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Overview of Social Skills
Overview
The most complicated part of any person's day can be dealing with social situations.
Different environments or relationships bring a variety of rules and actions.
o
o
o
Should I shake her hand or give her a hug?
Can I tell that joke here?
Why can't we play a different game?
Social skills have been defined as "socially acceptable learned behaviors that enable a
person to interact with others in ways that elicit positive responses and assist in
avoiding negative responses" (Elliott, Racine, & Busse, 1995, p. 1009). Effective social
skills allow individuals to elicit positive reactions and evaluations from peers as they
perform socially approved behaviors (Ladd & Mize, 1983). Social skills are distinguished
from social competence, in that social skills represent behaviors that must be learned
and performed, and social competence represents judgment of those behaviors by
others (Gresham, 2002). Adequate social competence ensures effective social
engagement and reciprocity in the social environment.
Case Study: Rachel
Rachel, a high school junior with Asperger Syndrome, is called to her resource teacher's
classroom. Mrs. Boyd tells her to sit down and asks her about a conversation Rachel
had with Miss Reed earlier that day. Rachel tells Mrs. Boyd that she had watched a
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makeover show on television over the weekend and that she thought about Miss Reed
as she watched the show. Rachel said she couldn't wait for Monday so she could tell
Miss Reed what clothes to wear so she wouldn't look so fat and not to put on so much
blusher and especially not to line her lips with that dark lip liner pencil. Mrs. Boyd asked
Rachel how she thought Miss Reed felt about the discussion. Rachel said Miss Reed
cried like the lady on the show did when she was so happy she looked better. Mrs. Boyd
realized she had to work with Rachel about the different things crying can mean and on
what she could tell other people about their appearances. Mrs. Boyd also needed to tell
Miss Reed about Asperger Syndrome and social misunderstandings.
What makes "social" difficult for persons with ASD? Social interactions involve verbal
and non-verbal communication, personal space, humor, topic flow, and many other
facets that are usually deficit areas for people on the spectrum. In The Oasis Guide to
Asperger Syndrome (2001), the authors state that up to 90% of communication is
nonverbal and only 10% is the spoken words. If most of a person's attention is on the
spoken word, it is easier to see how conversations with others can be misunderstood by
those on the spectrum, and then add to that a possible sensory overload and anxiety to
make social really hard. This module will further explain how social competence and
social skills are exhibited in persons with ASD and what supports can increase positive
interactions.
Pre-Assessment
Pre-Assessment
What is the primary purpose of social skills assessment?
Select an answer for question 564
Why is it important to interview the child or adolescent himself if possible?
Select an answer for question 565
Which of the following best represent criteria for quality social objectives?
Select an answer for question 566
What is a skill acquisition deficit?
Select an answer for question 567
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What is a performance deficit?
Select an answer for question 568
Why is it important to determine whether an area of challenge is due to a skill
acquisition deficit or a performance deficit?
Select an answer for question 569
Which of these statements best describes priming?
Select an answer for question 570
Which of the following strategies can be used to prime social cognitions and behaviors?
Select an answer for question 571
What is generalization?
Select an answer for question 572
What is meant by the term social accommodation?
Select an answer for question 573
Common Social Skill Difficulties
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders - Fourth Edition
(American Psychiatric Association, 2000), essential diagnostic criteria in the social
domain include "(a) marked impairment in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors such
as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body postures, and gestures to regulate social
interaction; (b) failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental level;
(c) a lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interests, or achievements with
other people; and (d) lack of social and emotional reciprocity" (p. 75).
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Social skill deficits may be separated into four broad categories of social functioning:
nonverbal communication, social initiation, social reciprocity, and social cognition. Each
category will be discussed on the following pages.
Nonverbal Communication
Successful social skills require the ability to read and understand the nonverbal cues of
others and to clearly express thoughts, feelings, and intentions through facial
expressions, gestures, and body language. In many ways, nonverbal communication is
more meaningful than verbal communication. Difficulty reading body language or
nonverbal cues of others is a common problem for individuals with ASD. Some fail to
look for nonverbal cues and are virtually oblivious to nonverbal communication. Others
may look for nonverbal cues, but interpret them incorrectly or fail to understand the
intended message. Understanding nonverbal communication requires that we recognize
the body language of others and infer the meaning of the nonverbal communication.
This is done by integrating all the available nonverbal and contextual cues in the
environment.
Case Study: George
George is between classes at college, so he decides to go to the student center. He sits
at a table with a group of girls and says hi. Before the girls can respond, George starts
talking about how cool fire engines are and how many fire stations are in their city and
how many different kinds of trucks each station has and how many fires there were in
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the last year. The girls are looking at each other and some are giggling. One girl tries to
interrupt George, but he keeps on talking. The girls start getting up and walking away.
