Socio-economic Benefits of Green Space
Tennessee Parks and Greenways Foundation
Dwight Barnett, 2012
DRAFT 3/28/13
Highlights: the following studies show that trees, vegetation, and green space may provide the following
benefits for humans
 Improved mood
 Reduced tension
 Reduced anger and aggression
 Reduced depression and anxiety
 Improved general health
 Lower blood pressure
 Lower pulse rate
 Increased HRV (heart rate variability)
 Lower cortisol levels
 Increased tolerance of pain
 Faster healing
 Fewer underweight babies
 Reduces obesity and possibly reduced diabetes
 Enhanced immunity and anti-cancer effects
 Increased longevity
 Reduced fatigue and increased vigor
 Enhanced benefits of aerobic exercise
 Improved focus
 Increased creativity
 Substantially fewer sick days taken
 Less bullying in schools
 Improved cognition
 Improved standardized test scores
 Ameliorates ADHD symptoms
 Better motor development
 Fewer disciplinary problems
 Increased self discipline
 Higher graduation rate
 Increased cooperation and higher morale
 Increased office worker productivity
 More job satisfaction
 Increased sense of safety
 Reduced crime rate
 More caring and generosity
 Increased and improved social interaction
 Higher satisfaction with communities
 More use of outdoors
 Higher property values (average of 20% for properties adjacent to green space)
 Increased value of property tax base.
 Higher shopper spending (10%)
 Customers perceive higher product quality
 Customers come from farther to shop, pay more for parking
 Green space attracts highly paid knowledge workers and industries
 People prefer spreading trees, small to mid-sized trees, a diversity of species, high tree density, and a
well-tended appearance
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Methods
Only peer-reviewed research (mostly that published in scientific journals) is cited, with the following exceptions
1. A few studies prepared by consultants (Herschong) or government studies (Hamilton and Quaile, for
example)
2. Literature cited in the last section, on recruiting industry, is non-empirical
No secondary sources are cited. A few literature reviews are listed in the bibliography for further reading, but
are not cited.
Research in this area has increased greatly over the last 20 years, and analytical tools have become more
sophisticated.
We did not exclude inconclusive and negative results. Some such results are expected in science due to
experimental error. The great majority of studies show positive benefits from greenspace.
The research cited is associative, not causative. Some findings in this paper are strongly supported (many
studies), and others are more weakly supported (only a few studies). One isolated study alone is insufficient to
draw firm conclusions from. But consistent positive results from lone but related studies carries strong
implications.
The search was conducted using Google Scholar. Google Scholar has certain limitations. Full texts are available
for only a few studies (in cumbersome pdf format), and the abstracts posted sometimes lack meaningful detail,
particularly if financially valuable economic information is disclosed in the study. Funds were not available for
purchase of full articles.
The range of subjects was broad, and the articles we found are far from exhaustive. Further search would
produce diminishing returns with, most likely, no major revelations. We found the bulk of the mainstream
literature, more than enough to define green benefits rather precisely.
It is very important not to cite the specific figures of one study as if it were a universal truth. Numbers generated
by scientific studies vary a lot, depending on many factors. To be valid, scientific findings must be replicable.
Again, one study by itself does not necessarily show much. We need to examine patterns. Experimental setup
and statistics can get very complicated. Please see Bowler et al (22) for a good example of this. Bowler and
colleagues performed a meta-analysis of data pooled from a number of studies. They found that the pooled data
produced conclusions with lower statistical significance than indicated by the statistical analyses of the individual
studies.
Health and Psychological Benefits of Green Space
UGS (Urban Green Space) offers opportunities for Nature Assisted Therapy that can help many medical
conditions, from schizophrenia to obesity. (5) The following studies exemplify the overall health benefits of
UGS:
 The annual prevalence rate of 15 of the 24 disease clusters was lower in and near a green setting. The
relation was strongest for anxiety disorder and depression, children, lower economic status, and in
slightly urban areas vs very strongly urban areas (173)
 Danes living more than 1 km away from the nearest green space report poorer health and health-related
quality of life, and 1.42 higher odds of experiencing stress than do respondents living less than 300 m
from a green space. (245)
 At work and in a junior high school, health and discomfort symptoms were found to be 21% to 25%
lower during the period when subjects had plants or plants and full-spectrum lighting present compared
to a period without plants (75)
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Circadian variations in vagally mediated heart rate variability (HRV) and the morning rise in cortisol
were higher in office workers in old offices/cubicles than in offices with good views. (265)
Psychological benefits
Even the color green itself, aside from anything else, improves mood and affect, and enhances creativity (164)
Green/natural surroundings yield tremendous psychological benefits. One study showed that perceived
neighborhood greenness was more strongly associated with mental health than it was with physical health.
