Fact Sheet
•
The geological time scale is a system of chronologic measurement which relates stratigraphy to
time which is used by geologists, palaeontologists, etc.
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The Geological time scale is basically a division of the history of the Earth. It is formed into
smaller units based on the appearance of different life forms.
•
The largest divisions found on the scale are the eons. Eons can be made smaller to eras and eras
to periods.
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The Geological time scale represents timing and relationships between events that have
happened on the history of the Earth.
The eons in the Geological time scale are divided into eras and eras are divided into periods. The
vast expanse of time is called the Precambrian. The Palaeozoic Era (ancient life), the Mesozoic
Era (middle life), and the Cainozoic Era (recent life).
•
The Geological time scale was arranged in three eras: Cainozoic, Mesozoic, and Palaeozoic.
•
The Geological time scale is arranged by eons, eras, epochs, and periods
Precambrian:
The first 4 billion years of earth are called the Precambrian. During this period there is little fossil
evidence. Scientists think that Rodinia was formed during the Precambrian period.
The Geological Time scale:
Principle of Superposition:
The principle of superposition simply states that in undisturbed layers of rock, the youngest rock is on
the top and older rocks can be found at the bottom. This can be simplified as:

“Each layer is younger than the one below it”
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“Each layer is older than the one above it” (taken from
2101_Ch1_03.lnk
)
New Layers are constantly forming due to sediments forming into sedimentary rock. Sediments that are
deposited at the bottom of a lake will eventually transform into sedimentary rock. Additional layers of
sediments will continue to form over previous layers. Hence, the older layers would keep moving
towards the bottom as new layers continue to add.
Strata:
As the new layers of sediments transform into sedimentary rock, the individual layers can be identified.
This type of layering is called strata.
Relative Dating:
Relative dating is a technique that scientists use, to determine the order the events occurred. Scientists
determine t he relative age of rocks by examining their position in the strata. If a layer has a fault or
crack running through it, it would have occurred after the layer is in place, so the fault would be younger
than the rock.
Index Fossil:
You can use certain fossils to determine the age of the layer of rock it is found in. If the organism
fossilized appeared on earth for a short period of time, and was widespread, it would give us accurate
information about the age of the rock it was found in. A fossil that was used to determine the relative
age of a layer of rock, would be called an index fossil.
Clues From Technology:
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Certain elements and their amounts may tell geologists a great deal of information
about the rocks age
Over the course of billions of years, some elements transform into other elements.
Uranium is such an element. After the time span of 4.5 million years the composition of
the uranium would turn into half lead (the lead does not change). This process is called 1
half-life of uranium. After another 4.5 million years the half amount of remaining uranium
would turn into lead. This process would keep on repeating, until after a long period of
time, the quantity of uranium remaining would be too small to measure. In this the
uranium would be the parent material and the lead would be the daughter material
After knowing the parent material and the composition of the rock, the geologist would be
would be able to calculate the age of the rock. This process is called Radiometric Dating.
Scientists also use radiocarbon dating (which is a type of radiometric dating) to find out
when recent events in Earth’s history occurred (taken from pg. 424 of science focus
textbook). Carbon-14- a rare type of carbon – is the parent material of radiocarbon dating.
Radiocarbon dating is used for finding the age of bones, fossils, and wood that are 50,00
years old or less. After 50,000 years the amount of radiocarbon left in the bone, fossil, or
piece of wood is too small to measure. To build cells and tissues, all living things must take
carbon-14 from the environment. After he/she/it dies, the carbon-14 will change into
nitrogen after a half life of 5730 years. To determine the age of the remains, scientists use
the amount of carbon-14 left in the tissue.
Fossil ages comes from primarily from radioactive dating. Radioactive dating relies
on the properties of isotopes. These are chemical elements, like carbon or
uranium, that are identical except for one key feature -- the number of neutrons
in their nucleus.
They can use relative dating in which they relate the position of the fossils they
found in strata to other chemicals and substances found in other layers of the
earth's crust.
Geologists research many earth layers. If the layers are not disturbed by folding or
mountain building, the youngest layer is always on top. In every layer different
characteristic fossils occur. By researching about the different rock layers,
geologists made a description of the different geological periods.
