Chapter 14: The Last Great Nomadic Challenges: From Chinggis Khan to
Timur
 1200’s to 1405: pinnacle of Mongol military might
 Mongol forces conquered central Asia, northern China, and eastern Persia,
then the rest of Tibet, China, Persia, Iraq, much of Asia Minor, and all of
southern Russia
 1227: Death of Chinggis Khan and empire as divided into four khanates
 Written histories commonly depict Mongols as barbaric hordes
 At the peak of their power, the domains of the Mongol khans made up a
vast realm in which once-hostile peoples lived together in peace and most
religions were tolerated.
 Mongols laid the basis for increased global interaction.
The Mongol Empire of Chinggis Khan
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Mongols epitomized nomadic society and culture
Primarily pastoral: sheep and goats
Strong Mongol ponies essential to their way of life
Basic unit= tribe, divided into kin-related clans who camped and herded
together on a regular basis.
 Leaders were elected by free men of the group, although women could still
be heard at tribal councils
 The weak and old could be abandoned if they no longer were contributing
to the clan.
The Making of a Great Warrior: The Early Career of Chinggis Khan
 Kabul Khan: great-grandfather of Chinggis: 12th century led a Mongol
alliance and had a victory over the Qin dynasty
 Chinggis Khan: born Temujin in the 1170’s- his father was poisoned and
Temujin had to lead the family at an early age. His encampment was
repeatedly attacked and he was taken prisoner in 1182 by a rival tribe. He
escaped and then joined the band of a more powerful Mongol chieftain.
 1206 at a kuriltai (meeting of all of the Mongol chieftains), Temujin was
elected the Khagan, supreme ruler, of the Mongol tribes.
Building the Mongol War Machine
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Preferred weapon of Mongol warriors was their short-bow
Mongol armies were entirely cavalry so they could move rapidly
Loyalty to Chinggis overshadowed previous vendettas and quarrels
Tumens: Basic Mongol fighting units made up of 10,000 warriors. Each was
further divided into units of 1000, 100, and 10 warriors. Commanders were
responsible for training, arming, and disciplining the cavalrymen under
their charge. Divided into heavy and light cavalry
Separate messenger force for communication
Strict and summary justice for deserters (execution)
Cartography improved, extensive spy network.
New weapons: flaming and exploding arrows, gunpowder projectiles, and
later bronze cannons.
Conquest: The Mongol Empire Under Chinggis Khan
 Chinggis Khan once said his greatest pleasure in life was making war,
defeating enemies, forcing “their beloved to weep, riding on their horses,
embracing their wives and daughters.”
 Attacked the Xia Xia kingdom in northwest China, then the Qin Empire.
 Siege weapons were key: including fiery goo made with Dolphin bladder.
 Mongols usually spared famous scholars and artisans b/c they were useful,
but resisting townspeople were slaughtered or sold into slavery.
 Surrendering towns were usually spared but had to pay hefty tribute.
First Assault on the Islamic World: Conquest in China
 1219: Chinggis Khan annexed Kara Khitai
 Muhammad Shah II- Turkic ruler of the Khwarazm Empire to the West
 Muhammad Shah II: Assaulted Chinggis’ envoys (Don’t shoot the
messenger): led to war
 Use of cavalry, feigned retreat and mass attack
Life Under the Mongol Imperium
 Chinggis was illiterate
 Chinggis established a capital at Karakorum
o On the steppes
 Gathered information from artisans, Confucian scholars, and Daoist
holymen
 Religion: Shamanistic (focused on nature spirits)
 Administration developed
 Record-keeping: standardization of laws
The Death of Chinggis Khan and the Division of the Empire
 Chinggis ordered that the Tangut civilization be wiped off the face of the
earth.
 Chinggis died in August 1227
 Chinggis’ body returned to Mongolia- humans and animals were killed that
crossed its path on journey
 Empire divided between 3 sons and 1 grandson (Batu)
 Kuriltai at Karakorum: Ogedei (3rd son) elected Grand Khan: further
campaigns and conquests
The Mongol Drive to the West
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Mongol raids into Georgia and across Russian Steppe
Christian lands were ripe for the taking
Golden Horde: nickname of the Mongols
Batu, Grandson of Chinggis- began invasion of Russia in 1236
Russia was lacking solidarity to resist the Mongols
1236: Batu: 120,000 cavalrymen into Russia
Tatars/ Tartars (people from hell): nickname for the Mongols
Mongols had a successful winter invasion of Russia
2nd Mongol invasion in 1240: Kiev fell
 Prince Alexander Nevskii submitted to Mongol demands
Russia in Bondage
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Russian princes as vassals of khan of Golden Horde and paid tribute
Led to feudalism/ serfdom for some
Some peasants fled to remote areas
City of Moscow grew in strength as tribute collectors for Mongols
Moscow: center of Orthodox Church “3rd Rome”
Moscow eventually organized a force that defeated the Golden Horde at
the Battle of Kulikora
 Russia because of Mongol rule, was isolated from Europe and the
Renaissance and Reformation there.
