WOMEN AND OIL PALM IN THE CONTEXT OF HOUSEHOLD ECONOMY
IN EASTERN, NIGERIA.
BY
Emmy-Egbe, Ifeyinwa Oslar.
Department of Biological Sciences
Anambra State University, Uli
Ifyemmegbe@yahoo.com
08035496416
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the history, Taxonomy, geographical distribution and the role of
women in oil palm in the context of household economy in Eastern, Nigeria. The
processing of palm fruit is the most important processing activity carried in Nigeria.
Historical events were described from its record in 1939. Taxonomy was adopted by
majority of authors from kingdom to species level. Geographical distribution was also
described. The end products, palm oil and palm kernels, have traditionally composed 15
to 20 percent of Nigeria’s exports in 1965 palm oil is an important item in the Nigerian
diet and is used as an illuminant, cooking, and soap ingredient.
The most preferred and most important information source on improved oil palm
technologies used by the women farmers was the extension agents. The study also
analyzed the constraints militating against the participation of women in processing and
marketing oil palm. Problems such as access to capital, limited access to extension
services, lack of ownership of land, high processing cost, price fluctuation and women
activities amongst others were militating against women processors and marketers. The
study recommended modern and efficient processing mills and other labour saving
technologies, access and control over land and capital, as well as women education.
Key Words: Economy, Household, Oil palm and Women.
INTRODUCTION
In different agro-ecological zones of Nigeria, women are predominantly engaged in the
processing and marketing of oil palm fruit. A good number of woman are into processing and
marketing of oil palm fruit which is basically for consumption and for sale. Report has it that
women are responsible for at least 70% of food production in African and are also important
in marketing cash cropping and animal husbandry. F AO (1996) reported that women
contribution to labour in Africa is about 33% of the work force, 70% of the production of food
for household consumption and sale, 90% of the basic processing of food stuff 80% of food
storage and transport 66% of harvesting and marketing activities. Adeyeye (1984) noted that
women spent about 1.4 h a day in food processing and marketing while only 0.25 h is spent by
men on the same activity. Ibe and Nweke (1981), Ona (1987) and Ogbonna (1989) also
indicated that female labour are more productive than the male labour in food processing and
also that women account for more than half of the labour force in palm oil processing and
marketing. Before the boom in petro-oil sector which has become the mainstay of the economy,
the Country depended on agriculture particularly oil palm fruit processing and marketing in the
south eastern state. But during the past decades, the country has become an importer of palm oil
from malaysia. Nigeria's palm oil production which in the past accounted for 43% of the world
production now only account for 7% of the world production (National Agricultural Project,
1997).
Not withstanding this rapid decline, oil palm fruit processing and its marketing still provides for
about 80% of rural small scale fanners in which women forms a great percentage. However, with
the tripartite burden of child bearing, domestic chores and agricultural activities, women in the
study area are sand witched between several constraints in the processing and marketing of oil
palm fruit Despite the constraints, the participation of women in processing and marketing of oil
palm fruit is increasing at a fast rate as a result of the demand of the growing urban population
for palm oil. Since, the major processors and marketers of oil palm fruit are the rural farm
households in which majority are women, the study was targeted at the role of women and their
constraints in the processing and marketing of oil palm fruit in some of as a means of improving
production of palm oil in the study area and the state in general. Often women's voices are
ignored when research priorities are set and their needs are therefore not addressed. But the fact
that women contribute immensely in socio-economic development of the rural areas with less
authority and opportunity than men implies that the socio-economic constraints militating
against their efficient resource management must be fully understood. This would suggest
possible solutions to their efficient performance. This is particularly important in the study area
where oil palm fruit processing and marketing is an increasing occupation of the rural
inhabitants.
HISTORY
The oil-palm is native to the humid tropics of West Africa from 16° N. (NMB 1939). It occurs
wild along the banks of rivers and streams in the transition zone between rain forest and
savanna where there is plentiful water, but where the palms are not shaded by a dense
growth of forest trees. These requirements for light and water confine the com mercial
exploitation of extensive groves and plantations to areas of cleared rain forest. Most of the oilpalms in West Africa were planted by farmers in forest clearings, but they form naturalized
communities in which the individual trees may live for 200 years. The density of palms in
these communities was determined by the density of the human population and the extent to
which the rain forest had been cleared when they were planted. Naturalized communities are
most extensive and dense in eastern Nigeria where palms in the groves may be so close
together that no other crops can be grown. Oil-palms extend east across the central rain forest
belt of Africa between latitudes 3° N. and 7° S., as far as the borders of Zaire and
Uganda. They were introduced to South America from West Africa at the time of slave trade,
and became established in Brazil; they also occur in scattered locations in East Africa and
Madagascar. The main event in the history of oil-palms in Asia was the establishment of four
trees in a botanic garden in Java in 1848. The seeds from one of them were selected and gave
rise to a productive and true breeding population called 'Deli' palms which were later used to
establish large plantations in Indonesia and Malaysia. The crop grows best and is most
productive where the annual rainfall is 2,000 mm or more, and where there is no 'dry
season.