Bibliography
http://www.google.ca/imgres?q=principle+of+superposition&um=1&hl=en&biw=1366&bih=534&tbm=i
sch&tbnid=bWIXocvXUEzgWM:&imgrefurl=http://www.shropshiregeology.org.uk/shropgeol/Geological
Time.html&docid=d1kgyARcBcZXCM&imgurl=http://www.shropshiregeology.org.uk/shropgeol/images/
superposition.gif&w=200&h=115&ei=hWjVTrO7KY7_sQK8pqmQDw&zoom=1&iact=rc&dur=512&sig=10
2232801340570016516&page=4&tbnh=92&tbnw=160&start=37&ndsp=13&ved=1t:429,r:10,s:37&tx=11
3&ty=11
http://www.shropshiregeology.org.uk/shropgeol/GeologicalTime.html
2101_Ch1_03.lnk
•
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale
•
wiki.answers.com
•
Science textbook
http://www.google.ca/imgres?q=index+fossil&um=1&hl=en&biw=1366&bih=534&tbm=isch&tbnid=y_7
2r05f0Nyi0M:&imgrefurl=http://www.nhm.ac.uk/nature-online/virtualwonders/det_vrammonite.html&docid=9wzq6AXtLeI06M&imgurl=http://www.nhm.ac.uk/natureonline/virtualwonders/ammonite/img0001.jpg&w=400&h=335&ei=CnXVTpGKCY6FsgK1pOjvDg&zoom=1&iact=hc&vp
x=969&vpy=164&dur=1559&hovh=205&hovw=245&tx=186&ty=129&sig=102232801340570016516&pa
ge=1&tbnh=161&tbnw=192&start=0&ndsp=11&ved=1t:429,r:4,s:0
(http://science.howstuffworks.com/environmental/earth/geology/dinosaurbone-age.htm).
http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_test_do_geologists_use_to_discover_the_age_of_a_fossil#ixzz1eZG
GInXq
http://english.fossiel.net/informatie/age.php
http://www.rocksinmyheadtoo.com/USGSTime.jpg
Earthquakes
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Mercalli scale - The Mercalli intensity scale is a seismic scale used for measuring the
intensity of an earthquake. It measures the effects of an earthquake
Scale Seismic waves - Are waves of energy that travel through the earth.
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
Seismologist – People who study earthquakes and the spread of elastic waves through the
Earth or through other planet-like bodies
Seismometer - Are instruments that measure motions of the ground, including those of
seismic waves generated by earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and other seismic sources.
Records of seismic waves allow seismologists to map the interior of the Earth, and locate
and measure the size of these different sources.
What is an earthquake?
An earthquake is a sudden and violent shaking of the ground, sometimes causing great
destruction, as a result of movements within the earth's crust or volcanic action. At the Earth's
surface, earthquakes show themselves by shaking and sometimes causing dislocation of the
ground. When the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be
dislocated sufficiently to cause a tsunami. Earthquakes can also activate landslides, and
occasionally volcanic activity.
How is it measured? What kind of technology is used?
The seismicity, seismic or seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and size of
earthquakes experienced over a period of time. Earthquakes are measured using observations
from seismometers. Seismometers should be attached to bedrock (the solid rock that lies
beneath the soil and looser rocks) in order to feel the vibrations that result from an earthquake.
Seismologist use a method of measurement called richer scale to describe the magnitude
(strength) of an earthquake. Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes are mostly invisible and
magnitude 7 and over potentially causes serious damage over large areas, depending on their
depth. The largest earthquakes in historic times have been of magnitude slightly over 9,
although there is no limit to the possible magnitude. The most recent large earthquake of
magnitude 9.0 or larger was a 9.0 magnitude earthquake in Japan (March 2011), and it was the
largest Japanese earthquake since records began. Intensity of shaking is measured on the
modified Mercalli scale. The shallower an earthquake, the more damage to structures it causes.
Describe the different types of earthquake waves
There are 2 types of earthquake waves- Body waves and Surface waves.
Body waves - Body waves travel through the interior of the Earth. A seismic wave that travels
through the Earth rather than across its surface. Body waves usually have shorter wavelengths than
surface waves and travel at higher speeds. Primary waves and secondary waves are body waves.