(247), and as we will see the physical health benefits of green environments are quite impressive.
Many studies show that green environments, both outdoors and indoors, reduce stress (60, 133, 180, 213).
Proximity to green space (within 3 km) helps residents deal with stressful life events; conversely, residents with
less green space fair more poorly (287, 288) Part of the stress management benefits may arise from the fact that
exposure to nature also significantly reduced fear arousal. (278).
Affective and restorative benefits of green urban environments: Green environments go beyond helping us
struggle through life, though – they actually make us feel good, including feelings of affection, friendliness,
playfulness, and elation (278) Negative feelings decrease, and positive feelings increase when in a forest or
park (34, 150, 152, 169) Forest environments are perceived as significantly more "comfortable", "soothing",
“refreshing” “invigorating” and "natural", “friendly” and “sacred” than urban environments. People feel lower
levels of negative feelings such as “sadness”, "tension-anxiety", "depression-dejection", "anger”, “hostility"
“aggression”, "fatigue", and "confusion" significantly decreased, (1, 10, 27, 204, 272, 278, 279, 285), as did anger
(99) and driver frustration (28) Vigor increased in green environments vs. urban areas. (1, 10, 204, 277)
These studies demonstrate that green environments are more than pleasantries: they actually help correct the
innate detrimental health effects of city living (or “discords’). Greenery and green space help us adapt to the
environment we have created.
 Walking in a nature preserve improves mood and reduces anger, while a walk in the city worsened
mood and increased anger (99).
 Similarly, a walk in woods and looking at pictures of forests increased directed attention ability and
alleviated mental fatigue (15, 37, 73, 99), while walking in the city lowered it. (99)
 Less green space in people's living environment coincided with feelings of loneliness and with perceived
shortage of social support. Loneliness and perceived shortage of social support partly mediated the
relation between greenspace and health. (177)
This “discord” effect has also been noted in terms of physiological health (89)
We want to get better from exercise, not worse! Green exercise, done in “green” settings such as parks,
greenways, or even a tree-lined streets, appears to address this problem. “Green” exercise is more
healing of such things as hostility, depression, and stress more than is exercising elsewhere. (191) A number
of studies bear on this:
 Exercise in a green environment improved mood and self esteem, tranquility, and reduced anger,
anxiety, and depression more than exercise alone. Greatest results were in the mentally ill. (8, 9, 19, 96,
99)
 Higher degrees of perceived environmental greenness were associated with larger reductions in anxiety
after green exercise (178).
 There is a correlation between regular use of natural environments and a lower risk of poor mental
health, but not for activity in other types of environment. (186)
 There was a clear effect of both exercise and different scenes on blood pressure, self-esteem and mood.
Green exercise reduced blood pressure and increased self-esteem more than the exercise-only. By
contrast, both rural and urban unpleasant scenes reduced the positive effects of exercise on self-esteem.
(219)
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Green exercise led to a significant improvement in self-esteem and (reduced) total mood disturbance
(with anger-hostility, confusion-bewilderment, depression-dejection and tension-anxiety all improving
post-activity). (218)
Viewing nature, being in the presence of nearby unusual nature, and participating in nature-centered
activities improved mental health. Exercising in the presence of nature (green exercise) thus has
important public and environmental health consequences. (217)
Being outdoors was associated with greater vitality, a relation that was mediated by the presence of
natural elements. (227)
Natural surroundings engendered less spatially selective attention in the nature group compared to the
urban group. (148)
Women in their third trimester could concentrate better and made fewer errors. (244)
Green environments appear to increase caring and generosity (292)
Experiencing nature has a more powerful influence on the rehabilitation potential of people greatly affected by a
crisis; just taking a walk had a lesser effect. Individuals who have many experiences of nature are less affected by
their crisis than are those who have few such experiences. (202)
That helps to explain why Wilderness experiences are often very deep, significant, and transcendental (119).
Wilderness use reduced stress and was highly restorative, and improved mood, cognition, and physical
performance. Spending more than one day deepened the benefits (38, 98). Larger green spaces may be more
important for health effects than smaller spaces (133, 189, 300)
On the other end of the spectrum, greenery indoors has been shown to be highly beneficial in terms of
emotion.
 An unobstructed bedroom view from a hospital to natural surroundings appears to have better
supported improvement in self-reported physical and mental health (130, 283)
 Tolerance of discomfort and pain (from cold and from flexible bronchioscpoy) was greater in the
presence of plants (58, 168; 208, 283).
 Plants in a room improved tolerance and perceptions more than did interesting and colorful decoration
(168)
 A combination of natural views and sounds were more effective in reducing pain than either separately.