Oil-palms produce more oil per hectare than any other oil seed crop, but they are locally
valued as well for the wine obtained by natural fermentation of the sap tapped from the male
inflorescences. Two kinds of oil are extracted from the fruits. Palm oil is obtained from the
fleshy, orange mesocarp of the drupes, and much of it is used for food where the palms are
grown. Palm kernel oil is expressed from the seeds in countries which import them after they
have been removed from the stony endo-carps. These two oils have distinct properties
which are described later. World production of palm oil is greater than 2.5 m. tonnes each
year, most of it from Nigeria and Malaysia (each producing about 0.7 m. tonnes),
Indonesia (0.3 m.) and Zaire (0.2 m.), though the crop is established in many countries
which produce less than 0.1 m. tonnes each year. Annual world production of palm kernels
is about 1.4m. tonnes, of which about 50 per cent by weight is oil.
MORPHOLOGY
Like the coconut palm, Elaeis. guineensis is a member of the sub-family Cocoideae of the
Palmae. It is a stately erect tree up to 30 m tall with a stout trunk covered with persistent leaf
bases which often provide suitable conditions for the growth of epiphytes. Adventitious roots
grow from the base of the stem, the bole, and from aerial parts of it up to 1 m above the soil,
though roots initiated far above ground may not reach the soil. A few primary roots penetrate
deeply to anchor the plant, but most grow horizontally, and as far as 20 m away from the
bole. From these secondary branches are produced, some of which also grow deeply, but most
remain in the surface layers of the soil and branch freely to produce a dense mat of roots.
Rooting depth varies with the depth of the ground water table and is least when the water
table is high. The roots have no root hairs, and absorption occurs where the hypodermis is
least developed behind the tips of the ultimate branches of the root system. Like other
palms, E. guineensis has pneumathodes on its roots which are assumed to assist gaseous
exchange between the root tissues and the soil atmosphere. They consist of vascular and
cortical tissues which burst through the hypodermis like very short root branches. They
eventually become suberized and lignified and presumably cease to function.
The apical growing point of the stem is situated in a depression at the centre of a mass of
up to 50 developing leaves which form the apical bud. After they are initiated, the leaves
remain in the bud for up to 2 years before they are mature. They expand from the bud
first as a vertical, tightly rolled 'spear' which unfolds into a very large pinnate leaf about 7 m
long. As each new leaf expands, so the oldest leaf in the crown at the top of the palm is
shed, and the mature leaf number remains more or less constant from 40-50. Each leaf has
a massive petiole 2 m long,-with a broad base clasping the stem. Small, sharp spines derived
from the lower pinnae of the leaf are closely crowded along both sides of the base of the
petiole, and merge into the shorter pinnae: higher up. There are 100-160 pairs of pinnae in
the oil-palm frond, lying more or less in two rows one along each side of the flattened
petiole. The largest are in the middle of the frond and may be 1 m long; those above are
progressively shorter and are carried at a more acute angle pointed towards the apex of the
leaf. The leaf is terminated by a blade made up by the fusion of the last pair of pinnae and
the single terminal leaflet, though they tend to split apart as the leaf grows old. The pinnae
of each pair do not always arise opposite each other, and alternate pairs tend to be carried in
different planes. Each pinna has a prominent mid-rib, raised on its upper surface, and
numerous parallel veins.
The oil-palm begins to flower when it is 4—6 years old, and in full bearing produces two to
six bunches of fruits each year.
Plate 1: Oil Palm Tree (Elaeis giuneensis)
TAXONOMY
Most author on classification of oil palm tree cover mainly the kingdom, phylum, order,
family, genus and species. Most authors tend to differ most widely on family. This
classification is summarized in Table 1.
Table 1: Classification of Oil Palm Tree
Kingdom
Division
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Source: (Cobley and Steele, 1976).
