Fiction and media texts
Non-Fiction and Media Texts
Non-fiction texts are everywhere. Some, such as the
advertising flyers that drop through our letterboxes daily, often
end up flying straight into the nearest recycling bin unread;
but others (like the magazine you might have just put down to
look at this website), provide you with fun, advice and
entertainment; some - like this website - should prove very
helpful; and a very few are capable of gaining such close
attention that they change minds, even lives. Welcome to the
world of non-fiction!
Non-fiction texts form such an important part of our daily lives
- some are of little or no value but some can change your life.

Nonfiction texts include newspaper and magazine
articles, text books, religious writing, websites,
biographies, travel writing, letters, signs, menus,
brochures, leaflets... even cereal packets and much,
much more. For school exams, you won't be studying
cereal packets, however (but make sure you have that
extra Weetabix on the day of the exam!).

Unlike the imaginary worlds, situations and characters
created for fictional texts, non-fiction texts are based on
reality: real people, real things and real events. But... a
key understanding is that being based on reality doesn't
make these texts necessarily factual or true. Slant and
lack of balance are central aspects of many nonfiction
texts - they are not often purely informative - they are
usually disguised persuasion.

While nonfiction is based on the real world and fiction is
based on an imagined world, there are important
overlaps, with each genre borrowing elements and
techniques from the other. It is this overlap that can
make fiction seem more like nonfiction and nonfiction
more persuasive than it really should be.

Fiction often borrows from nonfiction to help create a
sense of realism and believability, for example by using
real place names in which to set its stories; but nonfiction borrows from fiction in much more subtle and
important ways - ways that can add greatly to its appeal
to an audience and to its persuasiveness. This is done
most especially by borrowing from the main story-telling
form and structure called narrative; it is through the use
of story-telling techniques that allow nonfiction writers to
create engaging, absorbing and interesting texts rather
than dry informative articles they would otherwise be.
'Narrativised' nonfiction and media texts are everywhere
- they work to involve and entertain as well as inform
and, most subtly often, persuade.

For example, a newspaper story often represents real
people as 'fictional'-type characters making them into
'heroes' and 'villains' and, using a narrative structure,
can create suspense and tension to make us want to
read on to find out just what does happen next!
Media Texts
Media texts are a sub-category of non-fiction. They include
texts such as newspaper and magazine articles and
advertising. An important aspect of these texts (and, in fact,
many other non-media texts) concerns the audience for which
they are written which, because it is always a mass audience,
is always composed of individuals completely unknown to the
writer. This can be important when you analyse these texts
because many address their reader as if he or she were a
personal friend - a highly persuasive technique that is, in the
circumstances, rather suspect and always worthy of comment.

TIP! Media texts often include images such as
photographs and illustrations. Remember that this exam
is testing your abilities to analyse and discuss the use
and effects of language so it is best to avoid any
prolonged discussion of images.
In your exams you will be tested on your ability to analyse,
discuss and compare non-fiction or media texts. Usually you
will also be asked to compare texts that share a similar theme
but which have either a different genre or form or which
approach the same theme from different angles.
WHAT ARE THE EXAMINERS LOOKING
FOR?
While exam questions vary, the skills you need to write a good
answer do not. As with all texts you'll be studying, it comes down to
your ability to detect what effects the text is creating on its reader
and to work out why these effects were created - that is, the
writer's purpose. Remember - with media and non-fiction texts,
while your focus (because this is an English exam...) must always
be on language choices, you'll also be asked to consider visual
aspects too, such as design, layout and use of images).
In the exam, typically, you'll be asked to analyse a pair of texts that
share a common theme. This means you'll be "breaking the texts
down" into the individual "parts" that you feel the writer has chosen
with extra care so as to achieve a particular purpose. Then you'll
need to think about the methods the writer has used and how these
were intended to affect the text's readers; finally you'll be asked to
discuss the results of your analysis as well as compare some aspect
of both texts.
There are four useful 'levels' at which you can consider texts:
What the text is about
- its subject matter

You need to show you have understood the text's subject
matter and content.

You will also need to be able to locate details and discuss
aspects of these (this requires an understanding of the text's
big picture).
Who the text has been written for
- its audience

This is very important: you need to consider audience with
care as it will help you recognise features of style that you
can discuss in your answers.

Writing about audience means recognising and showing how a
text has been created to suit a particular kind of reader.
o
When a writer is asked to write a text, one of the key
questions asked is who the text is aimed at. With
knowledge of the text's audience, only then will the
writer be able to consider the most suitable style of
writing to choose - its content, its vocabulary choices
and its tone.
Why the text was written
- its writer's purpose

This means recognising the messages contained within the
text, both on the surface and - although this is not so
important compared to literary texts - if there are different
layers of meaning.
How the text has been made to 'work' for its particular
audience and purpose
- the writer's methods and their effects

You need to be able to identify the methods a writer has used
to create the important elements within the text. This includes
considering aspects of the text's genre, style, language and
structure.