George is confused about what is happening. He feels very upset. He talks to his
parents that night about the girls and the talking and the walking away. His parents
remind him of the service his college offers to help him learn about social situations,
conversations, and reading nonverbal signs. George says he might stop in to see the
coordinator tomorrow.
Social Initiation
Difficulties with initiating interactions are common among individuals with ASD (Hauck,
Fein, Waterhouse, & Feinstein, 1995). Many children fall into one of two initiation
categories: those who rarely initiate interactions with others, and those who initiate
frequently, but inappropriately. Children in the first category often demonstrate fear,
anxiety, or apathy regarding social interactions. It was once believed that the vast
majority of children on the autism spectrum fit into this category. In fact, many social
skill interventions have been designed with the express goal of increasing social
initiations. However, in recent years an increasing number of children have been found
to fit within the latter category. These children initiate interactions frequently, but their
initiations are often ill timed and ill conceived. For example, they may interrupt or talk
over someone. They may ask repetitive questions or questions that only pertain to their
own interests or they may talk with others in settings that require silence, such as a
library or church. For these children, the goal of social skills training is not to get them to
initiate more frequently but to get them to initiate more appropriately.
Case Study: John
John, a six foot ninth grader with ASD, is on a community trip to the local mall. He has a
picture schedule to follow and a photo shopping list for one store. He appears happy to
be at the mall; he is smiling, laughing, and making what the staff recognize as happy
noises. To regulate his sensory system, John needs a lot of large muscle input. Before
he left for the trip, he walked several laps with a weighted backpack and jumped on a
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mini-trampoline. John's class is walking down the hall when he suddenly runs ahead,
leaping and landing with loud footsteps near a group of mall employees. One girl yells
and a man moves out of the way as John stops right next to them. John's teacher
approaches the group and explains John is trying to say hi. The teacher hands the
group cards that have a definition of autism and a website they can visit to learn more
(John's parents agreed to the card being handed out on community trips if needed to
educate others). John's teacher reminds him about "space" as he puts his arm out to
demonstrate how much space to leave between yourself and someone else. John
needs further instruction on how to initiate greetings with strangers.
Social Reciprocity
Social reciprocity refers to the give-and-take of social interactions. Successful social
interactions involve a mutual, back-and-forth exchange between two or more
individuals. Many individuals with ASD engage in one-sided interactions in which they
are either doing all the talking or fail to respond to the social initiations of others and to
build on conversations with others. Individuals with ASD may continually derail
conversations by changing the subject to fit their self-interests. They may also fail to
respond to the initiations of others.
Case Study: Jamie
Jamie, an eleventh grade student with high functioning autism, was eating her lunch in
the cafeteria when a classmate, Amy, sat down across from her. Jamie and Amy
greeted each other and were eating their lunches. Amy asked Jamie if she had any
plans for the weekend. Jamie answered for the next ten minutes straight about
everything she was doing over the weekend, including an elaboration about going to a
museum to see a glass exhibit which happens to be her current special interest area.
Amy tried to comment on Jamie's plans and tell about what she would be doing for the
weekend, but Jamie never stopped talking to give her a turn.
Social Cognition
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Several social skill difficulties exhibited by children and adolescents with ASD may be
attributed to the manner in which they process social information, or social cognition
(Baron-Cohen, 1989). Social cognition involves understanding the thoughts, intentions,
motives, and behaviors of ourselves and others (Flavell, Miller, & Miller, 1993). As such,
it impacts the success of social functioning. Knowing and understanding social norms,
customs, and values is essential to healthy social interactions and is influenced by our
social cognition (Resnick, Levine, & Teasley, 1991). Within the social-cognitive domain,
three processes are particularly important in social functioning: knowledge (know-how),
perspective taking, and self-awareness. Individuals with ASD often experience
difficulties in all these areas.
Case Study: Rose
Rose, a fifth grade student with ASD, has trouble waiting in the lunch line. As her
classroom gets ready for lunch, she always wants to be first in line. When the class gets
to the cafeteria, Rose yells and pushes in past anyone else who is waiting. Rose is not
following spoken directions from her teacher, the cafeteria workers, or other students.
To try to help, Rose's teacher makes a photo of each student and puts them in order on
a Velcro board. She teaches the students to line up in the order of the photo board.
(The pictures get changed periodically so each student can be the leader.) In the
hallway by the cafeteria, Rose's teacher places contact paper handprints on the wall.
Each student places their hand on the handprint to wait until they are told to go in and
get their food. Rose learns to take her place in line at the classroom and to wait with her
hand on the wall for lunch. It works so well, the cafeteria workers add enough
handprints so all students can use the system as they wait for lunch. This system
helped Rose understand the social norms of waiting in line and taking turns as the
leader.
Case Study: Darrell
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Darrell is sitting at the lunch table with his seventh grade classmates. He is talking and
laughing with them. One of his classmates tells him if he stands on the table and yells
out a swear word that everyone will think he is funny and will want to be his friend.