Plantae
Spermatophyte
Monocotyledoneae (Lilivsida)
Arecales
Arecaceae
Elaeis
Elaeis giuneensis
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
Nigeria is a geographical entity belongs to the tropics in which the temperature is constantly
favourable for the Oil Palm Tree. Oil palm extend east across the central rain forest belt of Africa
between latitudes 30 N and 70 S as far as the borders of Zaire and Uganda. They were introduced
to South America from West Africa at the time of slave trade, and became established in Brazil,
they also occur in scattered locations in East Africa and Madagascar (F.A.O 1996).
Table 2: World Exports of Palm Oil, Selected Years, 1923-65.
(Thousand tons)
1923
1937
1959
1965
Nigeria
128
146
184
156
Inclonesia
7
194
102
123
Congo
16
68
181
79
Malaya
-
43
77
138
Other
40
45
41
27
Total
191
496
585
523
Source: (F.A.O, 1996)
THE ROLE OF NIGERIAN WOMEN IN OIL PALM PROCESSING
From precolonial times to the early 21st century, the role and status of women in Nigeria have
continuously evolved. However, the image of a helpless, oppressed, and marginalized group has
undermined their proper study, and little recognition has been granted to the various integral
functions that Nigerian women have performed throughout history. In the precolonia! period,
women played a major role in social and economic activities. Division of labour was along
gender lines, and women controlled such occupations as food processing, mat weaving, pottery
making, and cooking. Moreover, land was communally owned, and women had access to it
through their husbands or parents. Although a man was the head of the household in a patrilineal
system, older women had control of the labour of younger family members,
PROCESSING TECHNOLOGIES
The processing side of the palm oil industry. Palm oil extraction involves four steps: (1)
softening of the palm fruit by heating, e.g.. fermentation, sterilization; (2) maceration; (3) oil
extraction; and (4) clarification. In carrying out these operations there is considerable choice
of both technique and scale of operation. One of the interesting features of the Nigerian palm
oil industry is that technically inferior, labor-intensive methods have proved economically
more efficient than large-scale, more capital-intensive alternatives, The traditional methods of
extracting palm oil were first described in a series of papers published in the Annual Bulletin
of the Department of Agriculture 1922-24 (12). These consisted of the "hard oil" and the "soft
oil" processes; the former, which produced an oil which is semihard at air temperature, is
thought to have been the more prevalent of the two up until about 1940. 10 In the "hard oil"
process the fruit bunches are brought to the native's compound, stacked in piles and covered
with palm fronds or plantain leaves and left for about four days to loosen.
Plate 2: Oil Palm Fruit.
After the fruit is shaken from the bunches it is left to ferment for another six days or so for
further softening of the mesocarp. Then, approximately ten days after harvesting, the fruit is
placed in a mortar—initially a rock-bottomed, wood-lined pit, later half of a 44-gallon
drum—where it is pounded with long wooden pestles. The macerated pulp is again left to
undergo fermentation for 12 hours and then, after adding boiling water, a second pounding
is administered. The pulverized fruit is now ready for the third step, oil extraction. This is
carried out by applying pressure to the pulp—either by wringing in a net or by trodding
upon in an inclined open-end "canoe." The wrung pulp still contains the nuts which are
now separated from the fiber; later the nuts are individually cracked between rocks to yield
the palm kernel.
Plate 3: Palm Kernel and muts
The process of softening, pounding, and squeezing is then repeated a second time. The
mixture of palm oil and water so obtained is boiled in a large*pot and the oil skimmed off.
The "hardness" of palm oil is determined by its free fatty acid (f.f.a.) content. In its
natural state palm oil is composed of glycerides—stable molecules of fatty acids and
glycerol. When the fruit becomes overripe or is bruised, e.g., in falling from the tree,
enzymes present in the cell tissues are activated and, unless destroyed by the application of
heat, break down the glyceride molecules into glycerol and free fatty acids. The quality of the
oil is inversely related to the £.f.a. content. Because the enzymes are not sterilized in the hard
oil process just described and because fermentation for its softening effect is protracted, the
resultant oil has a high f.f.a. content, ranging from 20 per cent upwards depending upon the
extent of fermentation.
To produce an oil with a lower f.f.a. a "soft oil" process was used, which since the early
1940's has become the only traditional method to be employed. This process differs from the
"hard oil" techniques primarily in that the fruit is sterilized at a fairly early stage. The
bunches are left to soften only one to three days after harvesting and then the fruit is picked
off by hand and steamed in a pot of boiling water, which neutralizes the enzymes and
softens the fruit for pulling. The f.f.a. content of oil obtained by this process can be as low
as or lower than that achieved by the most mechanized techniques. The disadvantages of
the "soft oil" vis-a-vis the "hard oil" process are that a slightly smaller proportion of the
extractable oil is realized, the early removal of fruit from the bunch requires more labor, and
the initial boiling entails extra fuel costs. Thus it was not until significant price differentials
were offered for the better quality oil that the "soft oil" process became dominant.
