INFO510
Studying the Future of
Studying the Past:
A Bibliography Examining the Information Needs
of Historians and Archivists in the 21st Century
Kathleen Luckett
12/5/2008
A bibliography that examines the information needs and behaviors of historians and archivists in the
digital environment; contains a resource guide for this user group.
Kathleen Luckett
This bibliography represents an attempt to bring together a body of literature that examines the
information needs of historians and archivists as they work together in the digital environment of the
21st century. Taken as a whole, this body of work may be seen as indicative of the direction that these
fields are taking as they evolve and adapt to the rapidly changing landscape of contemporary culture. In
the interest of addressing these current concerns, I have attempted to include only the most recent
research on this topic; the publication dates of the articles included range from 2002 – 2008. The
bibliography is comprised of 16 research articles and one reference article, and contains a guide with 6
resources of value to this complex user group. The articles are focused around the information needs
and behaviors of historians in their research, particularly archival research. Articles that focus on the
specific needs of art historians and archivists are included, as are articles which take a more general look
at the needs of humanist scholars (of which historians are a subset) and archival users in general. All
articles are from English language, peer-reviewed scholarly publications (with one exception-- I did
include a scholarly paper presented at a conference); the geographical range of users and archives
studied covers the United States, the United Kingdom and Canada, with one user study conducted in
Greece.
Historians and archivists are the keepers of our cultural memory. They are not, however, mere
reporters and preservers. Rather, “history is a record of present beliefs and wishes, not a replica of the
past. Remembering … is a reconstruction using bits of past experience to describe a present state”
(Greene, 2003/2004, p. 100). Archives are the repositories of those bits, and historians are perpetually
involved in the assemblage, deconstruction and reconstruction of the meaning that can be gleaned from
those pieces of the past as seen in the light of the present. The information needs of historians and
archivists are tightly bound; “the connections between archives and historians have dimensions beyond
that of provider and consumer” (Duff, 2004, p. 53). Archiving demands an astute sense of history and
historical research, and historians must possess what Yakel refers to as “archival intelligence” (2003,
p.51). Ultimately, it is the historical object, the artifact and its provenance, which unites the two groups:
“Historians and archivists…share some important principles. Both need to understand the context of
creation, to know who created a record and why, and its custodial history” (Anderson, 2004, p.84).
The impact of digital technologies on the needs of historians and archivists to access, catalogue,
understand and evaluate these primary sources has been profound. On one hand, tremendous
opportunities exist in the arenas of increased and improved access. Projects like OAIster (Hagedorn,
2003) demonstrate the possibilities that exist for user-centered, collaborative digital archives. On the
other hand, historians and archivists struggle with the transient nature of born-digital and other webrelated primary source materials (Murray & Hsieh, 2008), with the loss of context in digitized primary
source artifacts (Toms & O’Brien, 2008), and the loss of spontaneity or serendipitous discovery in an
environment where contact with primary sources is digitally mediated (Hoeflich, 2007). Historians and
archivists are attempting to negotiate these issues at a time when contemporary postmodern thought
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Kathleen Luckett
asks them to question the philosophical underpinnings of their profession and redefine their role as
meaning-makers (Greene, 2003/2004).
While earlier research on this user group portrays historical researchers as somewhat
technophobic, the newer studies presented here indicate a steadily increasing comfort level with all
manner of electronic and digital resources, combined with the sort of healthy respect for more
traditional methods and sources one might expect from those who make a profession of studying the
past. Historians and archivists are a diverse and idiosyncratic group, and the results of individual studies
show a great deal of variance, particularly when dealing with questions about technology use. For
instance, the results of Tibbo’s 2003 Primarily History project’s study lead her to express that “the
relatively low usage of electronic database searching which is both ubiquitous and free on all major
university campuses in the U.S. today is disturbing” (p. 23). Contrarily, in “Historians and Their
Information Sources,” Dalton and Charnigo report that “although earlier writers could say that the use
of electronic sources by humanists was limited, the combination of easy access and databases that truly
serve the needs of humanists has changed that” (2004). What to make of these conflicting assessments
of historians’ and archivists’ relationship to the digital medium? Perhaps it is because this group
“employs a diversity of information-seeking methods. There is certainly no unwillingness on their part
to use on-line methods but equally clear is that current electronic and on-line provision does not
accommodate this diversity” (Anderson, 2004, p. 83). The common thread that runs through these
studies and research articles is a desire to correct this shortcoming, to produce through the
implementation of user studies, tools, databases, finding aids, interfaces, digitized collections and other
resources designed not to only facilitate the storage, organization or preservation of the primary sources
stored in archives (actual or digital), but to facilitate and encourage their use.
What generalizations, then, can be made about this user group as they enter the 21st Century?
Across all studies, it is clear that this group applies a wide range of information-gathering techniques.
Informal methods, such as consulting with colleagues and footnote or citation chasing are often
preferred. Nearly all studies indicate the importance of browsing, be it online, in an archive, or in the
library stacks. The ability to browse allows for a concept mentioned frequently: serendipity. These
users often rely on the “happy accident” to guide and inform their research. In order to be able to
recognize such opportunities when they occur, these users tend to read widely and across disciplines.