Darrell jumps up on the cafeteria table and yells a swear word. His classmates are
laughing! Darrell thinks, "My friend was right, this is funny." He yells another swear word
as the principal walks up to the table and says to follow him to his office. Darrell tries to
high five his classmates as he gets down, but they turn their backs to him and stop
laughing. The principal asks Darrell to explain what was going on, so Darrell tells him
everything. The principal calls the speech and language therapist to the office and asks
him to do some cartooning with Darrell to help him understand what happened and
maybe write a Social Story TM about the situation. Darrell sees two of his classmates in
the office as he leaves. They sarcastically say, "Thanks a lot Darrell." Darrell answers,
"You're welcome." The speech therapist notices the exchange and decides he will have
many things to review with Darrell about his classmates and how to recognize friends.
Skill Acquisition Deficits vs.
Performance Deficits
Social skill deficits are often seen from a skill acquisition/performance deficit model.
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A skill acquisition deficit refers to the absence of a skill or behavior. For example, a
young child may not know how to effectively join in activities with peers. If we want
this child to join in activities with peers, we need to teach her the skills to do so.
Case Study: Joette
It's recess time and a group of kindergarten students are playing Duck, Duck, Goose.
Joette, a student with Asperger Syndrome, is watching the game. A teacher notices
Joette watching and takes her over near the students. She whispers to Joette to ask if
they will let her join in the game. The other students welcome her. Joette sits down to
play and the teacher walks away. When the kids say, "Duck" and tap Joette on the
head, she is really upset she is not the goose. Finally, she is tapped as the goose.
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Joette doesn't understand the game and runs around the whole playground instead of
just the circle. When the tapper catches Joette and touches her, Joette says the child hit
her and runs to the teacher. The teacher tells the tapper she knows he just touched her,
but to Joette it felt like a hit. Both the tapper and Joette settle down. The teacher then
has Joette watch the game as she explains it to her. Joette tries again. She plays it the
right way and the kids tap her very lightly.
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A performance deficit refers to a skill or behavior that is present but not
demonstrated or performed. To use the earlier example, a child may have the skill
(or ability) to join in an activity but for some reason fails to do so. In this case, if we
want the child to participate, we would not need to teach her to do so (since she
already has the skill). Instead, we would need to address the factor that is impeding
performance of the skill, such as lack of motivation, anxiety, or sensory sensitivities.
Case Study: Ben
Ben can dance! He loves music and loves to move to it. Ben's friends want him to come
to the school dance on Friday, but he isn't sure about going to the dance. It's in the gym
and there will be really loud, loud music and strobe lights in the large, dark room. Other
people might bump into him while they are all dancing. His friends tell him he can wear
his ear buds from his music device to lessen the noise and that they will help keep other
kids from bumping into him. They tell him he'll look cool if he wears his sunglasses to
the dance so the strobe lights won't be so bright. Ben tells them he'll think about it. He
isn't sure his sensory system is up to that much action.
A skill acquisition/performance deficit model guides the selection of intervention
strategies. Most intervention strategies are better suited for either skill acquisition or
performance deficits. The selected intervention should match the type of deficit present
(Gresham, Sugai, & Horner, 2001). That is, you would not want to deliver a performance
enhancement strategy if the child was mainly experiencing a skill acquisition deficit. It is
important to note that these two categories are not mutually exclusive. Some strategies
are capable of both teaching a new skill and enhancing the performance of existing
skills (e.g., video modeling, Social StoriesTM, prompting, self-monitoring).
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Assessment of Social Skills
The first step in social skills training programs should consist of conducting a thorough
evaluation of the child's current level of social functioning (Bellini, 2006). The purpose of
the social skills assessment is to identify skills that will be the direct target of the
intervention and to monitor the outcomes of the social skills program. The evaluation
details both the strengths and needs of the individual related to social functioning. The
assessment often involves a combination of observation (both naturalistic and
structured), interview (e.g., parents, teachers, playground supervisors), and social skill
rating forms (parent, teacher, and self-reports). Social skills assessment involves the
direct assessment of social skills (via systematic observation) and the evaluation of
social competence (via interview and rating scales). Information gathered from the
assessment allows us to develop quality IEP and treatment objectives.
Purpose of Social Skills Assessment
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To identify skills to teach
To monitor progress
Case Study: Miki
Miki, a kindergartener with autism, has significant expressive communication deficits
and exhibits severe aggressive behavior with peers. She is primarily echolalic and
seldom uses her language spontaneously with classmates and teachers. Miki is
extremely fearful of social situations and often avoids social interactions. Consequently,
Miki spends the vast majority of her playground time by herself with little peer
interaction. When peers initiate, Miki often responds with physical aggression. A social
skills assessment was conducted. Staff observed Miki on the playground, in the
cafeteria, and during gym class. The psychologist on the team also completed a rating
scale with Miki's parents. The team concluded that she has significant skill deficits in
responding to the initiations with peers. It was hypothesized that Miki was engaging in
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aggressive behaviors because of her difficulties with social responsiveness. Social skills
programming was implemented to teach Miki how to effectively initiate and respond to
the initiations of peers.