(130)
Although we should not take one data set as definitive, an Australian research team investigating the affective
effects of indoor environments found the following in offices with green plants:
 a 6% reduction in stress,
 a 30% reduction in confusion,
 a 37% reduction in tension/anxiety,
 a 4.5% increase in vigor,
 a 38% reduction in fatigue,
 a 58% reduction in depression/dejection
 a 44% reduction in anger/hostility. (27)
Other investigators found that horticultural therapy improves mood state and decreases stress, (298) Spending a
short time in a city park and urban forest reduced stress by 87%, headaches by 52%,, and reduced balance
problems 40% (96).
Who stands to benefit the most from greenspace?
 People with considerable stress and anxiety (279)
 Those with attentional fatigue. (243)
Exhausted people chose woodlands two to one over city visits as being likely to ease fatigue (101) But ironically,
it is the less stressed people who tend to use green space for restoration. (133, 245) However, another study
found that people with health complaints were more likely to seek natural favorite places of restoration, and
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they benefited more from each visit than people with fewer problems (134). In times of heat stress, longer and
more frequent visits of green spaces generate significant improvements of the perceived emotional benefits and
well-being. (146)
Physiological benefits
Patients with a window view of nature healed more rapidly, required less pain medication, and had shorter stays
than patients with views of brick walls (282, 283) Patients in hospital rooms with plants and flowers had
significantly shorter hospitalizations, fewer intakes of analgesics, lower ratings of pain, anxiety, and fatigue, and
more positive feelings and higher satisfaction about their rooms. (210) Plants brightened up the room
environment in a surgery ward, reduced stress, and also conveyed positive messages of the hospital caring for
patients. (210) An unobstructed bedroom view to natural surroundings appears to have better supported
improvement in self-reported physical and mental health during a residential rehabilitation program (222).
Plants in hospital rooms increase satisfaction with rooms and some patients’ well being, but addition of plants
did not increase the degree of improvement. A beautiful surrounding environment may have influenced the
results (221)
Patients exposed to a natural green environment showed less autonomic activity indicative of stress (e.g.
elevated blood pressure and electrodermal activity), as well as show altered somatic activity indicative of greater
positive affect (e.g. depressed electromyographic (EMG) activity over the brow region and increased activity over
the cheek region). Exposure to vegetation images increased Alpha brain activity. Nature, especially water, had a
positive influences on emotional states. Water, and to a lesser extent vegetation views, held attention and
interest more effectively than the urban scenes. (280) Green environments vs urban increase parasympathetic
nerve activity, lower sympathetic nerve activity (150, 152, 205, 206, 207), slow autonomic brain activity and
engendered less spatially selective attention (148)
Lowering of blood pressure and heart rate have both been shown to be positively correlated with increased
health and well-being, (259) Walking in a natural area or viewing green scenes lowered systolic and diastolic
blood pressure (99, 205, 207, 212, 219, 273, 258, 273), and pulse rate (50, 205, 207, 219, 258, 273) and
significant decreased levels of the stress hormone cortisol (150, 152, 206, 207, 208, 251, 265, 273, 314)
Viewing green scenes increases heart rate variability The power of the HF component of the HRV tended to be
higher and LF/(LF+HF) tended to be lower. (HRV tends to be low under stress and in PTS) (88, 207, 273)
Circadian rhythm fluctuations in salivary amylase activity were much smaller than stressor-induced variations
(315).
Habitual walking in forest environments may lower blood pressure by reducing sympathetic nerve activity and
have beneficial effects on blood adiponectin and DHEA-S levels, and habitual walking exercise may have
beneficial effects on blood NT-proBNP level (160)
One study found that walking in a forest once per month reduced blood pressure as much a walk every week.
(192) Another, however, found that forest bathing therapy program did not induce prolonged systolic blood
pressure (SBP) reduction (251). However, considering the significant decrease in cortisol level and
improvement in QoL measures, this may be a useful model of community hypertension management program
(251, 314)
Exposure to vegetation images increased Alpha brain activity. Nature, especially water, had a positive influences
on emotional states. Water, and to a lesser extent vegetation views, held attention and interest more effectively
than the urban scenes. (280)
Studies in Japan show that being in a forest may increase immunity and fight cancer. “Forest bathing” (shinrin
yoku) trips resulted in an increase in NK (Natural Killer white blood cells) activity (156, 157, 158,159, 161),
which was mediated by increases in the number of NK cells and the levels of intracellular granulysin, perforin,
granzymes A/B (155, 156, 157), levels of intercellular anticancer proteins (159, 161) Effect lasted at least 7 days
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after the trip. (158) Phytoncides released from trees, together with decreased stress hormones, may partially
contribute to the increased NK activity. (157) These effects lasted for a month. (156) Volatile chemicals
(alpha-pinene, beta myrcene, limonene, gama muururolene) released by trees was relaxing and reduced stress ,
and resulted in a 40% decrease in tumor growth (69, 33) Phytoncides significantly enhance human NK activity
and this effect is at least partially mediated by induction of intracellular perforin, granzyme A, and granulysin
(162.) These findings suggest that visiting forest parks may have a preventive effect on cancer generation and
progression. (162) Increased forest coverage may partially contribute to a decrease in mortality due to cancers
in Japan. (163)
Other health related benefits include:
 Fewer premature babies. A 10% increase in tree-canopy cover within 50 m of a house reduced the
number of small for gestational age births by 1.42 per 1000 births (64)
 Lowered obesity(only) in crowded “green” neighborhoods (13, 167) , and reduced blood glucose levels,
beyond calorie consumption. Presumably, the forest environment reduces blood glucose levels (200).