Toms and O’Brien note that to an outsider, the research process of these users “may seem chaotic and
disorderly, but humanists are methodical; by casting a large net, they are able to reassure themselves
that their coverage of the field justifies their selection of resources” (2008, p. 104). Regardless of the
way researchers choose to categorize the information-seeking processes of this group, it is generally
agreed that these users do not take a linear approach. Rather, they tend to engage in multiple phases of
information-seeking behavior simultaneously and repeatedly. Most researchers felt that the research
style of these users was determined in part by the critical role played by context. As Dalton puts it,
“Evidence plus interpretation are the stuff of historical study;” (2004, p. 400) historians and archivists
seek not simply to present artifacts from the past, but to re-present them in both their historical and
present context. To accomplish this, these users desire an access to primary and secondary sources that
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is characterized by Dalton as both “diffuse” and “insatiable” (2004, p. 401). Finally, these articles convey
an overall impression of these users as eager to embrace technology that is easy to use and tailored to
their needs. This body of work represents the attempt to develop a deeper understanding of those
needs in order to determine how best to employ the digital technologies and conventional resources
available today to better serve this complex group as their professions evolve over the coming century.
Bibliography
Anderson, I. G. (2004, Fall). Are You Being Served? Historians and the Search for Primary Sources.
Archivaria, 58, 81-129.
Abstract:
In recent years archives have spent increasing amounts of time and money developing on-line finding
aids and other electronic retrieval tools. However, there have been relatively few studies of the
effectiveness of such tools or of users’ information-seeking behavior on which to base these
developments. This paper presents results from a survey of UK academic historians’ informationseeking behavior. It suggests that although historians have varied information retrieval methods, clear
patterns and preferences are visible. Moreover, analysis suggests that the predominant factor to
explain historians’ information-retrieval behavior is the type, or genre, or source concerned. Lastly, the
implications of these results for the development of archival information systems are considered.
Search Strategy: I did a series of simple searches in the hopes of catching something I might have missed
when using longer strings. For this search, I expanded “information” to find the term “information
needs,” which I combined with the term, “historian.” As it happened, this was an effective search,
yielding multiple results.
Database: DIALOG(R)File 438: LIBRARY LIT. & INFO SCIENCE
Search Method: Controlled vocabulary and truncation
Search String: SS S1 (INFORMATION NEEDS) AND HISTORIAN?
Annotation:
Presents an exhaustive study of the archival-use needs of academic historians in the UK. The study in
this article, when considered in conjunction with a similar study performed in the U.S., represents some
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Kathleen Luckett
of the most thorough and up to date large-scale investigation of historians’ information behavior when
locating primary sources. According to the author, it is the first study to examine U.K. historians’
information-seeking behavior in the digital environment. Sadly, due to low response rates (only 105 of
800 historians returned the questionnaires), the results of this study are less conclusive than that of the
study performed in the U.S. by Tibbo. Nevertheless, the author has an interesting perspective on the
importance of user studies, arguing that they need to focus more on the “demand side” of archival
services, and he envisions intriguing solutions to current challenges, such as an Amazon.com based user
interface. His interpretation of the data highlights the importance of context to this user group, a
common theme in much of the research. The article also explores this group’s relationship to
technology, another timely and relevant issue. The article was published fairly recently in a peerreviewed, scholarly journal.
Beaudoin, J. (2005, Fall). Image and Text: A Review of the Literature Concerning the Information Needs
and Research Behaviors of Art Historians. Art Documentation, 24,(2) 34-7.
Abstract:
This article seeks to present a coherent corpus of materials useful to information professionals
interested in the research needs of art historians. The information needs and information-seeking
behaviors of art historians are addressed through a discussion of this user group's research
methodologies, the types of materials they consult, the impact of technology on their scholarship, and
the discipline's continuing development and redefinition. As a review of the literature on the topic, this
article's core incorporates the ideas expressed by a number of authors.
Search Strategy: I did a series of simple searches in the hopes of catching something I might have
missed. For this search, I expanded “information” to find the term “information needs,” which I
combined with the terms (also retrieved with the expand command), “historian” and “historians.”
Database: DIALOG(R)File 438: LIBRARY LIT. & INFO SCIENCE
Search Method: Controlled vocabulary and truncation
Search String: SS S1 (INFORMATION NEEDS) AND S6 (E3 HISTORIAN, E8 HISTORIANS)
Annotation:
A broad and inclusive survey of the literature about art-historians’ user needs, this article does an
effective job relating art-historian specific research to traditional library science models. As in other
articles about this specific user group, the author examines the slower adoption of technology by these
users, and addresses some of the concerns unique to practitioners in this field, such as concerns about
digital image quality. The work is recent, scholarly, and the author hails from Drexel U.!
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Kathleen Luckett
Dalton, M.S. & Charnigo, L. (2004, September). Historians and Their Information Sources. College &
Research Libraries, 65(5), 400-25.
Abstract:
This article reports on a survey of historians and a citation analysis undertaken to revisit the questions
treated in Margaret F. Stieg’s 1981 article published in College & Research Libraries. It examines which
materials historians consider to be the most important and how they discover them. Their attitudes
toward and use of electronic materials were also studied. Many characteristics of historians’ information
needs and use have not changed in a generation: informal means of discovery like book reviews and
browsing remain important, as does the need for comprehensive searches. Print continues to be the
principal format. What has changed is that the advent of electronic resources has increased historians
use of catalogs and indexes in their efforts to identify appropriate primary and secondary sources of
information.