Evaluation of Social Skills
Direct observation of social behaviors should follow the interviews and administration of
rating scales. Two traditional methods of observation may be used to assess the social
functioning of children with ASD, naturalistic and structured. The purpose of both is to
observe the child's social performance across settings, persons, and social contexts.
Naturalistic observation involves observing and recording the child's behavior in real-life
social settings, such as the school playground and cafeteria, or in various social settings
at or near the child's home. Structured observations involve observing social behavior in
a structured play group or structured social group. The child with ASD is grouped with
one or two non-disabled peers in a setting that is rich in social opportunities (games,
toys, and other age-appropriate play objects).
Evaluation of Social Competence
Evaluations of social competence are typically conducted through the use of interviews
or rating scales. Interviews are a valuable method for obtaining information regarding
social functioning in a relatively short time by allowing us to collect and synthesize
information from a variety of respondents, representing a wide range of settings. That is,
they allow the evaluator to make decisions regarding the direction and focus of the
program.
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Rating scales are indirect assessment tools that provide information across a variety of
functioning areas. These measures range from informal checklists to standardized
rating scales and may be administered to parents, teachers, and the child. Rating
scales can measure social functioning, anxiety, self-concept and self-esteem, and
behavioral functioning. A major advantage of rating scales is their ability to quickly and
efficiently obtain large quantities of information regarding social behavior from a variety
of sources and across a variety of settings.
Social Validity
Social validity refers to the social significance of the treatment objectives, the social
significance of the intervention strategies, and the social importance of the intervention
results (Gresham & Lambros, 1998). It involves ensuring that the consumers believe
that the selected treatment objectives are indeed important for the child to achieve.
Social validity influences treatment fidelity; that is, to the degree to which the
intervention was implemented as intended. The measurement of treatment fidelity, in
part, allows us to determine whether an ineffectual intervention is due to an ineffective
intervention strategy or to poor implementation.
Case Study: Mrs. Cohn
Mrs. Cohn, a seventh grade science teacher, was using a Social Story TM about how to
work with your peers on a group project with Sam, one of her students who has
Asperger Syndrome. Mrs. Cohn reported at a team meeting that it wasn't working
because Sam still wasn't cooperating with his classmates. The team members looked at
the Social Story TM and found it was written according to the formula. They asked Mrs.
Cohn when she was using the story, and discovered she would hand it to Sam after he
became upset when trying to work with a group. The team explained that the story was
meant to be used prior to the social situation and recommended Mrs. Cohn read the
story with Sam the day before group work was to begin, and also to send home a copy
so Sam's parents could review the story with him too. Mrs. Cohn tried using the story
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this way and found Sam was able to improve his social behaviors as listed in the Social
Story TM.
Social Objectives
Skills identified by the social skills assessment should be targeted in the development of
IEP and treatment objectives.
Social objectives should:
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Define short-term, immediate behaviors
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Be connected directly to the intervention strategies
Describe specific levels of performance
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Examples of possible social objectives:
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Scotty will join in play activities with peers in a structured playgroup a minimum of 5
times per session.
Scotty will respond to the social initiations of peers on the playground with a
minimum response ratio of 70%.
Scotty will raise his hand before answering questions during classroom discussions
(90% of questions answered).
Bellini, 2006
Summary of Social Skill Intervention
Strategies
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Social skills training refers to instruction or support designed to improve or facilitate the
acquisition and/or performance of social skills. Social skills training programs address
three primary objectives: promote skill acquisition, enhance the performance of existing
skills, and facilitate the generalization of skills across settings and persons. Most
children acquire social skills through learning that involves observation, modeling,
coaching, social problem solving, behavior rehearsal, feedback, and reinforcementbased strategies (Gresham & Elliot, 1990).
Social skills training can be delivered across a variety of settings (e.g., home,
community, classroom, resource room, playground, and therapeutic clinic) and with
multiple persons (e.g., family members, teachers, counselors, speech and language
pathologists, social workers, occupational and physical therapists, psychologists,
physicians, case managers). In addition, social skills can be taught in an individual,
group, or class-wide format. Successful social skills training programs promote
cooperation between parents (and other family members and caregivers) and
professionals.
One final consideration for teaching social skills is to address both social
accommodations and social assimilation (Bellini, 2006). Social accommodation involves
modifying the physical or social environment to promote positive social interactions.
Examples of social accommodations include training peer mentors and conducting
autism awareness training. Social assimilation refers to instruction that facilitates skill
development or fundamental changes in the child that allows the child to be more
successful in social interactions. Examples of social assimilation include social skill
intervention strategies that are child specific, such as video modeling, social stories,
self-monitoring, and so on.