You will also need to be able to discuss the effects of these
methods on the audience - and, of course, the purpose behind
these effects.

It most especially means looking closely at the language and
layout used in the text.
o
How is language being used - what effects are being
created and for what purpose?
o
How is the layout helping the text achieve its purpose
for its audience?
As well as this, a more subtle consideration that you could give is at
the level of context. This means thinking about how the reader or
audience will use the text - in what situation and then working out
how the text's writer and designer have altered the text to suit this
context. For example, a magazine ad will try to prevent the reader
quickly flicking through the magazine by trying to arrest their
attention. Thus, the ad's designer will try to create something in the
ad that will account for the likelihood of the ad being skipped easily
in the rush of reading through a magazine - and so on. You might
want to think how the writer of a newspaper article takes account of
context, too - or the producer of a leaflet.
WHAT KINDS OF EXAM QUESTION ARE
THERE?
There are four typical types of exam question you could come
across (note that the examples below are not based on any
particular nonfiction texts):
Questions that ask you to identify or locate details:
'What types of exercise are discussed in the newspaper article?'
'Identify five advantages and five disadvantages to exercising
regularly mentioned in the newspaper article.'
'List five facts and five opinions the writer includes in the newspaper
article.'

In this type of question, you are being asked to locate specific
named details directly from the text and list them.

Normally one mark will be awarded for each correct point you
make.

Unless made obvious within the question, the answer does not
need extra explanation or to be written in your own words - a
numbered list would make a good answer.
Questions that ask you to explain and summarise:
'What impressions does the article create concerning the need for
exercise?'
'How does the writer defend the need for exercise?'
'What are the writer's attitudes towards exercise?'

In this type of question, you need to write a considered
personal response and use evidence from the text to support
what you say.

This type of question requires a mixture of your own words
and quotations from the text.

Marks are awarded more for depth of answers than breadth you need to show an understanding of how language choices
work.
Questions that ask you to discuss the writer's techniques:
'How does the writer try to persuade the reader that exercise is a
good thing?'
'What impression of fitness does the writer create?'
'How is the article made convincing?'

In this kind of question, you would need to discuss, for
example, the persuasive techniques used by the writer or the
way something has been presented in the text.

This means considering aspects of language, style and
structure to show how these work for a specific audience and
purpose.

This type of question tests your awareness of how language
can be used for a specific audience and purpose.

It requires a considered, reflective and insightful response
using a mixture of your own words and quotations from the
text.
Questions that ask you to compare texts
'Which of the two articles do you consider the most persuasive? '
'Which of the two texts do you find the more interesting and why? '
This type of question needs a close discussion on the two articles.
You will need to comment on aspects of audience, purpose,
language and style.
As before, you are being tested on your awareness of how language
can be used effectively for a specific audience and purpose.
Again, this type of question expects a considered, reflective and
insightful response using your own words with support provided by
quotations from the text.
WHAT YOU NEED TO DO TO GAIN A
HIGH GRADE
As with all texts, non-fiction and media text need the skills of
analysis and commentary. In any text, its writer's aim is to create a
style that will suit a particular kind of reader or audience to achieve
a certain purpose.
The style created will utilise the two aspects language has: its form
and its content. These two aspects will be working together to
create certain effects on the reader, and, in turn (and accumulating
through the structure of the text), these effects, the writer hopes,
will achieve the text's purpose.
The purposes of non-fiction texts are various and most often a
combination:

to entertain

to inform

to persuade

to explain

to advise

to instruct
HOW TO TACKLE NON-FICTION AND
MEDIA TEXTS

It's important to gain an overview of the texts you are
studying. This means working out and mentally summarising
the text's 'big picture'.

Ask yourself how the text's layout and presentation help it in
various ways either appeal to its audience or achieve its
purpose.
o
The layout and presentation of a text is a part of its
form. Form refers to the way a text looks (or sounds)
and helps the content (i.e. meaning) of the text in
various ways, perhaps to make the text easier to
navigate, or clearer for the reader.
o
In most non-fiction texts, layout and presentation are
always carefully chosen to aid the audience in following
and understanding the text.

Work out how the text's structure allows its detail and
information to unfold - and often persuasive - in useful ways.

How are facts being used? Are they presented in a way that is
balanced or carefully selected so they are biased?

How are opinions presented? In persuasion, opinions are
never balanced and are given a sense of authority and
influence. Work out how this is being done. People often say
non-fiction texts should be based on facts; but this can't be so
simply because much in life cannot be condensed to mere
facts: most things are a matter of opinion. It's important,
therefore, to be able to sort out fact from opinion and to be
able to judge how balanced or otherwise the facts and
opinions really are.

Look closely to see if the text sets out to create an emotional
response, often though the use of emotive language.