Search Strategy: Once again, my most successful Dialog search. I did other, more complex searches, but
this simple search had the best results. I searched other files, too, most notably 1, 7, 439 and 434, but I
found the most useful articles on 438. I wound up with such small numbers of articles that I rarely
bothered to limit them.
Database: DIALOG(R)File 438: LIBRARY LIT. & INFO SCIENCE
Search Method: Controlled vocabulary, combining sets
Search String: SS S1 (INFORMATION NEEDS) AND S6 (E3 HISTORIAN, E8 HISTORIANS)
Annotation:
One of the best, most comprehensive studies I found, this frequently referenced work offers two useful
features: it compares and links current research on the user group with previous studies, and it
compares user responses to a survey with the results of a citation study as a check against faulty user
perceptions. The study explores both how historians search for information and what sources they use.
The evolution of the role of electronic media in historians’ research is considered. Facts and figures are
clearly and logically presented. Both the body of the article and the notes contain many useful
references to additional studies of this topic, both historical and current.
Duff, W., Craig, B., & Cherry, J. (2004, Fall). Finding and Using Archival Resources: A Cross-Canada
Survey of Historians Studying Canadian History. Archavaria, 58, 51-80.
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Kathleen Luckett
Abstract:
This paper reports the results of a 2001 postal questionnaire (English and French) that gathered
information about historians’ use of archival resources. The population for this report consisted of
faculty members in history departments in degree-granting institutions in Canada whose area of interest
is the history of Canada. The survey probed their current information-seeking practices in archives,
invited assessment of their experience doing archival research, and sought their preferences for
developments in the future. The conclusions indicate that finding and using sources in the early twentyfirst century continues to involve the knowledge and expertise of archivists.
Search Strategy: Another result from a variant of the successful search described above.
Database: DIALOG(R)File 438: LIBRARY LIT. & INFO SCIENCE
Search Method: Controlled vocabulary and truncation
Search String: SS S1 (INFORMATION NEEDS) AND HISTORIAN?
Annotation:
Of all the authors researching and reporting on historians and archivists, Wendy Duff is both the most
prolific and the most readable. Her passion for her work is apparent in her writing, which is scholarly
but not dry. She is an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Information Studies, University of Toronto.
This study of Canadian historians is comparable in scope and date to the studies of historians
undertaken by Anderson and Tibbo. As in those studies, Duff’s exploration of the tension between the
historians’ need for context, authenticity and access to primary sources and artifacts with the desire for
convenience and the preservation of these original sources is set against the backdrop of the changes
brought about by digital technology.
Duff, W. M., Dryden, J., Limkilde, C., Cherry, J., & Bogomazova, E. (2008, Spring/Summer). Archivists’
Views of User-based Evaluation: Benefits, Barriers, and Requirements. The American Archivist,
71(1), 51-80.
Abstract:
This article reports on the second phase of a study concerned with developing standardized
questionnaires for user-based evaluation for archives. Based on a review of current practices used by
archivists to gather feedback and focus-group sessions held with archivists, this phase of the study
concentrated on archivists’ attitudes and concerns about user-based evaluations. It identified archivists’
opinions about user-based evaluation of archives including the type of feedback they value, methods
they currently employ to gather feedback from users, benefits and problems posed by conducting
formal evaluation studies, and ways archivists would use standardized questionnaires for user-based
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Kathleen Luckett
evaluation if these tools were available. The paper also provides some recommendations to help
archivists evaluate their services and systems.
Search Strategy: I used the Thesaurus in the Library Literature & Information Full Text database to
expand on and explore my search terms. Expanding “user,” I found the term “Use studies/Archives.”
Database: Library Literature & Information Full Text
Search Method: Controlled Vocabulary (probably my favorite method), limiters
Search String: Use studies/Archives AND Peer Reviewed
Annotation:
Looks at the issue of archival user studies from the other side, that of the archivists. The goal of the
study was to facilitate development of tools and methods to bring a user-based approach to archives;
the results reveal a disconnect between the some of the larger needs of the archivists and the users of
archives. Addresses needs for standardization, consistent and empirical data-gathering; discusses
opportunities presented by the evolution of digital media. Investigates barriers to a more user-centered
approach. A timely article, published in a peer reviewed journal.
Duff, W. M., & Johnson, C. A. (2002, October). Accidentally Found on Purpose: Information-Seeking
Behavior of Historians in Archives. Library Quarterly, 72(4), 472-96.
Abstract:
Reports on a qualitative research study of the information-seeking behavior of historians. Investigates
how they locate primary sources, carry out their research, and use archival materials; and identifies four
different types of information-seeking activities, including orienting oneself to materials, seeking know
materials, building contextual knowledge, and identifying relevant material. (Author/LRW)
Search Strategy: Very specific searches seemed not to work well; again, I tried to cast a wide net, using
multiple, related controlled vocabulary terms obtained through use of the expand command in
conjunction with my keyword.
Database: DIALOG®File 1: ERIC
Search Method: Controlled vocabulary, truncation, expand
Search String: SS S38 AND HISTORIAN?