There are number of important questions to consider when selecting social skill
strategies, including the following:
1. Does the strategy target the skill deficits identified in the social assessment?
2. Does the strategy enhance performance?
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3. Does the strategy promote skill acquisition?
4. Does the strategy facilitate generalization? If not, what is the plan for facilitating
generalization?
5. Is there research to support its use? If not, what is your plan to evaluate its
effectiveness with the child?
6. Is it developmentally appropriate for the child?
Skill Acquisition Strategies
The strategies on the following pages will assist individuals with ASD in acquiring the
skills necessary to engage in social situations. We will discuss Social Stories TM, Video
Modeling, Social Problem Solving, Pivotal Response Training, and Social Scripting.
Social Stories TM
A Social StoryTM (Gray, 2000) is a frequently used strategy to teach social skills to
children with ASD. A Social Story presents social concepts and rules to children in the
form of a brief story and may be used to teach a number of social and behavioral
concepts, such as initiating interactions, making transitions, playing a game, and going
on a field trip. Gray emphasizes that the story should be written in response to the
child's personal need and that it should be something the child wants to read on her
own (depending upon ability level). She also stresses that the story should be
commensurate with the child's ability and comprehension level. Sansosti, Powell-Smith,
and Kincaid (2004) conducted a research synthesis of eight Social Story intervention
studies. The researchers concluded that Social Stories is an effective intervention
strategy in addressing the social, communication, and behavioral functioning of children
and adolescents with ASD.
Case Study: Social Story TM Example
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What Happens with Art When it Travels from My Mind to My Project?
My name is Catherine. I go to Sunshine Academy. Sometimes at my school we have
art.
Sometimes, when children do art projects they discover that their project doesn't look
EXACTLY like it does in their mind. My mind may be able to create things, but my
fingers are still learning how to create those same things. So, until my fingers catch up
with what my mind can do, it's important to be patient.
Patience is important in art. If a child can stay calm, they will be able to make a project
that is closer to the one in their mind.
The neat thing about art is that it doesn't have to be "right" or "exact." If a child makes it,
and tries their best, and follows the general directions, the way art works, what that child
makes is okay!
Many great artists practice many years to learn how to match what they create with their
fingers with the ideas and pictures in their mind. If I can learn to stay calm and continue
to practice, I, too, will be able to make projects with my fingers that are closer to the
ideas in my mind, too! It just takes time. This is okay.
Retrieved from http://www.thegraycenter.org 12/3/10
Video Modeling and Video Self-Modeling
Video modeling involves demonstrating desired behaviors through active video
representation of the behaviors. A video modeling intervention typically involves an
individual watching a video demonstration and then imitating the behavior of the model.
Video self-modeling (VSM) is a specific application of video modeling, where the
individual learns by watching her own behavior. Results of a recent meta-analysis of 23
peer-reviewed studies suggest that video modeling and VSM are highly effective
intervention strategies for addressing social-communication skills, behavioral
functioning, and functional skills in children and adolescents with ASD (Bellini &
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Akullian, 2007). Video modeling and VSM effectively promote skill acquisition. Further,
skills acquired via video modeling and VSM are maintained over time and transferred
across persons and settings.
Social Problem Solving (SPS)
Many children with ASD have difficulties interpreting and analyzing social situations.
This is due to a number of factors, including lack of self-awareness, failure to read
nonverbal and contextual cues, difficulties with perspective taking, and failure to
understand social rules. It is also due to the fact that they lack the necessary skills and
strategies to analyze social situations. Social Problem Solving includes activities to help
the individual learn how to make sense of social interactions and situations. Research
has demonstrated that social problem solving can be taught to children with ASD
(Bernard-Opitz, Sriram, & Nakhoda-Sapuan, 2001). A meta-analysis conducted by
Beelman, Pfingsten, and Losel (1994) found that SPS strategies were effective in
increasing performance on social problem tasks. However, a major limitation noted by
the researchers was that increases in social problem-solving ability had no carryover
effect to other areas of social functioning, such as specific social behaviors or skills.
Six Steps of Analyzing Social Situations
1. Describe the social scenario, setting, behavior, or problem (What's happening or what
has happened?).
2. Recognize the feelings/thoughts of participants (How does he/she/you feel? What is
he/she thinking?).
3. Understand the feeling of participants (Why is he/she/you feeling/thinking that way?
Ask child to provide evidence).
4. Predict the consequences (What do you think will happen next? What will be the
consequences of this behavior?).