 Lower cortisol levels (205, 272) increased vitality. (1, 10, 204, 227)
 increased longevity of urban senior citizens. (253)
However, one investigator concluded that “While considerable evidence suggests that access to green space
yields health benefits, we found no such evidence at the scale of the American city. In the USA, greener cities tend
also to be more sprawling and have higher levels of car dependency. Any benefits that the green space might
offer seem easily eclipsed by these other conditions and the lifestyles that accompany them.” (224)
Health benefits are strongest in natural settings (mainly urban woodlands), less so for smaller, more managed
parks, and actually negative for urban park settings devoid of nature than in cities (133, 281, 316, 89), Health
has been found to improves with adjacency to greenspace, especially among women and the elderly, and to a
lesser extent among the less educated (52, 60)
NOTE: Viewing nature films on an immersive screen had a strong effect on pulse rate (51, 219) and skin
conductivity. The effects were greater on the immersive screen than on a normal screen. This implies that other
similar studies may underestimate the restoration effects of viewing nature. (51) Participants in the nature
condition were found to exhibit increased positive affect and decreased stress after immersion in VR when compared
to those in the control condition. (284)
Research (not included here) indicates that epigenetic tags governing onset of diabetes, bipolar, Parkinson’s, and
other disorders can be activated by stress. Presumably that includes urban stresses. If so, a stressful urban
environment could be negatively affecting our decedents’ DNA and health for a generation or more to come.
Conversely, more green space should reduce tag activation and the passing down of the activated disorders.
Social Benefits of Green Space
Natural elements are more than an "amenity". The most important factors in neighborhood satisfaction were the
availability of nearby trees, well-landscaped grounds, and places for taking walks. (120)
Crime and Violence
Green environments in inner city residential settings reduced aggression. violence, and valdalism as well as
mental fatigue (23, 139) The greener a building’s surroundings were, the fewer crimes (both property and
violent) reported. (136) A 10% increase in tree canopy was associated with a roughly 12% decrease in crime.
The relationship was greatest on public lands. Trees made crime worse in only a few locations where residential
areas met old industrial areas. (270)
Vacant lot greening was associated with consistent reductions in gun assaults (22) Smaller, view-obstructing
trees are associated with increased crime, whereas larger trees are associated with reduced crime. (66) Trees
along roads can increase drivers’ ability to handle frustration (28)
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Safety
Residents of a housing project felt safer in a green environment, except in very highly urban areas (26, 141, 174)
In an urban housing complex, tree density and grass maintenance increased both preference and sense of safety.
(135) People think nature trails are safer than “safe” areas in cities. (107)
Health
Presence of nature and the greening of vacant lots reduced stress and promoted more exercise. (23, 91), reduced
procrastination, helped residents deal with difficulties, and reduced mental fatigue (138)
The addition of street trees improved mood and also cognitive awareness of improvement. (237)
Participants immersed in natural environments reported higher valuing of intrinsic aspirations (self-oriented
values) and lower valuing of extrinsic aspirations (others’ values oriented), whereas those immersed in nonnatural environments reported increased valuing of extrinsic aspirations and no change of intrinsic aspirations.