(How I got S38:
S24
1
USERS (LIBRARY)
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Kathleen Luckett
S25
S26
S27
S28
S29
S30
S31
S32
S33
S34
S35
S36
S37
S38
2826
1
132
1
1523
2
0
2
96
2
3491
28
138
7194
USERS (INFORMATION) (ADDED 08/01/1986)
USER PERCEPTIONS
USER PREFERENCES
USER RATIONALITY
USER SATISFACTION (INFORMATION) (ADDED 01/08/1979)
USER SERVICES
USER STUDIES
USER SURVEYS
USER NEEDS
USER NEEDS (INFORMATION
USER NEEDS (INFORMATION) (ADDED 08/01/1986)
USER GROUPS
USER CHARACTERISTICS
E39,E38,E23,E24,E25,E26,E27,E28,E29,E19,E20,E21,E16,E7)
Annotation:
A thoughtful article that analyzes a study of historians in archives. This study is tightly focused around
the methods (rather than the types of sources or information sought) of this group’s behavior, and
develops four categories of archival information behavior. Another insightful and frequently cited
article by Duff, provides much qualitative data.
Elam, B. (2007). Readiness or avoidance: e-resources and the art historian. Collection Building, 26(1), 46.
Abstract:
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to study the information-seeking behaviors of art historians.
Design/methodology/approach – A survey of art historians was done to ascertain their use of eresources. The paper discusses the impact of electronic resources and digital image databases on the
research methodologies of today’s art historians.
Findings – Although art historians depend on using the library for research, many have a rather limited
awareness of electronic resources and have not fully developed the skills to utilize them to their fullest
potential.
Originality/value – This follows up on Deirdre R. Stam’s 1984 study of the information-seeking behaviors
of art historians. [Publisher Abstract]
Search Strategy: In my Dialog searches, I noticed that the library science databases were yielding the
best results. I decided to use Hagerty library’s databases to do more searching, hoping to find articles I
may have missed. I particularly liked the peer-review limiting feature in this database.
Database: Library Literature and Information Science Full Text & Library Literature and Information
Science Retrospective
Method of searching: Used thesaurus to find useful keywords, used peer-reviewed limiter
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Kathleen Luckett
Search String: historians <in> Keyword AND Peer Reviewed
Annotation:
This article discusses digital needs specific to art historians and some of the issues present that prevent
a full embrace of digital media by this group. Cites the current research on the topic, then uses a small,
informal study to provide rich qualitative information. Highly quotable, current.
Green, M. A. (2003/2004). The Messy Business of Remembering: History, Memory, and Archives.
Archival Issues, 28(2), 95-103.
Abstract:
While some archivists may question the relevance of the seemingly esoteric discussion of
postmodernism to the practical work of our profession, this article argues for postmodern analysis being
deeply relevant to archivists--to everything from our acquisition decisions to how we view and relate to
our users. One way to frame the pertinence of postmodernism to archives is to take a close look at how
the positivist/postmodernist perspectives affect the legitimacy of the uses to which the material in
archives can be put. Specifically, this article looks at the still-vibrant argument that something called
"history" is a legitimate end to which archives can be put, while something called "memory" (also
referred to more broadly as "social memory," the idea that societies--not just individuals--create, shape,
interpret, and hold memory) is a much less legitimate purpose. Behind each of these end uses is a set of
end users: professional historians on the one hand, and amateur researchers of all kinds on the other.
And behind each of these purposes is also a distinct set of archival and other documentary material that
is more or less legitimate or useful to the end users.
Search Strategy: This is a second result from the search described immediately above. (It’s rather
uncanny how the alphabetization and search strategies seem to coincide.)
Database: Library Literature and Information Science Full Text & Library Literature and Information
Science Retrospective
Method of searching: Used thesaurus to find useful keywords, used peer-reviewed limiter
Search String: historians <in> Keyword AND Peer Reviewed
Annotation:
Included for reference purposes only, this article is not a research article, nor does it specifically describe
the information seeking habits or needs of this user group. What it does bring to this collection of
references is that it positions the user group within the cultural framework of current and contemporary
thought about meaning-making, a concept integral to this group. The article’s ideological and temporal
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Kathleen Luckett
currency is particularly relevant in light of the effort to focus on only the most current research and
ideas in this bibliography.
Hagedorn, K. (2003). OAIster: a “no dead ends” OAI service provider. Library Hi Tech, 21(2), 170-81.
Abstract:
OAIster, at the University of Michigan, University Libraries, Digital Library Production Service (DLPS), is
an Andrew W. Mellon Foundation grant-funded project designed to test the feasibility of using the Open
Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH) to harvest digital object metadata from
multiple and varied digital object repositories and develop a service to allow end-users to access that
metadata. This article describes in-depth the development of our system to harvest, store, transform
the metadata into Digital Library eXtension Service (DLXS) Bibliographic Class format, build indexes and
make the metadata searchable through an interface using the XPAT search engine. Results of the testing
of our service and statistics on usage are reported, as well as the issues that we have encountered
during our harvesting and transformation operations. The article closes by discussing the future
improvements and potential of OAIster and the OAI-PMH protocol.
Search Strategy: I noted the term OAIster in another article; I didn’t know what it was, so I thought I’d
see if I could find out more information. OAIster seems like it will be a great resource for historians and
archives users, and I found this article that describes some of the user studies done during the design of
this resource.