For the highest grades, see if you can work out if the text's
genre conventions create some kind of important response in
the audience. Some genres can be quite powerful in this way.
They act to create a mind-set or guide a response from their
audience. The formal headlining and columns of influential
newspapers such as The Guardian, The Daily Telegraph and
The Times, for example, are instantly recognisable and
suggest truthfulness and trust. Some formal business letters
use layouts and letter headings that instantly seem
authoritative and important. Leaflet genres vary - an
information leaflet is easily recognised and instils trust
whereas many sales or promotional leaflets ('flyers') have the
opposite effect and end up quickly in the bin!
REVISING
Look out for and read a selection of non-fiction and media texts to
practise your close-reading skills by...
1. Thinking about how their genre conventions and form act to
'condition' the way you are responding to them.
2. Summarising their subject matter, content, circumstance and
their 'story' to gain a sense of the 'big picture'.
3. Considering who the texts are intended for and all that this
implies - their target audience.

Audience is a far more important consideration than most
people appreciate.

Your aim should be to work out how a writer chooses effective
language and 'non-language devices' - often used subtly - to
create a style that is suited to a certain type of reader so that
purpose of the the text is achieved.
For example, a broadsheet newspaper article might seem rather
boring to a fifteen-year-old student (especially if in the exam you
comparing it with a leaflet aimed at a younger audience), but it
certainly will not have been 'boring' to its intended audience: they
expect it to be that way - it is a part of their genre expectations.
Imagine a jazzy-looking broadsheet article that broke all its existing
genre conventions; would its reader still trust its content and feel it
to be authentic? Would they even bother to read it? You can see
how genre, form and audience are always important considerations
for you to consider and comment upon.

Try not to fall into the trap of judging an article aimed at a
different kind of reader from yourself through teenage eyes;
instead, try to 'become the text's reader' when you judge its
style and appropriateness.
4. Finally, work out how the text has been styled to create certain
effects on its reader and especially how these individual effects
accumulate and work as a structure.

Remember that effects have been created by the writer
for a purpose - to persuade the reader towards a certain
way of thinking (i.e. the writer's way!).

Always try to identify and discuss a text's significant
effects, comment on the methods used to create these
effects and then identify the purpose intended.

Job done - high grade achieved!
WHAT METHODS ARE USED...
Non-fiction writers can choose from a wide range of methods to
create effects that will help them achieve their purpose.
Non-fiction writers use
language effectively

They use language that sounds convincing - this is called
rhetorical language.

They use language that affects your emotions - this is called
emotive language.

The use of the personal pronoun 'you' is called the direct
address pronoun: it can be used to add a personal touch and
engages the reader; it sounds friendly, inviting and even
confiding (e.g. 'Have faith in us; you just know it makes
sense').

When used as an inclusive pronoun, 'we' can make the reader
seem to be a part of a special group of people (e.g. 'We're all
in this together, aren't we?') ; as an exclusive pronoun it can
separate groups of people (e.g. 'We're working for a better
world. Will you help?').

The use of interesting, short anecdotes adds interest and
engages the reader's attention (e.g. 'Let me tell you about
John, a poor beggar in Ethiopia...')..

The use of hyperbole can create a persuasive impact (e.g.
'This earth-shattering event will blow your mind away!').

Description creates imagery that can be very engaging and
involving, even persuasive. It can be made very vivid and
used to create mood and emotion (e.g. 'Like a sliver of shiny
steel, the white crescent moon cut a gash in the heavens').
Look for the use of effective metaphors, similes and emotive
language.

Facts and opinions are used to support a writer's point of view
or argument but you must be able to separate worthwhile
from biased facts and facts from factually stated opinions,
always recognising how reasonable and effective the evidence
really is.

Rhetorical questions imply their own answer engage and help
to persuade the reader. They help make a point in a more
powerful and emotional way.

Repetition and lists of three can be effective persuasive
devices.

Personal viewpoint or 'direct address' (when I... / We...
speaks to you... ) can create a friendly tone and involve the
reader.

Structure allows an effective build up of a persuasive series of
points.

Tone - a formal tone can add authority and sound authentic or
sincere; an informal, or even conversational tone can add
warmth and fun - it can be very persuasive, too.

Quotations and evidence from expert sources are used to
provide support and create added authority.

Sentence style can be varied to add interest - and a very
short sentence can add real impact. Can't it?

Captions add meaning and guide the reader to respond in a
certain way to an illustration or a photograph.
Non-fiction writers use
effective
'presentational devices'

Catchy titles capture the reader's attention.

Short paragraphs and sentences are easier to follow and
grasp.

Headlines, captions and subheadings add impact and clarity.

White space creates clarity and attractiveness.

Bulleted or numbered lists aid clarity.

Layout can be used to aid understanding and to make the
piece more eye-catching.

Formatting: bold, italic and underline can create impact and
emphasis.

Type faces - including handwriting style - add impact, trust
and interest.

Colour adds eye-appeal, impact and emphasis.

Spot colour catches the eye.
Non-fiction writers use
effective
'non-language devices'

A logo can create a high level of trust in a product or service,
e.g. McDonald's or 'Coke'.

Illustrations and photographs add interest, clarity and
emotional impact.

Graphs and charts ease understanding (but can be very
selective in what they show).

Maps may be helpful.

Cartoons add humour and attract attention.