<A>SAMPLE ANSWER
<c>Question 3. Describe the major approaches to understanding human cognition.
There are four major approaches to understanding human cognition: experimental cognitive
psychology, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive neuropsychology, and computational cognitive science.
All four of these approaches aim to investigate the cognitive processes underlying human behaviors.
These processes include perception, attention, memory, language, problem solving, and decision
making. Because cognitive processes cannot be measured directly, researchers can only use these
different approaches to infer how cognition occurs in the human brain.
Experimental cognitive psychology relies on the usage of behavioral experiments to measure
people’s performance on different cognitive tasks under different conditions. If a person’s
performance is slower or less accurate in one condition compared to another, then we can conclude
that the difference in conditions is important in that task. From that, we can also assume which
cognitive processes are used in the task. For example, in the Stroop task, it takes longer to name
incongruent ink colors (Stroop, 1935). This is because processing the word happens automatically and
thus interferes with the more effortful task of color naming. Experiments like the Stroop task can help
us understand the nature of cognitive processes.
Cognitive neuroscience relies on advanced technology to measure the location or the timing
of brain activity during various cognitive tasks. For location, fMRI and PET can be used to measure
changes in blood flow to different areas of the brain. For timing, ERP and MEG can be used to see
how quickly a participant’s brain responds to external stimuli. As with experimental cognitive
psychology, data from cognitive neuroscience methods are interpreted via comparisons between
conditions. As an example, fMRI results showed increased blood flow to the insula, anterior
cingulate, and hypothalamus when people viewed pictures of their romantic partner, and this specific
pattern of activation was not found when those same people viewed pictures of other loved ones (Zeki
& Romaya, 2010). Therefore we might conclude that there is a special emotional function in these
three regions.
Cognitive neuropsychology is the science of studying the effects of brain damage on human
cognitive processes. This approach depends on the unfortunate reality that sometimes accidents,
injuries, or disease can damage specific areas of the brain. Patients with brain injuries can be tested to
see which cognitive deficits result from their particular pattern of damage. Neuropsychologists look
for dissociations or double dissociations, which can indicate the link between specific brain regions
and their functions. For example, one patient might have problems with short-term memory but not
long-term memory, while another patient with a different brain injury might have problems with longterm memory but not short-term memory. Again, comparisons are important—comparing individuals’
injuries and patterns of performance on various cognitive tasks tells us about brain regions involved in
those tasks.
Computational cognitive science relies on the use of computer models to test theories of
cognitive functioning. In this approach, computational models are designed to simulate what we’ve
learned so far about human cognitive processes. Then, different features of the model can be altered to
see their effect on the model’s performance under various conditions. One advantage of this approach
is that features can be methodically manipulated and tested and even restored. Thus, predictions can
be tested without involving humans. However, this approach has been criticized for having limited
applicability.
Ideally, future research will combine findings from experimental cognitive psychology,
cognitive neuroscience, cognitive neuropsychology, and computational cognitive science. Each
approach makes a unique contribution. But combined, they have even greater potential to enhance our
understanding of human cognitive processes.