5. Select alternative behaviors (What could he/she/you have done differently).
6. Predict the consequence for alternative behaviors.
Bellini, 2006, p. 157
Pivotal Response Training
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Based on the principles of applied behavioral analysis, Pivotal Response Training (PRT)
(Koegel & Koegel, 2006) is utilized in natural environments where it capitalizes on the
availability of naturally occurring reinforcers. PRT targets so-called pivotal behaviors
(behaviors that lead to widespread changes in other behaviors), which facilitates
transfer of skills to multiple settings and collateral improvements in non-targeted
behaviors. PRT directly targets behaviors related to initiation and responding to
environmental cues. PRT targets four pivotal areas: responsivity to multiple cues,
initiation, motivation, and self-management. PRT teaches children to attend and
respond to multiple cues in the environment. Intervention in this area PRT teaches the
child to select cues that are relevant in a given context or situation. Intervention in the
initiation area teaches the child to effectively initiate interactions with others.
Intervention in the motivation area addresses the child's lack of motivation related to
social situations. Intervention includes giving the child a choice in activity, using natural
reinforcers, and reinforcing reasonable attempts at interacting. Finally, interventions in
self-management teach the child to be more independent and less reliant on prompts
from others Based on research synthesis of 13 studies that investigated the
effectiveness of PRT, Humphries (2003) concluded that PRT is an effective strategy for
addressing the behavior, communication, and social functioning of children with ASD.
For more information, click here to see the AIM on Pivotal Response Training.
Social Scripting and Script Fading
Scripting involves presenting a structured "script" to the child that provides an explicit
description of what the child will say or do during a social interaction (Mayo & Waldo,
1994). The script may provide a narrative of what to say during a conversation or what
to do during an activity. It may contain the entire sequence of the interaction or only the
initiation. For instance, the child might be taught a script for initiating an interaction with
a peer who is also taught to respond in a scripted fashion. The benefits of scripting for
individuals with ASD has been demonstrated in research involving both conversational
scripts (Loveland & Tunali, 1991) and play scripts (MacDonald, Clark, & Garrigan,
2005). A major limitation of scripting is that the child may become over-reliant on the
script, and be unable to engage in spontaneous, unscripted interactions. Script fading is
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a research-based practice designed to address this limitation (Krantz & McClannahan,
1998). Script fading involves introducting of script to facilitate an increase in social
interactions and then a systematic fading of the script over time to promote
maintenance, generalization, and elaboration of the interaction. For more information,
click here to see the AIM on Social Narratives.
Strategies to Enhance Performance of
Existing Skills
In this section, we will share strategies that can assist individuals with ASD to carry out
skills they already possess. We will review Priming, Prompting, Self-Monitoring, and
Peer Mediated Interventions.
Priming
Priming is used to provide a person with information and answers before they are
presented with an activity or before they enter a social situation. Priming refers to the
"incidental activation of knowledge structures" (Bargh, Chen, & Burrows, 1996, p. 230),
which facilitates memory recall or behavioral performance. The positive effects of
priming to facilitate social behavior is supported by researchers, who used priming to
increase the social initiations of preschool children with ASD (Zanolli, Daggett, &
Adams, 1996) and to decrease problem behaviors in the classroom (Koegel, Koegel,
Frea, & Green-Hopkins, 2003). Video priming has been used to reduce problem
behaviors during transitions for children with ASD (Schreibman, Whalen, & Stahmer,
2000). The researchers selected transitions in settings deemed most problematic by the
children's parents. The researchers then videotaped the settings to show the
environment just as the child would see it (moving through the store, getting ready in the
morning, etc.). Social cognitions and social behaviors can be primed by presenting
cognitive or behavioral "primes" just prior to performance of the skill or behavior in the
natural environment.
Case Study: Larry
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Larry, a 26-year-old man with autism, had been working in the print shop for six years.
Now that the print shop was moving to a new location, his supervisor, George, was
concerned about how Larry would handle the change. George remembered that when
Larry first started working at the print shop, his job coach took pictures of everywhere in
the shop that Larry would need to walk through and work in, including the bathroom and
lunch room. The job coach included text explaining what social behaviors were
expected in each area. George decided to go to the new print shop location and take
pictures of everywhere Larry would need to access when they moved. George made up
a book about the move using the pictures, including text explaining expected social
behaviors, and even made Larry a calendar showing when they were relocating. Larry
looked at the book every day and asked George questions about the move. When the
print shop relocated, Larry was ready and knew what social behaviors were expected at
the new shop.
Prompting
Prompts are highly effective in facilitating child-adult and child-child interactions in
children with ASD (McConnell, 2002; Rogers, 2000). Prompts are supports and
assistance provided to help the child acquire skills and successfully perform behaviors.
Prompts may be used to teach new social skills (in the case of physical and modeling
prompts) and to enhance performance of previously acquired skills. In addition, they
may be used with novice or advanced performers; in individual sessions or in group
sessions; with verbal children or with nonverbal children; and with preschoolers or with
adults. Finally, prompts may be delivered by adults or by other children. A limitation of
prompting strategies is that the child with ASD may limit social interactions to only
instances in which prompting is provided. As such, a prompt-fading plan needs to be
implemented to systematically fade prompts from most to least supportive.