Nature fosters autonomy of thinking, and appears to increase generosity. (292)
Less greenspace in people's living environment coincided with feelings of loneliness and with a perceived
shortage of social support. (177)
Social Dynamics
UGS increased residents’ social capital, encouraged social interaction among residents, enhanced their mutual
trust, expanded social network, strengthened belongingness to neighborhood, (18) and increased neighborhood
social ties, and sense of adjustment (141)
Tree cover near public housing drew people outside, and more mixed groups of youth and adults (26, 39, 141,
156) increased social activity, and increased the proportion of social to nonsocial activities they support. (248)
Denser plantings attracted the most people (155) Use of greenspaces improved sense of community and social
ties among senior citizens (144)
Satisfaction of Residents
Views of trees from an apartment complex increased satisfaction and well-being, especially among lower
economic classes, children, and the elderly. (80, 121, 175, 232)
Increasing the amount of tree and shrub cover within a 1500 ft radius of single-family households significantly
moderates and mediates the negative relationship between the amount of nearby retail land use and
neighborhood satisfaction. (70)
Social Inequalities
There is less green space in socio-economically deprived areas (189) Neighborhoods with a high proportion of
blacks, low income, and renters experience an inequitable distribution of tree canopy, especially in public street
trees (110, 147) These inequities suggest that residents in deprived neighborhoods experience an inequity of all
the benefits of green space,
Research on environmental equality in black vs white areas is lacking (246)
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Economics
Populations that are exposed to the greenest environments also have the lowest levels of health inequality
related to income deprivation. (187)
Conversion of the Brownfields into greenspaces would increase property values for 890 neighborhood
residences between 2 40 and 7.01 million, or about $5,000 per household. (125)
Additional neighborhood trees would slightly increase the value of over 97% of the properties analyzed. This
suggests that while Los Angeles residents may want additional trees, they are unwilling to pay for them. (230)
Non-economic values
The fact that people in green neighborhoods cycled and walked less, while spending more time on gardening,
points to other reasons than exercise for the health benefits of green space. (175) Beyond physical,
psychological and economic benefits, forests provide deep transcendent experiences for some visitors. (299)
Children and Education
Student satisfaction, concentration, and pay attention
Tropical plants in classrooms resulted in better student evaluations of courses and teachers (67)
Short (20 min) visits to a park reduced ADHD symptoms (260), and children with ADHD who play regularly in
green play settings have milder symptoms than children who play in built outdoor and indoor settings.(72, 73,
140, 262, 263) Walking in woods and looking at pictures of forests increased directed attention ability (15, 16)
Students in a class room with six potted plants in the back had significantly stronger feelings of preference,
comfort, and friendliness (95)
Childrens’ development, health and well being
Psychological well-being, meaningfulness and vitality were found to be robustly correlated with connectedness
to nature (CN). (29)
Green school grounds invite children to jump, climb, dig, lift, rake, build, role play and generally get moving in
ways that nurture all aspects of their health and development. (69)
A natural “green” playground improved children’s motor fitness, lead to more diverse, creative play. (69, 77)
At work and in a junior high school, health and discomfort symptoms were found to be 21% to 25% lower during
the period when subjects had plants or plants and full-spectrum lighting present compared to a period without
plants (75)
Students in a class room with six potted plants in the back had significantly stronger feelings of preference,
comfort, and friendliness, took fewer sick days, and misbehaved less (95)
A brief glimpse of green prior to a creativity task enhances creative performance. (164)
Children with potted plants in the back took fewer sick days, and misbehaved less (95)
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In a rural setting, levels of nearby nature moderate the impact of stressful life events on the psychological wellbeing of children. Specifically, the impact of life stress was lower among children with high levels of nearby
nature than among those with little nearby nature. (293)
Play
Children spent only 13% of their time playing outdoors, but this time constituted a third of their activity. Play in
greenspace constituted only 2% of boys’ total time, but when boys are in greenspace, activity is more likely to be
of higher intensity (196)
“Good” schoolyards, as rated by teachers, had woods either in or near them, whereas the bad schoolyards did
not. It also was seen that children in the good schoolyards took-part in a greater number of activities than
children in the bad ones. (165)
Levels of play and access to adults were approximately half as much as those found in spaces with more trees
and grass, and the incidence of creative play was significantly lower in barren spaces than in relatively green
spaces. (261)
Student behavior and performance
Views with greater quantities of trees and shrubs from cafeteria as well as classroom windows are positively
associated with standardized test scores, graduation rates, percentages of students planning to attend a fouryear college, and fewer occurrences of criminal behavior. In addition, large expanses of landscape lacking natural
features are negatively related to these same test scores and college plans. These featureless landscapes included
large areas of campus lawns, athletic fields, and parking lots. All analyses accounted for student socio-economic
status and racial/ethnic makeup, building age, and size of school enrollment. (183)
Natural views from college dorm rooms were associated with better performance on attentional measures.