Primary Waves - The first kind of body wave is the P wave or primary wave. This is the fastest kind of
seismic wave, and, as a result, the first to 'arrive' at a seismic station (a laboratory that has equipment
that can detect, monitor and record earthquakes locally or anywhere in the world). The P wave can
move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid layers of the earth. It pushes and pulls the
rock it moves through just like sound waves push and pull the air. Have you ever heard a big clap of
thunder and heard the windows rattle at the same time? The windows rattle because the sound waves
were pushing and pulling on the window glass much like P waves push and pull on rock. Sometimes
animals can hear the P waves of an earthquake. Dogs, for instance, commonly begin barking wildly just
before an earthquake 'hits' (or more specifically, before the surface waves arrive). Usually people can
only feel the bump and rattle of these waves.
Secondary waves - The second type of body wave is the S wave or secondary wave, which is the second
wave you feel in an earthquake. An S wave is slower than a P wave and can only move through solid
rock, not through any liquid body. S waves move rock particles up and down, or side-to-side- vertical to
the direction that the wave is traveling in.
Surface waves – Surface travel along the Earth's surface. They travel slower than body waves.
Because of their low occurrence, long duration, and large amplitude (range), they can be the most
destructive type of seismic wave. There are two types of surface waves: Rayleigh waves and Love waves.
Love waves - The first kind of surface wave is called a Love wave, named after A.E.H. Love, a British
mathematician who worked out the mathematical model for this kind of wave in 1911. It's the fastest
surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side. Love waves produce entirely horizontal motion.
Rayleigh waves - The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave, named for John William Strutt,
Lord Rayleigh, who mathematically predicted the existence of this kind of wave in 1885. A Rayleigh wave
rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean. Because it rolls, it moves the
ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same direction that the wave is moving. Most of the
shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than the other
waves.
What are some other ways a rock can move?
The rock in the Earth’s crust is under pressure all the time from tremendous forces. These
stresses can cause the rock to bend and stretch. But when the pressure is too great, the rock
breaks suddenly, creating a fault (an area where two very large rock surfaces move against
each other).There are 3 types of faults: Normal faults, Reverse faults and Strike-Slip or
Transform faults.
Normal faults - The forces that create normal faults are pulling the sides apart, or extensional.
Normal Faults are from layers being pulled apart.
Reverse faults - The forces creating reverse faults are compressing,
pushing the sides together.
Strike-Slip faults - have rocks that move sideways, not up or down.
What are some of the other effects that earthquakes can have?
Aftershock - An aftershock is a smaller earthquake that occurs after a previous large
earthquake, in the same area of the main shock. Aftershocks are dangerous because they are
usually unpredictable, can be of a large magnitude, and can collapse buildings that are
damaged from the main shock. Bigger earthquakes have more and larger aftershocks.
Ex. Many people in southern Haiti were alarmed by a strong aftershock (measured at 6.1
magnitude), with an epicenter near the town of Petit-Goâve, west of Port-au-Prince. This
was the strongest in a series of aftershocks since the major earthquake on 12
January which devastated the capital and surrounding areas. (Many Haitians whose houses
are standing but damaged continue to sleep outdoors as a precaution.)
Hatian posting on twitter account
@RAMhaiii (musician and hotelier Richard Morse):
“Another one!! Good Morning. last night I went to bed wondering why I was still sleeping
outside.This morning I found out why.
Yes there was another Quake. Not as long,not as strong.It was like your mother giving you
a little shake in the morning to get you out of bed
People screamed in the background..I heard what sounded like a building come crashing
down.
The photographers went of into the city to document what may have happened..They've all
started sleeping inside..don't know why”
Volcanoes
By : Angela, Asra, Shlok and Troy
Describe a volcano:
A volcano is an opening in Earth’s crust that releases lava, steam
and ash when it becomes active (erupts).Volcanoes can be formed
when rock surfaces beneath Earth’s crust push against each other.
The part of the crust that is pushed downwards reaches very hot
areas where it melts and becomes magma. Eventually, there is so
much magma it is forced up through openings. That is how a
volcano erupts.
(By: Angela)
Key terms:
 Vent: an opening in Earth’s crust through which magma can
escape.
 Dormant: a stage in which no eruption of the volcano is
happening.
 Magma: melted rock, formed under Earth’s crust by high
temperature and pressure; magma occasionally escapes to
Earth’s surface as lava.
(By: Troy)
What is the Ring Of Fire?
The Ring of Fire is a circle of volcanoes along the edge of the Pacific
Ocean, from New Zealand north to Asia and then down the west
coast of North and South America. Two volcanoes in the Ring of Fire
include Mount St. Helens and Mount Pinatubo. They got their name
because the volcanoes form ring and shoot out firery lava.