Types of prompts (from least to most supportive):
1. Natural: saying or doing what would typically happen before a behavior
2. Gestural: pointing to, looking at, moving, or touching an item or area to indicate a
correct response
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3. Verbal: providing a verbal instruction, cue, or model
4. Modeling: the acting out of a target behavior with the hope the child will imitate
5. Physical: moving the child through the behavior; can be full, which is doing the whole
behavior, or partial, such as just touching the hand
Self-Monitoring
Self-monitoring strategies have demonstrated considerable effectiveness for teaching
children with and without disabilities to both monitor and regulate their own behavior
(Carter, 1993). Self-monitoring may be considered both a skill acquisition strategy
because it teaches the child to monitor her own behavior and a performance-enhance
technique because through self-monitoring, the child is able to enhance the
performance of an existing skill. Self-recording of behavior can be used during the
behavioral performance or after the performance (or both). Strategies can target a
number of externalizing behaviors, such as time-on-task, work completion, and
disruptive behaviors, as well as internal processes, such as thoughts (self-talk) and
feelings (both positive and negative affect). Self-monitoring strategies may involve
having the child record occurrences (whether the behavior was performed), duration (for
how long), and frequencies of behaviors (how frequently it was performed) as well as
the quality of the behavioral performance (how well the behavior was performed). Selfmonitoring strategies have been used effectively to address the social and behavioral
functioning of children with ASD (Coyle & Cole, 2004; Shearer, Kohler, Buchan, &
McCullough, 1996). Shearer et al. used self-monitoring to increase the social
interactions of preschool children with ASD. Coyle and Cole used self-monitoring in
combination with video self-modeling (positive self-review) to decrease off-task behavior
in school-aged children with ASD. Finally, self-monitoring strategies support
generalization of skills because they teach children to independently monitor their own
behavior.
Case Study: Nate
Nate's mom and dad wanted him to start independently initiating interactions with
people in the community when they went to a store, the local gym, or a restaurant. Nate
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and his parents decided on a couple of goals a week for him to target. They found an
application on his cell phone that allowed Nate to track how often he independently
started a social interaction with people in the community, which was always one goal,
and then one other target goal. Every Saturday, Nate would review with his mom and
dad who he talked to, what they talked about, and how he was feeling during the
conversation. Nate really liked tracking his progress on the weekly goals and it helped
him start to increase how often he initiated interactions with people in the community.
Peer-Mediated Interventions
Peer-Mediated Instruction and Intervention (PMII) is an effective and strategy for
facilitating social interactions between young children with ASD (and other disabilities)
and their nondisabled peers (Laushey & Heflin, 2000, Sasso, Mundschenk, Melloy, &
Casey, 1998; Odom, McConnell, & McEvoy 1992; Strain & Odom, 1986). In PMII
programs, nondisabled children are selected and trained to be "peer buddies" for a child
with ASD. As such, the nondisabled peers participate in the intervention by making
social initiations or responding promptly and appropriately to the initiations of children
with ASD during the course of their school day. PMII allows children with ASD to
perform social behaviors through direct social contact and by modeling the social
behaviors of peers. PMII enables us to structure the physical and social environment so
as to promote successful social interactions. PMII may be used in naturalistic settings
(classroom and playground), and also in structured settings (structured play groups).
For more information, click here to see the AIM on PMII.
Facilitating Generalization
A critical aspect of all social skills programs is to develop a plan for generalization, or
transfer of skills across settings, persons, situations, and time. The ultimate goal of
23
social skills training is to teach the child to interact successfully with multiple persons
and in multiple natural environments.
From a behavioral perspective, the inability to generalize a skill or behavior is a result of
too much stimulus control. That is, the child only performs the skill or behavior in the
presence of a specific stimulus (person, prompt, directives, etc.). For instance, the child
may respond to the social initiations of other children, but only if his mother is there to
prompt him. If Mom is not there, he does not respond. Or the child might initiate with her
special education teacher, but with nobody else. Generalization is particularly important
for children with ASD who often have pronounced difficulties transferring skills across
persons and settings.