In the early 1920's the Department of Agriculture began investigating ways of
improving the efficiency of native processing. Improvements on existing practices were
effected in the area of ancillary equipment, e.g., drying tables, separation boards, barrel
halves, and sequence timing. The major advance, however, was the introduction of a screw
press for extracting the oil. After testing a number of makes the Duchscher press
manufactured in Luxemburg, with a 22-gaIlon capacity and costing ^13, was found to be
suitable. The press economized on labor time and achieved a substantially higher extraction
rate.
The Duchscher screw press was first introduced in the late 1920's. Sales of
the press were initially slow, but after 1934 hire-purchase terms arranged by the
Native Administration, associated with higher palm oil prices during 1935-37,
resulted in a moderate increase (29, p. 236). However, with the collapse of prices
in 1938 the slow advance of the screw press was temporarily halted. The Department of
Agriculture's
Annual
Report
for
1938
explained
why
depressed
prices
operated against the more advanced technique, a phenomenon no less relevant
in the 1960’s.
In spice o£ the higher proportion of oil which can be produced by means of the press, the owner
can seldom make a profit from the processing fee charged for extracting the oil of his
neighbors. The market price of fruit approximates closely the value of the oil and kernel
which it contains (the labour of extraction by native methods apparently being valued at nil)
and the extra oil extracted by the press at low prices barely covers working costs
PALM OIL MARKETING AND DISTRIBUTION PATTERN IN NIGERIA
Palm oil marketing is concerned with all stages of operation that aid movement of the produce
from the producer to the final consumer. These include: assemblage, storage, transportation,
grading and financing. Marketing of palm oil in Nigeria takes place in homes, road sides,
local/periodic market centres and stalls. These can be both wholesale and retail types in both rural
and urban centers. Generally, palm oil is transported from the supply regions of Southern Nigeria
to the demand regions of Northern Nigeria. Lagos, the center of economic activities of Nigeria
receives most of the palm oil shipped from the supply regions for onward delivery for export
activities. Price of palm oil is largely affected by production or output of the palm oil within the year
and general inflation rate in the country.
Plate 4: Red oil palm
After processing palm oil, the next thing is to distribute to place(s) where the commodity is needed.
This is accomplished through packaging and transportation to the destinations. A good place to
start is the market because this is where majority of Nigerians shop for their food. Smaller pack e.g.
bottle and gallons are dispensed on the spot from larger containers like tins and drums. The buyer
brings in his container and pays for the content only. These pack sizes are usually household size.
The larger pack sizes of 18 liter tins are sold with the container, while the drum is not.
The buyer bringing his drum to turn from the seller's into his. Alternatively, buyer may pay a
deposit for a drum and return it latter for refund.
Major distribution points for palm oil ranges from market stalls, wholesale points, palm oil
depots or beaches and supermarkets. Each of these points is characterized by activities of
trading associations or \unionism which does not permit free entry into the business of palm
oil marketing as the case may be. This :compels distributors to register with some heavy amount of
money to join the union, buy kola and beer etc, for the union members before being allowed to sell
his goods from that location. Thus, the members fix price of palm oil through the union and force
members to sell at that price.
Each agricultural zone in the state i.e. Owerri, Orlu and Okigwe has what is called palm oil
beach/centre from where all purchases, packaging and consequently distribution or
transportation of to remote areas across the country are made. The means of transportation is
usually by road. Distribution and marketing of agricultural products are as essential as the product
itself. Though palm oil is produced in Southern Nigeria, it needs be evenly and efficiently
distributed if it must serve the needs of the greater population. For instance, in a consumer
survey of Western Nigeria, both quantitative and qualitative deficiencies in protein intake
were reported (Udoh, 2005), the study identified among others, inefficient distribution as being
responsible for this situation.
Thus there study contends that imbalance in demand and supply of palm oil exists primarily due
to inefficiency in distribution of this commodity across the region. This further leads to price
differential in different parts of the country. The study therefore investigates the optimal pattern
of palm oil shipment that minimizes total cost of transportation in the study area.
WHO USES PALM OIL AND NEEDS TO BUY IT?