(264)
Exposure to natural environments during play greatly reduces or eliminates bullying in schools. (180)
The more natural a girl's view from home, the better herself-discipline. (259)
Children whose homes improved the most in terms of greenness following relocation also tended to have the
highest levels of cognitive functioning following the move. (294)
Teachers
Greenspace, especially at school, helps reduce stress and improve coping in teachers (17, 90)
Workers
In the workplace, noneconomic factors influence work satisfaction and profitability. People high in well-being
later earn higher incomes and perform better at work than people who report low well-being. Happy workers
are better organizational citizens, meaning that they help other people at work in various ways. (57)
Forest views from windows improved job satisfaction. (68, 239, 240, 315) and quality of life (68). A view of
natural elements reduced intention to quit . (282)
Views of natural settings from windows increases sense of well being. (122, 312)
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Paintings of nature and views of nature reduced stress and anger (28, 143, 239, 240, 282, 312) Views of a
forest from windows reduced feelings of pressure. (239, 240)
Circadian variations in vagally mediated heart rate variability (HRV) and the morning rise in cortisol were higher
in office workers in old offices/cubicles than in offices with good views. (265}
Exposure to plants increased productivity, in one study by 6 to 12%, and workers had 10 to 25% better mental
function and recall (24, 231, 239 241, 242,), and greenery was correlated with effectiveness (105) On the other
hand, one study found that while exposure to views of greenery have been shown to have many beneficial effects,
they did not increase student or worker performance in this study (74)
Plants in offices reduced confusion 30%, tension/anxiety 37%,, , 38% reduction in fatigue, reduced depression
and rejection 58%, reduced anger/hostility 44%, and increased vigor 4.5% (27) Office plants and a view of
nature reduced tension and anxiety, (3),
Workers with a window view reported less sickness and fatigue. (110} Worker sickness and discomfort
symptoms were found to be 21% to 25% lower when they had plants present (24, 75)
High schools with greater quantities of trees and shrubs viewed from cafeteria as well as classroom windows
are positively associated with standardized test scores, graduation rates, percentages of students planning to
attend a four-year college, and fewer occurrences of criminal behavior (183)
Office plants help increase managers’ creativity (30) The color green in and of itself increases creativity (165)
Environments with greater perceived creativity: (a) complexity of visual detail, (b) view of natural environment,
(c) use of natural materials, (d) with fewer cool colors used, and (e) less use of manufactured or composite
surface materials. (184)
Property values
Yard and street trees, landscaping
Contingent price estimates (canvassed opinions of realtors) and hedonic valuation of amenities (based on actual
prices) varied considerably (301)
Several trees in yard increase home value and added $200,008/ year to property tax revenues in Athens GA in
1970’s (equals $1,000,000 today?) (2, 3)
Mature trees contributed about
 1.9% (63)
 3 to 5% (2, 3)
 6% to house values (189)
Homes with good landscaping sell for
 5% to 11% more (12)
 or 12.7% (97)
 5–12% (171) and
 4% to 5%. (102)
Street trees add $8870 to sales price and reduce Time on Market by 1.7 days (66)
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For more expensive properties there was a slight increase in value for the addition of smaller street trees, but a
decrease associated with large trees. For less expensive properties there was no significant effect of tree
presence or size. (201).
Parks and urban/suburban woodlands
Proximity to green space increases sale value (20, 49, 82, 172, 275, 83, 252, 300) although one study showed no
significant effect on house prices (195)
Two empirical studies of data pooled from other empirical studies (meta-annalyses) put the estimate of property
value increase due to adjacent green space at 20% (223, 42, 43)
Homes facing parks were valued
 22% higher than those ½ mile away (185)
 33% higher at 40 feet, 9% at 1,000 feet, and 4.2% at 2,500 feet (99)
 5% and 20% higher if adjacent to small patches of forest in the urban interface, depending on score for
forest density and health characteristics (266)
 7.1% and 13.2% higher for views of green spaces and proximity to water bodies (114), and in another
study, 5 to 15% higher. (226)
 4.9% higher for a forest view (276)
A 1% increase in adjacent open space increased housing values by .6 and .7%, adding to tax revenue. (84) Each
percentage increase in tree cover added $783.98 to the property value. On average, trees added 10.7% to the
values of the homes in this study (61). The closer to a green urban area, the higher the house price (190)
A one kilometer increase in the distance to the nearest forested area leads to an average 5.9 percent decrease in
the market price of the dwelling. (276)
Proximity to permanent green space raised property values more than three times more than proximity to
developable land (84, 112). In another study, adjacency to green space of any kind raised property value on
single family homes, but the difference was less than reported elsewhere (111)
Property value increased with proximity to parks, so long as the crime index is above a critical threshold value,
The further the crime index value is from a that threshold value, the steeper the relationship is between park
proximity and home value. (269)
The value of UGS is highest in areas that are densely populated, near city center, high income, high crime, and
many children. Overall city averages underestimate UGS values in these settings (4, 53)
Number of trees, types of trees, appearance, size
House values increased with tree density (54, 128), and low tree density depressed prices (128) A 10% increase
in tree cover within 100 m increased average home sale price by $1371 (0.48%) and within 250 m increased sale
price by $836 (0.29%). In a model including both linear and squared tree cover terms, tree cover within 100 and