Database: Library Literature and Information Full Text
Search Method: Keyword searching
Search String: oaister <in> smart search
Annotation:
This brief but informative article describes work being done on the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for
Metadata Harvesting and includes a discussion of user survey methods utilized in the both the digital
collection development and the interface design phases of this ongoing archives project. The article
refers the reader to the OAIster website to view the survey, the raw data and a more detailed summary
of the study.
Hoeflich, M. H. (2007, Fall). Serendipity in the Stacks, Fortuity in the Archives. Law Library Journal, 99(4),
813-27.
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Kathleen Luckett
Abstract:
Professor Hoeflich explores the notion of serendipity and its components as they relate to historians,
particularly legal historians, and to those institutions-libraries and archives-that present the
opportunities for serendipity to work its magic. He also discusses the ways in which libraries and
archives can help to encourage serendipitous discoveries, and the dangers he sees in overefficient and
economically rational disposal policies, including reproduction instead of preservation of originals.
[Publisher Abstract]
Search Strategy: Speaking of serendipity, I was perusing another article when I noticed “Research and
the library” as a controlled vocabulary subject term. I combined this with my keyword search.
Database: Library Literature and Information Full Text
Search Method: Controlled vocabulary & keyword searching
Search String: Research and the library AND historians
Annotation:
Although this recent article in a peer-reviewed journal by law professor and legal historian Hoeflich is of
a decidedly less research-oriented bent, I feel that its inclusion in the bibliography was critical for several
reasons. Hoeflich examines the concept of serendipity through the use of historical and personal
examples. Serendipity, a concept mentioned frequently in the literature about this user group, does not
exactly reside in the realm of the quantifiable and empirical. Nevertheless, the “happy accident” of
discovery often plays an important role in the research tactics of this group. Browsing is a behavior
noted in several studies as a method of attaining unexpected and inspiring leads or sources. It is my
opinion that it would be short-sighted to ignore this facet of user behavior simply because it is difficult
to measure, for the cultivation of an environment that encourages serendipitous discovery should surely
be one goal of information and resource providers. Hoeflich frames his advocacy of “planned chaos”
(814) within the current discourse about digital media in this interesting and well crafted article.
Katifori, A., Torou, E., Vassilakis, C., & Halatsis, C. (2008). Supporting Research in Historical Archives:
Historical Information Visualization and Modeling Requirements. Information Visualization 12th
International Conference, IV, 32-7.
Abstract:
The on-going progress in the area of digital libraries has lead to the beginning of a digitization effort in
Historical Archives, as well. The requirements of historical research, which works with histories of
entities and incomplete information, create the need for supplementary tools to support users in
handling the digitized content. This work is based on a user study of historian information retrieval
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Kathleen Luckett
methods in order to create a set of tools for the context of historical archives, which will facilitate
historical data storage, management, and visualization.
Search Strategy: I wanted to leave no stone unturned, so I checked out the IEEExplore database. I didn’t
really use it long enough to feel very comfortable with its capabilities, but I did find this thoughtprovoking conference presentation.
Database: IEEExplore
Search Method: Keyword searching
Search String: “historians”
Annotation:
Far more technical in nature than many of the other selections, and extremely timely, this is a
presentation of the results of a combination of a study of queries made at an historical archive and
semi-structured interviews with historians. The researchers’ goal was to develop a model for a digitized
user interface based on their discoveries. This paper demonstrates the degree of complexity and effort
that goes into the development of archival finding aids. An exploration of the endnotes would provide
an excellent jumping-off point for the reader who wishes to delve further into the more technical
aspects of archival user studies.
Murray, K. R., & Hsieh, I. K. (2008). Archiving Web-published materials: A needs assessment of
librarians, researchers, and content providers. Government Information Quarterly, 25, 66-89.
Abstract:
The Web-at-Risk project is a digital preservation project funded by the Library of Congress as part of the
National Digital Information Infrastructure and Preservation Program. The project is developing a Web
archiving service to enable curators to build, store, and manage archived collections of Web-published
materials captured largely from U.S. federal and state government agency Web sites. In 2005 the
project’s 22 curators, as well as librarians and archivists working primarily in academic libraries
(n=43), university researchers (n=7), and content providers (n=7) participated in a study to identify their
needs in relation to Web archiving. This paper summarizes the issues and challenges these groups face
and discusses the need for collaborations among libraries and government entities for preserving Webpublished materials. [Publisher Abstract]
Search Strategy: Articles that specifically address the information behavior and needs of archivists and
historians were not easy to locate; I was attempting to cast a wide net by using synonymous terms.
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Kathleen Luckett
Database: DIALOG(R)File 438: LIBRARY LIT. & INFO SCIENCE
Search Method: Keyword searching with proximity and truncation
Search String: SS ARCHIVIST? AND (INFORMATION()SEEKING OR INFORMATION()NEED? OR
ONLINE()SEARCHING)
Annotation:
Useful in its simultaneous consideration of the needs of archivists and those engaged in historic
research, this article explores the needs of researchers and libraries/archives in the digital arena. Of
particular interest is the consideration of the transience of digital information, specifically born-digital
documents and websites. Many digital information concerns are discussed, such as the need for reliable
capture of information, the disappearance or undocumented change of digital information, the need for
documentation standards and for collaboration to prevent redundancy and extend service. The authors
tackle the challenges faced in these endeavors, exploring the ideas of responsibility and stewardship
with regard to digital preservation and suggest methods of capturing and organizing this fragile cultural
record.