(By:Shlok)
Why is Mount St. Helen’s so significant?
Mount St. Helens, in Washington, is an example of a major volcanic
eruption. The rock on one side of the mountain began to bulge out a
couple of days before the eruption in 1980. The eruption was so
huge that it literally blew away one side of the mountain. (By:Asra)
Fact Sheet
What are the layers of the earth?
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Inner Core.
Outer Core.
Lower Mantle.
Upper Mantle.
Crust.
What is Sonar?
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Sonar -SOund Navigation And Ranging is a technology that will rebound off
sound waves from different objects to conclude the distance from the cause of the
waves.
What is Sea Floor Spreading?

It’s a Process that will occur at mid-ocean ridges, where the new oceanic crust
would be found, it’s formed by volcanic activity and slowly moves away from the
ridge.
What is meant by Plate Tectonics? Also describe convection currents and subduction zones.
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It’s a theory about earth’s crust being made up of very large pieces called plates
which are moving very slowly on earth’s mantle.
Convection Currents: It’s a constant flow of a fluid (either liquid or gas) in which
thermal energy is transferred from hotter, less dense fluid to colder, denser fluid.
Subduction Zones: A position on earth’s crust where high force pushes one very
hefty piece of rock beneath another.
Describe Weagner’s theory of continental drift and explain the evidence that supports it.
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Weagner’s theory is that the continents had once been joined and over thousands
or millions of years later it slowly drifted apart.
Did people believe the theory at the time? What technology later helped to verify his ideas?
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They didn’t believe him because he was missing a plausible drive force, and he
wasn’t a geologist.
Advanced Technology.
Resources: Wikipedia-Science Focus Textbook.
The Moving Crust
Describe Wegener’s Theory of The Continental Drift and explain the
evidence to support it?
Similar plants and animals were found on many different continents. Mesosaurslive din
freshwater lakes but it was found in South America and Africa if it swam in saltwater why isn’t it
in other places. Lystrosaurus can’t swim but traveled from South America to Africa.
Rock evidence
Rocks in the appalachians are made out of the same material, and ages as some rocks in
the Britian Norway.
Did People Believe Wegener’s Theory at that time? What Technology
later helped to identify his ideas?
People didn’t believe Wegener’s theory back then because there was no possible driving
fource in 1950s through the 1960s. Plate tectonics was introduced a possibility driving fource
for the continents, drilling for rock samples instuments that measure magnetism of the iron in
the sea floor rock.
What is the seafloor spreading?
The process in wich the ocean floor is extended is called seafloor spreading. It occurs when two
tectonic plates move apart from each other. Earthquakes occur along the boundries of the
tectonic plates. When magma pile up along the crack in tectonic plates then a line of volcanoes
form.
What are the layers of earth?
The layers of the earth are the crust, mantale outer crust and the inner crust.The crust is
the layer you walk on, it is the layer that plants nd animals live on. Under the crust is the
mantale which is made up of rock material.The crust and mantale form the lithospere. The
outer core is made of nickel and iron and is over 5000 degree celcius. The inner core is a solid
ball that is kept in that shape due to allthe intense pressure of all the layers.
What is Sonar?
Sonar Sound Navigation and Ranging
Sonar is a tecnology that allows sound to bounce off any object to get a better sound and
understanding of what they said. Most of the sonar tests surprised everyone. When they found
out that there were mountains on the ocean floor they soon found out that they stretched
North to South along the Atlantic Ocean. They called these mountains the Mid Atlantic Ridge.
Most of the features found on land looked the same in the ocean.sonar is a system that
transmits and reflects underwater sound wave to detect merging objects. This tecnology is used
for mine and submarine detection,depth detection, commercial fishing, diving sasfety, and
communication on the sea.
What is meant by plate tectonics
The plate tectonics maen that the crust is moving and some times crashes into each rock
causing earthquakes. This is called converging plates. When the Tectonic Plates go further apart
it is calleed divergin plates. J. Tuzo Wilson camr to the thought that if the plates are going
togetherand going further apart that they could be sliding around each other so that would
create a hurricane . the Plate Tectonics is a theory that describes the word lithosphere. This
goes along with the continental drift. It was developed during the first decade in th e 21 st
century. They were excepted by the majority of the geo scientific community when the
concepts of the sea floor spreading in the 1950s and early 1960s. on the earth there are 7 or 8
major plates and lots more minor plates. These plates move in relation with one another.