250 m increased sale price to 40–60% tree cover. (229) Property having at least 40 trees per acre yielded a land
value that is 22 to 27 percent higher than that of treeless property (56)
Attractiveness of parks matters a great deal. Houses within 300 to 500 feet of small and less attractive (barren,
weedy )“basic” parks sold for 15% more, and 6.5% more 500 to 1500 feet away, but close proximity reduced
values 14%. Houses close to (within 600 feet) of more attractive small parks sold for an 11% premium. Houses
close to (200 to 1500 feet) of attractive, medium sized parks sold for a premium of 6%, but values of closer
houses remained the same. Proximity to unattractive parks reduced property values by 50% (71)
Buyers appear to prefer large adjacent green spaces more than small ones (275)
11
A significant positive relationship between per caput expenditures and the sales price of property was found to
exist in one sample, but this relationship could not be inferred to exist in the population because of a finding of
no significant difference upon cross-validation to another sample. The acreage of park land per 1000 population
was not found to be significantly related to sales price. It was concluded that there was no evidence of a
relationship between parks and recreation services and property values. (236)
Greenways and Golf courses
Golf courses within 200 feet had a large impact on price (172.) Adjacency to golf course raised prices 16-19% in
one neighborhood, 12.2% over nearby houses and 20.2% over the city-wide average in another case (198), and
5.3 to 6.3% in another neighborhood (198), 7.6 percent (62) and little in yet another study(198)
Some but not all greenways have a positive, significant effect on property values (166) Proximity to a greenway
increased property values about 10% to 15% (93, 220.) Greenways provide many less quantifiable public
benefits. (220) Survey of mainly non-refereed studies implies that greenways have a mostly neutral impact on
property values (48)
Large wild tracts and Wilderness
Property values are higher in remote wild areas than around agricultural lands (11), and increase with proximity
to protected wilderness areas. (215, 290). Building lots that border the preserve sell at premia of about $5,800
to $8,400 (19% to 35% of lot price). The premia of finished houses on those lots was even higher, but less
precisely estimated. (267)
Water
Proximity to lakes produced the greatest impact on home sale value, followed by parks, trails, and streams.
Increasing view areal extents as well as increasing the amount of water and grassy land covers in views also
resulted in increased sale prices. Increased view richness in terms of the number of different land cover types in
a view reduced home sale prices. (29) A view of a lake added $256,544.72 (an 89.9% premium) to the value of
the home (21) Ocean view increased home prices 60%. (14) Housing prices in an area that restricts building
with water frontage increased by 46–62%. Housing prices nearby without frontage increased by 14–27% and
prices further away (non-restricted) 13–21%. (213) Water quality also affects real estate prices (153)
Economic and tax revenue
Tree cover increases property tax base values. (3)
A $14,000,000 purchase of park increased property values $183,000,000. (103)
The recreation benefits of a trail exceed costs. (166)
Based on an empirical study, it was estimated that a rail-trail would receive approximately 416 213 recreation
visits per year by area households and account for a total consumer surplus in excess of $7.5 million. (216)
Preferences
12
Nature is by far the favorite city environment (107) People perceive the natural environments as more beautiful
than the built environments. (286) Adult groups evidence a strong tendency to prefer nature, and liking for
urban scenes usually increases when trees and other vegetation are present. (279) Residents rated benefits of
trees higher than annoyances. (78, 241) Residents value trees, and place a high priority on street trees and
planting trees in their neighborhoods. (86)
Density. High tree densities are preferred (39, 54, 56, 229.) The most favorable density is 40 trees per acre
(57), and pleasure in visiting a park increased with increasing tree density (25.) Stands of hardwoods at 50%
density produced most stable brain activity and pulse, and greatest relaxation, a better effect than solid cover or
conifers (6.) Shoppers said they prefer a full canopy of large trees in shopping districts (303.)
Most people were satisfied with a density of one tree per house, but still 59% prefer more (118) Quantity and
especially quality of street trees, as opposed to green areas, had an effect on self-reported health. (288) Planting
large nursery stock as opposed to small increased estimated property value by 5%. There are significant
differences among species in benefits and annoyances. (241)
There was a strong preference for trees with the generic acacia shape or spreading canopies (100, 169, 242, 249,
250.)
Findings on size preferences were inconclusive:
 Small trees (78.)
 Trees more than 25 feet tall (118).
 Size preference depended on the setting.
People want trees high in value and strength (250, 251)
People derive more psychological benefits from species diversity in city greenscapes (81, 100.)
Fall color and spring flowers are very important (100) Drivers rate changing seasonal appearance of roadside
vegetation very high (310)
Urban residents preferred deciduous and mixed forests, larger forest blocks, and smoothly trimmed and manmade forest patch boundaries, while rural-urban interface residents preferred evergreen trees, a diverse
landscape with fragmented forest patches, and more complex and natural forest edges (36, 193, 97.) The design
factors in urban design people value most are coherence, mystery, and nature (104.) People prefer “tended”
nature most as a city environment (105), and do not like a brushy understory (25, 257.) Yet, more naturalistic
vegetation can be introduced into parks and green spaces without necessarily making the parks appear unsafe
(115). People prefer forested areas with the characteristics of old growth, rather than an artificial forest (254.)