Rose, T. (2002, Fall). Technology’s Impact on the Information-Seeking Behavior of Art Historians. Art
Documentation, 21(2), 35-42.
Abstract:
At a 1989 ARLIS/NA conference presentation in Phoenix, Deirdre Stam summarized all previous studies
of "tracking" art historians that had been conducted since the 1960s.(FN1) She explained this group's
information needs and information-seeking behavior as it has been studied from three perspectives:
bibliometric tracking; autobiographical accounts; and user studies. Stam herself undertook the first
comprehensive user study of art historians in her 1984 dissertation.(FN2) Her study surveyed art
historians in museums and colleges within the United States. Using both questionnaires and interviews,
she sought to determine their modes of communication, maintenance of collegial networks,
consultation with information providers, and how they establish authoritativeness in their information
sources. In 1986, the Getty Art History Information Program (then part of the Getty Information
Institute) conducted the second comprehensive user study of art historians.(FN3) The Getty study, using
in-depth interviews and actual observations, sought to understand art historians from a much broader
perspective, beginning with their formative experiences, educational and professional development,
gathering of information, analytical techniques, and the organization and publication of their research.
Since no comprehensive user studies of art historians had been conducted in the past fifteen years, I
chose this issue as a research topic for Professor Betty Jo Irvine's "Seminar in Art Librarianship" course at
Indiana University.(FN4) Recognizing that this study would be unable to cover the art historian's entire
information-seeking process in the depth explored by the Getty study, I focused instead on the aspects
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Kathleen Luckett
of the research process upon which the art librarian could have the greatest impact, those involving the
gathering, organization, and analysis of information. Survey instruments included both a questionnaire
and follow-up interviews. The questionnaire was designed to understand art historians' research process
through their methodological approaches, resources they consult, their use of computers, how they
organize information, and any barriers they confront during these processes. The questions were
intentionally open-ended so that respondents could discuss their process and not be forced into
choosing from pre-defined categories (for the complete questionnaire, see Appendix). Follow-up
interviews, ranging from thirty to ninety minutes, were used to clarify and expand on some of the
responses.
Search Strategy: I found FirstSearch to be very useable in our class exercises; thought I’d give it a try. A
keyword search brought up some useful results. Again, simple worked best.
Database: ECO, ArticlesFirst and WilsonSelectPlus; FirstSearch interface
Search Method: Keyword
Search String: KW historians AND KW information KW behavior
Annotation:
Explores in greater detail the sometimes contentious relationship that art historians have with
technology, discusses art-historian use of various specific technologies—search engines, databases,
word-processing programs and digital cameras. Offers more detailed insight into discipline specific
technology barriers, and presents a “wish list” that would improve use and access for this group. This
article is frequently cited in other work, is current, and published in a peer-reviewed journal.
Tibbo, H.R. (2003, Spring/Summer). Primarily History in America: How U.S. Historians Search for Primary
Materials. The American Archivist, 66(1), 9-50.
Abstract:
The Primarily History project is the first international, comparative study to examine historians’
information-seeking behaviors since the advent of the World Wide Web, electronic finding aids, digitized
collections, and an increasingly pervasive networked scholarly environment. Funded by the Gladys
Kriebel Delmas Foundation, Primarily History is a collaboration of the School of Information and Library
Science at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH) and the Humanities Advanced
Technology and Information Institute (HATII) at the University of Glasgow, Scotland. This article reports
on a survey that asked historians teaching American history at sixty-eight top-ranked institutions how
they located primary resources for their research. Information-seeking behaviors identified range from
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traditional print approaches to use of on-line databases, Web searching, and virtual repository visits.
Implications are drawn for archives and special collection repositories.
Search Strategy: I found this citation early; if I had not, I would have had to look for it as it is quoted so
frequently. I was doing a number of keyword searches on Library Literature & Information Full Text and
Library Literature and Information Science Retrospective, using the peer-review limiter.
Database: Library Literature & Information Full Text and Library Literature and Information Science
Retrospective
Search Method: Keyword, limiters
Search String: historians <in> Keyword AND Peer Reviewed
Annotation:
A huge study and a report loaded with facts and figures, this recently published article is quoted in
nearly all the other subsequently published literature on this user group. Helen Tibbo is an associate
professor and associate dean at the School of Information and Library Science at the University of North
Carolina at Chapel Hill, one of the top Library Science programs in the U.S.
Toms, E. G., & Duff, W.M., (2002, December). “I spent 1 ½ hours sifting through one large box…” Diaries
as Information Behavior of the Archives User: Lessons Learned. Journal of the American Society
for Information Science and Technology, 53(14), 1232-8.
Abstract:
This article describes how diaries were implemented in a study of the use of archives and archival
finding aids by history graduate students. The issues concerning diary use as a data collection technique
are discussed as well as the different types of diaries.
Search Strategy:
Citation chasing, author search. Searching Wendy Duff on Science Citation database, I found a reference
to this article, to which Duff was a contributor. When searching on the Science and Social Science
Databases, I utilized the limiting tools provided to refine my author search by subject area and
document type. I am glad I tried these databases; normally I shy away from anything related to the hard
sciences. They really offer a lot of useful research features, and I will definitely use them in the future.