Therer are 3 types of boundaries: Convergent , Divergent Conservative and transform
boundaries.
Resources:
www.thinkquest.com
www.carleton.com
wikipedia
wiki answers
science focus 7 unit 5 chapter 4
Fact Sheet
Mountain Formation
By: Ashley, Carly, and Isabella
About Mountains
Mountains take a long time to form.
Rocks under pressure will break.
There are many ways rocks/mountains can form.
Most mountains are large areas that have been lifted up because
of heating or movement of the plates.
Key terms
Compression – a form of stress made by the action of equal and
opposite forces.
The affect is to shorten the length of a material, compression is a
form of pressure.
Convergence – a tectonic process where plates move close to
each other.
Divergence – a process where plated move away from each
other.
Continued Key Terms
Plates – Large moveable rocks of the lithosphere
Uplift- a process where the surface of the earth rises as the result
of a low in downward or high in upward force.
Ages of mountains
People (scientists) say roughly 100-200 years old.
The Canadian Rockies
The Rocky Mountains were formed when parts of the earth
collided with each other causing a lift of the crust.
Some of the mountain was made by volcanic eruption.
The Rockies form a mountain barrier that stretches from Canada
to new Mexico.
Mountain Formation
How were the Canadian Rockies Formed?
The rocks that form the Canadian Rockies were formed long before
the mountains were raised. Sedimentary rock has been thrust faulted,
folded or became loose into to a sequence of equal lines that are
made of shale and limestone. Those rocks have been uplifted by the
heating or movement of plates. The pressure from the heat or
movement can cause a serious amount of pressure. Sometimes this
pressure causes rocks to fault or fold creating mountains. In the
Canadian Rockies sedimentary rock has become loose and slid
underneath creating thrust fault.
Key Terms
An anticline is the up folded top part of layers of sedimentary
rock. Anticline are usually flanked by Synclines this can
complicate the relationship between the two. A Syncline is the
down folded bottom part of layers of sedimentary rock.
Synclines are usually typically down fold but once that upwards
can be found when rocks have been folded or over turned. A
thrust fault is a break or fault in the earth’s crust where there
has been relative movement in which rocks of straight or lower
position re pushed over higher rocks. They often found where
there are older rocks above younger ones. A thrust block is a
break or fault in the earth’s crust has been relative movement in
which rocks of lower position are pushed up and over.
Age of Mountains
Some of the smallest and older mountains are measured by shape and
size. Most of the younger mountains are usually approximately one
hundred million years to 60 million years. Most of the elder mountains
are mostly about three thousand nine hundred and eighty years old.
The mountains are mostly made of igneous and metamorphic rock. If
you want to see how young or old by how tall or short they are. That is
how geologists can tell and if they are crooked they are older and if
they are younger they are mostly straight.
By: Shannon, Maddy and Mikeal :]
FACT SHEET
WORDS YOU SHOULD
KNOW
~ Ankylosaur, Ichthyosaur, Triceratops, Edmontosaurus, and
Albertasaurus: Dinosaurs we will talk about
~trace fossils: traces of animal activity, plants or imprints of
animals that have rotted away or have been left behind.
~original remains: the actual body or structure, the bones of the
organism
~ Carbonaceous film: the film of a fossil; a kind of fossil it is
distinct and you can tell the fossils easily.
~fossilized; organisms or organisms activity that are protected
from destruction or weather
FACTS
~Two fossils have been found at Fort McMurray oil sands site in
the last ten years, an Ichthyosaur and an Anklosaur. Finding an
Anklosaur in this area is unusual because when it was in this area it
was under water while it was alive. Scientists think the dino died
by the sea and his body was swept away. It then probably laid at
the bottom of the ocean protected by sediment.
~fossils can be made of imprints, dung, plants, feathers, or bones.
~ Fossils you go see in museums aren’t real; you look at casts or
replaces of the fossil. Then the fossils are kept dry, safe and
temperature regulated in a back room, they are too heavy for
display and the scientists find it easier the disassembling the
display every time they want to study the bones.
~dino DNA has been found preserved in bugs found in amber.
Cloning is possible.
~people think dinos are scary animals but some could have been
very pleasant.
~some dinos were more than two stories high.
Some weighed up to 4 tonss
There are over 80 different dinosaurs found on earth since 1929.