student fits from very poor to very superior.
The examiner writes all relevant notes and comments about the individual’s performance
on the CTOPP, makes recommendations for further assessment, does the interpretation of
the CTOPP results, and makes suggestions for appropriate instructional interventions.
C. Based on the results of the CTOPP, the examiner or special education team can see
where the student falls in age and grade equivalents in phonological processing. The
scores the student gets on the CTOPP yield age and grade equivalents. This will help the
assessment team to target areas of strength and areas of need.
4. Psychometrics:
A. The overall reliability of the CTOPP subtest and composite scores are regardless of
age. CTOPP is considered minimally reliable, its reliability coefficients must
approximate or exceed .80 in magnitude; coefficients of .90 or above are considered
desirable. The status of the CTOPP subtest and composite cores are relative to 3 sources
of error variance: content sampling, time sampling, an interscorer differences.
From inspection, it is indicated that the CTOPP is equally reliable for all the subgroups
and contains little or no bias relative to those groups.
Data from graphs and tables indicate that the CTOPP’s values allow confidence in the
test scores stability over time.
The examiners are to test examinees using the same testing methods and that is why they
are trained for this test. This is helpful and prevents variability in scoring.
On page 77 in the handout, a table summarizes the reliability of the CTOPP. The table
shows that the CTOPP evidences a high degree of reliability. It is suggested that the
CTOPP possesses little test error and that users can have confidence in its results.
B. The validity seems to be strong because research shows that the CTOPP has been
proven to assess phonological processing. Content-description validity involves
examination of the test content to determine whether it covers a sample of phonological
processing, this is built into the CTOPP.
Criterion-prediction validity indicates effectiveness of a test in predicting an individual’s
performance in specific activities. This indicates that the CTOPP correlates well with
other tests and is to measure phonological processes. There is a strong correlation
between phonological processing, phonological memory and rapid naming.
Construct-identification validity is the extent to which the test may be said to measure a
theoretical construct. It relates to the degree to the traits of the test that can be identified.
It also shows that the test is logical.
The CTOPP is concluded to be a valid measure of phonological processes and can be
used to assess individuals with confidence. Professionals continue to study the CTOPP
with several different samples and statistics. The researchers are encouraged to share
results so the findings can be included in the manual. Research helps further clarify
validity and will continue to provide guidance for future revisions of the CTOPP.
C. The overall quality of the CTOPP seems to be high. The CTOPP is clear in the
directions, instructions, phonological processing, and scoring. The CTOPP also uses
plenty of examples in the Record Booklet, which is very helpful for the examiner to
understand the subtest questions. The handbook is useful, it provides plenty of
information about the purposes of the subtests and what “phonological processing” is all
about.
5. Conclusion
A. We were both impressed with the CTOPP. Overall, the CTOPP appears to be a wellresearched instrument relating to cognitive linguistic functioning. The CTOPP seems to
be a very valuable test to identify phonological processing skills and seems to be
appropriate to develop learning disabilities in reading/writing and possibly dyslexia. It
provides important information regarding processes that underlie beginning reading skills
and seems likely to aid in understanding the problems some students have learning to
read.
B. There were a few unique features of the CTOPP that we found through our research.
Each subtest has practice items to help familiarize the examinee with items before the
actual test begins, this is helpful to the examinee but also for the examiner to understand
the test questions.
All of the subtests require the examiner to provide feedback to the examinee: A correct
response could be a simple statement such as “that’s right.”
The subtests are short in length and some of the subtests resemble games in a way. For
instance, using the picture book with different colors, digits, and objects can be exciting
for students, rather than a standard test with tons of explanations.
The CTOPP has 13 subtests; this is an opportunity for students to demonstrate their skills.
C. There are several valid and reliable instruments that could be used to assess the
examinees as an alternative for the CTOPP. The TOWRE (Test Of Word Reading
Efficiency), it measures word reading ability and in particular tests for reading fluency of
nonwords and reading fluency of words. There is a strong correlation between the
TOWRE and CTOPP because there is a good relationship between phonological
processes and word reading fluency.
Other instruments include the Lindamood Auditory Conceptualization Tests, Woodcock
Reading Mastery Tests-Revised, the Gray Oral Reading Tests (3rd edition), and the Wide
Range Achievement Test (3rd edition).