Even so, when I went back later to look for this article, I stayed within my comfort zone, doing an author
search on Toms in Library Literature & Information Full Text.
Database: Science Citation; Library Literature & Information Full Text
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Search Method: Author search
Search String: toms <in> Author, Personal
Annotation:
I included this article not because of what it reveals about the user group, historians and archivists, but
rather for the detailed examination of the methodologies used to examine this group of specialized
information seekers. The article discusses precedents for the use of diaries or behavior logs as a tool for
information behavior study, then explores the advantages and disadvantages of this method in general,
and in relation to an ongoing study of information-seekers in archives. Taken in conjunction with other
Duff articles, this study provides insight into the methods and the thoroughness of this researcher.
Toms, E. G., & O’Brien, H.L., (2008). Understanding the information and communication technology
needs of the e-humanist. Journal of Documentation, 64(1), 102-30.
Abstract:
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to understand the needs of humanists with respect to
information and communication technology (ICT) in order to prescribe the design of an e-humanist's
workbench.
Design/methodology/approach – A web-based survey comprising over 60 questions gathered the
following data from 169 humanists: profile of the humanist, use of ICT in teaching, e-texts, text analysis
tools, access to and use of primary and secondary sources, and use of collaboration and communication
tools.
Findings – Humanists conduct varied forms of research and use multiple techniques. They rely on the
availability of inexpensive, quality-controlled e-texts for their research. The existence of primary sources
in digital form influences the type of research conducted. They are unaware of existing tools for
conducting text analyses, but expressed a need for better tools. Search engines have replaced the library
catalogue as the key access tool for sources. Research continues to be solitary with little collaboration
among scholars.
Research limitations/implications – The results are based on a self-selected sample of humanists who
responded to a web-based survey. Future research needs to examine the work of the scholar at a more
detailed level, preferably through observation and/or interviewing.
Practical implications – The findings support a five-part framework that could serve as the basis for the
design of an e-humanist's workbench.
Originality/value – The paper examines the needs of the humanist, founded on an integration of
information science research and humanities computing for a more comprehensive understanding of
the humanist at work.
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Search Strategy: Citation chasing—see above—this article came from the same search as the one
directly preceding it.
Database: Science Citation; Library Literature & Information Full Text
Search Method: Author search
Search String: toms <in> Author, Personal
Annotation:
An extremely detailed and up to date study of the user group “humanists” or “humanities researcher” of
which historians are a subset; they share many characteristics with the larger group. This study seeks to
explore the role of digital media in the research process of the humanists in order to create a
recommendation for a set of tools to enhance that process. This article is frequently cited in the
literature.
Yakel, E., & Torres, D. A. (2003, Spring/Summer). AI: Archival Intelligence and User Expertise. The
American Archivist, 66(1), 51-78.
Abstract:
User studies in archives have long focused on researchers’ satisfaction, behaviors, and use of primary
sources. Yet, archivists have never defined what characteristics denote an expert user of archives. This
article reports on a research study involving in-depth interviews with twenty eight individuals. The
analysis of these interviews led to the development of a model of researcher expertise that might be
incorporated into archival user education to create information literacy for primary sources. The authors
assert that there are three distinct forms of knowledge required to work effectively with primary
sources: domain (subject) knowledge, artifactual literacy, and the authors’ own concept of archival
intelligence. Archival intelligence is a researcher’s knowledge of archival principles, practices, and
institutions, such as the reason underlying archival rules and procedures, the means for developing
search strategies to explore research questions, and an understanding of the relationship between
primary sources and their surrogates. This is separate from domain or subject knowledge and artifactual
literacy, or the ability to interpret and analyze primary sources. Archival intelligence encompasses three
dimensions: 1) knowledge of archival theory, practices, and procedures; 2) strategies for reducing
uncertainty and ambiguity when unstructured problems and ill-defined solutions are the norm; 3) and
intellective skills.
Search Strategy: Browsing. Impatient for the delivery of some articles by ILLIAD, I decided that since I
had planned on joining the SAA anyway, that there was no time like the present. As a member, I had
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Kathleen Luckett
access to the Spring/Summer 2003 Special Section: Users and Archival Research that I had requested,
but not received. This article was part of that section.
Database: SAA Website (not a database)
Search Method: Point and click
Search String: none
Annotation:
Frames the results of a study of archival users (mainly historians) in terms of the development of user
expertise; intended to offer guidance in archival user education. Pinpoints the information behavior of
successful archives users, contrasts with the behavior of novices. Highlights the need for researchers
and historians to develop archival expertise outside their areas of specialization. Many quotes and
much qualitative evidence from users of all expertise levels.
Resources for Historians and Archivists
Congleton, R. (2005). AI: Evaluating Web sites featuring primary sources on United States history.
Behavioral & Social Sciences Librarian, 24(1), 61-82.
Abstract:
Most library Web sites offer lists of recommended Web sites for primary sources with only cursory
summaries of the sites. While many of the resources listed are outstanding, too many are dubious in
quality, often referring to dead URLs or sites containing no information on their sponsor, source of
material, or other information needed to evaluate the accuracy of the information being offered. As
student researchers use the Web more and more as their sole means of obtaining primary sources, they
need to know how to evaluate the quality of a Web site. This paper discusses a five-step method for
evaluating Web sites and uses this method to review several Web sites offering primary sources on
United States history.