City dwellers preferred scenes with fewer vehicles, more enclosure, more sound, better upkeep or more unity
(193.) Elements desired in pocket parks were the percentage of ground surface covered by grass, the amount of
trees and bushes visible from the given viewing point, and apparent park size (199.)
Larger green spaces may be more important for health effects than smaller spaces (188)
People like to live near parks, golf courses, and greenways, and are willing to pay a premium for those locations
(194, 195, 197, 198.) Adjacency to parks in a rural area had no significant effect on house prices (195.)
Respondents placed a high value on places for outdoor recreation (257) Yards served territorial needs, common
areas and public athletic fields afforded recreational opportunities, and a nearby wooded area with a pond
provided a highly preferred setting for a variety of nature-related pursuits (256)
Most visitors to nature preserves were willing to pay for the use of wooded recreation areas. Furthermore,
approximately half of the respondents were willing to pay to prevent the conversion of forested parks to another
land-use (274.) Residents in cities of >50,000 supported a tax to provide more city trees (268)
13
Interestingly, rural unpleasant scenes had the most dramatic effect, depressing the beneficial effects of exercise
on three different measures of mood. It appears that threats to the countryside depicted in rural unpleasant
scenes have a greater negative effect on mood than already urban unpleasant scenes. (219)
Consumer Behavior
Consumer behavior is positively correlated with streetscape (298.) Survey respondents from all regions of the
United States favored trees in business districts, and this preference was further reflected in positive district
perceptions, patronage behavior, and product pricing (308.) Forested shopping districts had higher ratings in
quality, place perceptions, shopper patronage and product pricing (311.)
Unfortunately, store owners consistently rate tree benefits lower than shoppers do. (309, 311), and have a
negative perception of trees. Shoppers, though, prefer a full-canopy forest. They rate it high in visual quality and
see it as an integral amenity of the city’s shopping environment (312.)
Judgments of products and merchants were more positive in forested places, as were inferences about product
value, product quality, and merchant responsiveness (302.) Business districts having trees were characterized
as being higher in visual quality and comfort, as providing more positive interaction with merchants, as having
higher-quality products, and generally appearing to be better maintained and kept up (306.)
Consumers claimed they were willing to pay 9 percent more in small cities and 12 percent more in large cities for
equivalent goods and services in business districts having tree (302, 306), travel farther (302, 306), and pay
more for parking (302) in shopping districts with trees and landscaping.
Quasi-rural retail centers face competitive challenges from regional shopping malls, online purchasing, and big
box discount retailers. District merchants must strategically enhance their market position to prevent outshopping. Streetscape trees are a physical improvement that can be used to attract and welcome consumers.
Forest amenities of both wildland and built environments can be used to strengthen local economies (304.)
Respondents preferred landscaped roadsides and report positive retail behavior such as willingness-to-pay 8.8%
more for goods and services in well-landscaped malls (307.)
Recruiting business
“Company decision makers rated recreation/parks/open space to be significantly more important in location
decisions than did economic development officials. Quality of life was rated to be significantly more important by
respondents from small companies, whose organizations relocated or expanded from outside the state, the most
"footloose" companies, and companies in which the ultimate decision maker also relocated with the company.
Respondents from small companies rated recreation/parks/open space first among six quality-of-life elements in
location decisions, while the emphasis among large firms was upon cost of living/housing” (46.)
“The future is in knowledge workers. Knowledge workers will go where there are ample opportunities for
outdoor recreation. Leading technology areas have striven to provide this” (79.)
“Our results suggest that amenities outside the metropolitan area do generate compensating wage differentials,
as workers are willing to accept lower wages to live in accessible proximity to “nice” places. This implies that
these places provide a positive externality to those communities that find them accessible. The estimated effects
are quantitatively important, suggesting that these externalities should be taken into account in policy making.”
(231)
“QOL was most important to companies that moved into Colorado from outside the state, had fewer than eight
employees, were relatively footloose, employed a high proportion of professionals, who perceived ability to
14
attract and retain professional personnel as being a primary concern, and whose ultimate decision-maker
relocated with the company” (170.)
There is broad support for the idea of wilderness areas among young people (40), and availability of recreation
opportunities is a major factor in where retirees live (92). Wilderness experiences {especially important to
young professionals) are very powerful (119.)
Hiking is an excellent recreation opportunity to promote tourism, since it can be marketed for its health benefits
as well as other benefits (225.)
15
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