Palm oil is a hugely versatile vegetable oil used in a variety of ways in different cultures,
'industries and markets. In food/ palm oil is used as a substitute for fat in making condensed milk,
coffee cream, ice cream i margarine. Because of its consistency and ability to resist high
temperatures, it is commonly used a and is considered one of the best oils for frying. All these
amazing qualities make palm oil a highly commodity in homes, restaurants and food processing
industries. As a non-food product, palm oil makes an important raw material in the production of
soaps, detergents, greases, lubricants and candles. With the growing profile of the biofuels market,
it has also proven valuable feedstock for biodiesel and serves as an alternative to mineral oils used
in power stations. I derivatives are widely used in the Pharmaceuticals and cosmetics industry. It is
also used in the production of printing ink, drilling fluids and water-treatment products.
Opportunities in the Red Palm Oil Business
There are lot of juicy opportunities for entrepreneurs to make money in the growing and
successful global palm oil business.
Grow an oil palm plantation
Most parts of Africa, especially West Africa, lie in the world's oil palm belt - a region which
produces the best results for oil palm plantations. However, Africa produces much less palm oil
than it is truly capable of because not enough palm trees are cultivated on a commercial scale. The
features which make Africa most suitable for cultivating oil palm plantation include:
• An all-year-round hot weather - The oil palm grows well where It Is hot all the year round:
between 25 and 28 degrees Centigrade. Mot temperatures allow the oil palm to grow many leaves
and, as a result, produce more fruit. Higher temperatures also mean that the palm trees are less
prone to disease attack.
• A lot of sunshine - Oil palms need a lot of sunshine to grow well. All year round sunshine
helps the palms to produce large and well-ripened fruits which contain a lot of oil.
• Abundant rain - Oil palms are not likely to do very well in areas with water shortages.
Plentiful rain is very good for the trees and allows them to grow a lot of leaves which lead to
more clusters of fruit.
• Rich, deep, flat and permeable soil - The oil palm needs access to water and mineral salts
deep in the soil to do well. If it does not have full and easy access to these essential
nourishments, the yields (harvest) may be very poor. The soil must also be able to allow water to
soak through (permeable) to ensure that the soil is always well drained. However, in the absence
of adequate minerals in the soil, fertilizers can be used to supplement the existing supply.
CULTURAL/RELIGIOUS VALUE
Culture, according to the Longman English, Dictionary is “the customs, beliefs, art, music and all
other products of human though made by a particular group of people at a particular time. It
further defines custom as “established and habitual practice, especially if a religious or social
kind, that is typical of a particular group of people”.
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Young palm front (leave) are widely used as signs/symbol for danger.
Certain/some religious group burn the dried palm leave and use the ash as symbol
Women do not climb palm tree.
SOCIO-ECONOMIC VALUE
Oil palm has positively affected the well being of East-African women because it has provided
Job opportunities for women dewelling at rularl and urban areas of the country.
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Male inflorescence can be used as lantern
Male inflorescence can be burn to ash and use for cooking e.g bread fruit (Trecularia
africana)
Red palm oil is used for cooking soup, rice, beans, yam., e.t.c.
Kernel oil is used for vegetable oil
Poor produced oil can be used for making soap.
Palm rope is used for making basket, tray, and tying broom
Palm stem for construction of local bridges
Palm leave stem can be used for yam steming
Palm stem and palm leave stem are used for roofing and fencing.
The palm kernel shaft can be use for poultry feeds and for building decoration
Young palm can be use as flower for compound decoration
Palm kernel shaft/fiber can be use as vehicle brake pad (Atanmo and Onyeneke, 2014)
All the parts of palm oil tree are widely used as fire wood for cooking.
MEDICINAL VALUE
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Palm kernel oil can be rubbed on human skin as pomade.
Palm kernel oil can be mixed with other herbs against convulsion.
Red palm oil can be taken for stopping effectiveness of drugs in case of over doze.
Palm wine which contains yeast is tapped from oil palm tree.
Parasitologically, larvae that attacks palm tree act as a very good source of protein diet in man.
Plate 5: Bread FruitCONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Plate 6: Palm Widely
Trecularia africana
The study showed that the important determinants of income among the women include among
others were, palm fruit processing. Since most of the products from oil palm fruit processing
serve as basic input for manufacturing industries, it is pertinent to increase the awareness of the
potentials of oil palm fruit processing to ameliorate unemployment and improve the womens
standard of living. Policy issues therefore need to address the promotion of women in oil
palm fruit processing and marketing through women empowerment for access to vital
processing inputs. This will improve womens income and a could go a long way to reducing the
importation of palm oil in the country, thereby bringing the country closer to sustainable
production of palm oil and other associated products.
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