Annotation:
Remarkably, though the article was published three years ago (eons in internet time), all of the reviewed
sites are operational, many are improved. Of the twelve sites listed, only two links were broken;
navigation to the correct sites was simple and intuitive. Valuable both for the detailed reviews and
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Kathleen Luckett
assessments of the historic websites themselves and the evaluative criteria provided. All websites deal
with primary sources. Listed sources are also all free to the public.
OAIster website: www.oaister.org
Annotation:
OAIster is a union catalog of digital resources "harvested" by their descriptive records using OAI-PMH
(the Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting). OAIster reveals these deep web digital
resources in a user-friendly, searchable interface for users interested in useful, academically-oriented
digital resources. The service also works to eliminate dead ends by retrieving not only descriptions
(metadata) about resources, but actual digital resources. OAIster can be searched by Title,
Author/Creator, Subject, Language or Entire Record. Searches can also be limited by resource type (text,
image, audio, video, dataset) and sorted by title, author, date and hit frequency. Results allow further
limiting by data contributor (i.e., where the record was harvested from), as well as the option to re-sort
the data and return to the search page to revise a search. Provides easy, single-site access to primary
sources.
Digital Library Foundation website: http://quod.lib.umich.edu/i/imls/
Annotation:
Similar to OAIster, The Digital Library Federation (DLF) portal is a follow-on project of the University of
Michigan Digital Library Production Service. The portal can be used to search for primary sources. There
are currently 2,648,902 records from 62 data contributors. The site is offers keyword and phrase
searching with Boolean operators, field searching by Title, Author, Subject and Language, and limiting by
resource type, topic and sub-topic. Advantages include single-site access to vast amounts of primary
sources, ease of searchablity.
e-History website: http://ehistory.osu.edu/osu/
Annotation:
An amazing history website from Ohio State that offers free access to primary sources that are keyword
searchable and browse-able, including documents, maps and photographs. A site-wide search is also
available. Contains a page of links to additional history websites, including several history blogs.
Digital History website: http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/
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Annotation:
A collaborative effort of the University of Houston, Chigago Historical Society, The Gilder Lehrman
Institute of American History, Houston’s Museum of Fine Arts, The National Park Service and The Project
for the Active Teaching of American History, this site offers an online textbook, searchable and browseable primary sources, images, maps, writing guides and a super-cool interactive timeline. Easily
navigable site.
Library of Congress American Memory website: http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/index.html
Annotation:
American Memory provides free and open access through the Internet to written and spoken words,
sound recordings, still and moving images, prints, maps, and sheet music that document the American
experience. It is a digital record of American history and creativity. American Memory is a gateway to
the Library of Congress’s vast resources of digitized American historical materials. Comprising more than
9 million items that document U.S. history and culture, American Memory is organized into more than
100 thematic collections based on their original format, their subject matter, or who first created,
assembled, or donated them to the Library. Only keyword searchable, but it has a detailed directory
that can be browsed by topic, time period, resource type or geographic location.
Conclusion: What I learned from this project, or, “Frozen
fishsticks for dinner again?”
As I progressed through this project, I frequently consulted (and re-consulted) the project
description. Again and again I found that I had somehow managed to stray from the instructions and
advice, wandering down the path of wasted time. In general this quarter I have found that I have had to
invest a great deal of time in learning how to be a student again. As the project began, I stubbornly
tried to force the assignment to fit my interests. I didn’t think I would enjoy the research unless I was
following my own ideas, but as I began to gather the articles that eventually became this bibliography, I
found myself enthralled by the search process. However, I was convinced that I would hate reading the
dry, scholarly articles, so I gathered up loads of references, planning to read them later (yes, later I did
re-discover that we were advised against this practice). When I (finally) began to read the articles, I
suddenly realized what “citation chasing” was all about. More searching ensued. Thankfully, I did get
one thing right—I documented my searches, closely. Honestly, I really didn’t adequately grasp the
concept of scholarly research until I was immersed in the process, and by then, I had wasted a lot of the
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most precious resource I had: time. I did discover a lot about my own research process, though, and the
improvements that I can make. I have plans that include post-its, and other memory devices (I noticed
that I could remember which article I wanted to reference by visualizing the color hi-lighter pen I used to
underline!) Next time, I’ll be ready!
Another discovery I made—I found those dry scholarly articles fascinating! I admit, I didn’t
much care for all the charts and figures, but I became fascinated by my user group, thinking about what
makes them tick, and why. I’ve been fascinated by the idea of archives and archivists since I researched
the SAA in my INFO 520 class, and this was an excellent opportunity to find out all I could about them. I
was happy to learn some archival lingo—I feel ever-so-slightly more prepared for the archives class I
signed up for next term. Another revelation—my own information behavior is very similar to the user
group I chose to research. I, too, am deeply concerned with context, and am inclined to read widely and
across disciplines in order to feel that I have a grasp of the topic at hand. I am a firm believer in
serendipity, and in browsing. I, too, rely on a mix of print and digital aids. I was interested to read the
post of another student on the discussion board who noticed the same phenomena—she identified with
the information behavior of her teenage user group. When it’s all said and done, I feel pretty satisfied
with my process and my results. This was my first serious research project, and a real learning
experience.
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