Mongol Incursions and the Retreat from Europe
 Prester John: mythical rich and powerful Christian monarch, some said in
Africa or Asia, whose kingdom had been cut off from Europe during Muslim
Expansion. Forces would eventually strike Muslims from rear and reunite
with Europe according to this legend
 Some Europeans thought Chinngis was Prester John
 But then the Mongols attacked Russia (orthodox) proving they were in fact
a threat to Christendom
 King Bela of Hungary: dismissed Mongol envoys and refused to submit to
Mongols
 Only thing that stopped Mongol raid of rest of Western Europe was the
death of Ogedei, so Batu had to retreat to prepare to struggle for
succession
The Mongol Assault on the Islamic Heartland
 Hulegu, grandson of Chinggis and ruler of Ilkhan portions of Mongol Empire
who worked to conquer Muslim empires of Mesopotamia and north Africa
 1258 Baghdad was captured and destroyed
 Last Abbasid caliph and 800,000 were killed
 1260 Mongols were defeated by the Mamluk, slave dynasty of Egypt, led by
Baibars
 Christians cooperated with Baibars against the Mongols
 Berke: khan of Golden Horde, Muslim, challenged Herlegu’s authority
The Mongol Interlude in Chinese History
 Mongol rule in China lasted about 100 Years
 Mongols retained a distinct culture and social separateness until they were
driven back beyond the Great Wall in late 1360’s
 Helped open up China to foreign contacts with Arabia, Persia, Europe
 Kubilai Khan: grandson of Chinggis led campaigns against Song
 1260 Kubilai became Great Khan
 1271 established the Yuan dynasty in China
 Kubilai tried to preserve the distinction between Mongol and Chinese
 Chinese scholars forbidden from learning Mongol script
 Mongols forbidden from marrying ethnic Chinese
 Kubilai did surround himself with Chinese advisors: Buddhist, Daoist, and
Confucian
 Capital @Tatu (Beijing)
 New social structure: Mongols on top w/ central Asian nomadic and Muslim
allies below them on hierarchy- then north Chinese and then ethnic
Chinese
Gender Roles and the Convergence of Mongol and Chinese Culture
 Mongol women refused to footbind
 Women hunted with their husbands
 Chabu: wife of Kubilai Khan: close advisor promoted Buddhism
Mongol Tolerance and Foreign Cultural Influence
 Patronage of scholars, artists, artisans, and office seekers to Yuan court.
 Mulsims played important role
 Chinese style imperial city with Muslim architects
o Tax collections, navigation, cartography
 Kubilai welcomed visitors: including Marco Polo and family.
o 17 years: allegedly resided at Kubilai’s Court famous account
o Increased European interest in Asia
Social Policies and Scholar Gentry Resistance
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Ethnic Chinese never reconciled to Mongol rule
Kubilai refused to reinstate civil-service exam- alienate scholar-gentry
Kukbilai encouraged artisan class and merchants (against Confucianism)
Mongols developed substantial navy
o Failed attacks on Japan (Divine Wind: Kamikaze)
 Literary work: Yuan period: The Romance of the West Chamber
 Protected peasant class: granary system for famine relief
 Proposed elementary education programs in villages
The Fall of the House of Yuan
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Mongol rule lasted 90 years: Kubilai majority of that time
Song protest
Failure of military expeditions against Japan in 1274 and 1280
Scholar-gentry capitalized on discontent
White-Lotus Society: secret organization dedicated to overthrowing Yuan
Dynasty.
o Claim of magical powers
 Ju Yuanghang: poor peasant emerged to forge the Ming Dynasty
Aftershock: The Brief Ride of Timur
 Timur-I Lang (Timur the Lame/ Tamerlane) Turk noble who led a nomadic
attack
 Troops committed great atrocities
 Traveled with skulls of victims
 Capital at Samarkand
 Spared artisans and scientists to improve their capital
 Timur died I 1405 and empire fell apart
Genetic Links today to Genghis Khan: Common ancestor in genome code.
Old Book
 Tamerlane (b.1330’s-d.1405) (Timur the Lame) ruler of Mongol
Khanate based in Samarkand (former Mongol Empire) large conquest
campaign
 End of 15th c. new threats: Mughals and Portuguese traders