A number of strategies may be used to facilitate generalization of social skills across
settings, persons, situation, and time, including:
1. Reinforce the performance of social skills in the natural environment
2. Train with multiple persons and in multiple settings
3. Ensure the presence and delivery of natural reinforcers for the performance of social
skills
4. Practice the skill in the natural environment
5. Fade prompts as quickly as feasible
6. Provide multiple examples of social rules and concepts
7. Train skills loosely (i.e., vary the instruction, directives, strategies, and prompts used
during skill instruction)
8. Teach self-monitoring strategies
9. Provide "booster" sessions (i.e., provide follow-up training after initial instruction has
been discontinued)
Case Study: Carl
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Carl is a 13-year-old boy with Asperger Syndrome. His teachers report that Carl
engages in many "socially inappropriate" behaviors when in the presence of peers, such
as inappropriate touching and mimicking the behavior of peers. In particular, Carl often
stands behind other children in the hallway and repeats everything they say. An
interview with teachers revealed that Carl has no friends but frequently expresses an
interest in making friends. A social skills assessment revealed significant difficulties in
social initiations, including joining in interactions with peers. A social skill intervention
was implemented to teach Carl how to effectively join in activities with peers. First, it
was taught by his teacher in the classroom. Then, an aide used the same intervention in
the cafeteria. Also, Carl's mom tried the intervention when he was going to swim team
practice at the local pool. Carl started approaching small groups and was able to join in
their activities.
Summary
Gaining social competence through the teaching of social skills and the application of
interventions gives individuals with autism spectrum disorder a better chance at getting
along with others, making friends, and being able to obtain and sustain a job. Learning
how to initiate, reciprocate, and think about social interactions is key to decreasing the
challenges persons with ASD experience. People on the spectrum need to be assessed
and have an individualized program developed for them to move them towards a higher
level of social competence. There are many interventions described in this module to
assist with teaching how to interact socially.
Discussion Questions
[ Export PDF with Answers | Export PDF without Answers ]
1. Describe common social skill deficits in individuals with
ASD.
A correct response would include:
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"(a) marked impairment in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors such as
eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body postures, and gestures to regulate
social interaction; (b) failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to
developmental level; (c) a lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment,
interests, or achievements with other people; and (d) lack of social and
emotional reciprocity." (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
- Fourth Edition (American Psychiatric Association, 2000, p. 145.)
2. Why is it important to teach social skills to individual with
ASD?
A correct response would include:
Effective social skills allow children to elicit positive reactions and evaluations
from peers as they perform socially approved behaviors (Ladd & Mize, 1983).
3. How are social skills and social competence evaluated?
A correct response would include:
Evaluations of social competence are typically conducted through the use of
interviews or rating scales. Interviews are a valuable method for obtaining
information regarding social functioning in a relatively short time by allowing
us to collect and synthesize information from a variety of respondents,
representing a wide range of settings.Rating scales are indirect assessment
tools that provide information across a variety of functioning areas. These
measures range from informal checklists to standardized rating scales and
may be administered to parents, teachers, and the child. Rating scales can
measure social functioning, anxiety, self-concept and self-esteem, and
behavioral functioning.
4. Distinguish between a skill acquisition deficit and
performance deficits. How is this dichotomy important to
intervention?
A correct response would include some of the following information:
A skill acquisition deficit refers to the absence of a skill or behavior. For
example, a young child may not know how to effectively join in activities with
peers. If we want this child to join in activities with peers, we need to teach her
the skills to do so.
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A performance deficit refers to a skill or behavior that is present but not
demonstrated or performed. To use the earlier example, a child may have the
skill (or ability) to join in an activity but for some reason fails to do so. In this
case, if we want the child to participate, we would not need to teach her to do
so (since she already has the skill). Instead, we would need to address the
factor that is impeding performance of the skill, such as lack of motivation,
anxiety, or sensory sensitivities.
A skill acquisition/performance deficit model guides the selection of
intervention strategies. Most intervention strategies are better suited for either
skill acquisition or performance deficits. The selected intervention should
match the type of deficit present (Gresham, Sugai, & Horner, 2001).
5. What social skills training strategies are available to teach
social skills to individuals with ASD?
A correct response would include:
Social Stories (TM), Video modeling and Video self-modeling, Social problemsolving, and Pivotal Response training, social scripting and script fading,
priming, prompting, self monitoring, and Peer Mediated Instruction.
Post-Assessment
Post-Assessment
What is the primary purpose of social skills assessment?
Select an answer for question 574
Why is it important to interview the child or adolescent himself if possible?
Select an answer for question 575
Which of the following best represent criteria for quality social objectives?
Select an answer for question 576
What is a skill acquisition deficit?
Select an answer for question 577
What is a performance deficit?
Select an answer for question 578
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Why is it important to determine whether an area of challenge is due to a skill
acquisition deficit or a performance deficit?
Select an answer for question 579
Which of these statements best describes priming?
Select an answer for question 580
Which of the following strategies can be used to prime social cognitions and
behaviors?
Select an answer for question 581
What is generalization?
Select an answer for question 582
What is meant by the term social accommodation?
Select an answer for question 583
Submit Post-Assessment
Citation and References
Citation
If included in presentations or publications, credit should be given to the authors of this
module. Please use the citation below to reference this content.
Bellini, S. (2011). Overview of Social Skills Functioning and Programming (Columbus,
OH: OCALI). In Ohio Center for Autism and Low Incidence (OCALI), Autism Internet
Modules, www.autisminternetmodules.org. Columbus, OH: OCALI.
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