Standard 1: Development, Learning, and Motivation
Candidates know, understand and use the major concepts, principles, theories, and research
related to development of children and young adolescents to construct learning
opportunities that support individual students’ development, acquisition of knowledge, and
motivation.
I have chosen to use a literature review I conducted on modifications elementary educators can
make to provide effective learning experiences for all students within the general education
classroom to showcase my knowledge of the ACEI Standard 1. Below I have included an
abstract for the literature review and the full document.
Abstract
Despite the growing support for the inclusion of students with disabilities into the general
education classroom there is still some skepticism. This is not because inclusion is not wanted
but more due to the lack of insufficient training of school staff, skills, and resources to
effectively make this happen. This review will explore various approaches to effective inclusion
within the general education classroom. It will look at the ways in which inclusion programs
are implemented and the strategies and methods used by classroom teachers.
Literature Review
This literature review will analyze a large variety of strategies and methods used for
inclusion of elementary special education students into the general education classroom. It will
also look at a few inclusion programs that were implemented into elementary schools. In
education Inclusion carries the meaning of educating students with disabilities right along side
their peers in the general education classroom. I believe that full inclusion of students with
disabilities in a general education classroom can benefit not the students with disabilities, but
their peers and teachers as well. What are some modifications elementary educators can make to
provide effective learning experiences for all students within the general education classroom?
Of the many methods and strategies used in effective inclusion interaction between sameage peers, peer tutoring, and group or collaborative work are just a few. There are many ways in
which teachers can encourage peer interaction between their students with and without
disabilities and do so effectively. In a study of five elementary classrooms conducted by Janney
and Snell, the teachers encouraged the students to help one another. They did this by modifying
some of their previous rules and making adjustments to routines in the classroom. Students were
encouraged to give the appropriate help to, what they referred to as focus students. The teachers
were careful to remember that not all the students have had experience helping peers in the right
way, experience working with partners or helping peers with disabilities. To offset this deficit
the students were provided with instruction on how to help these students. Most of the students
were very willing to help their classmates, whether it was moving various materials for them or
pushing their wheelchair through the hallways (Janney & Snell, 1996).
Peer tutoring is quite similar to the idea of cooperative learning with the use of
heterogeneous groups. By placing students in mixed-ability groups it not only provides
opportunities for social interactions but frees the teacher up a little bit because students will have
their group members as resources for help to consult with before asking the teacher. This allows
the teacher the time to filter around the room and offer different groups assistance, having the
ability to reach more students at once. In preparation for any kind of group work it is important
not to place the same students together all the time. Periodically mixing the groups will ensure
that the students are having the opportunity to work with different group members (McKleskey
& Waldron, 2002). Another important point when forming groups for collaborative work is to
appoint some sort of task to member of the group to ensure their participation and contribution.
Later in life it will be important for students to have the skills and knowledge of how to work in
a group cooperatively, whether it be in school, organizations, work or in within ones’ family.
Teachers can provide their students with this knowledge by using cooperative learning situations
in their classrooms (O’Connor & Jenkins, 1996).
A major challenge for teachers of the 21st century is the growing diversity of students in
schools and classrooms; this is where heterogeneous grouping is again beneficial. For instance,
members of the group can re-explain directions for an assignment, tips on how to complete an
assignment support and serve as a proofreader to see if anything may need to be changed if the
teacher is busy with another group or student. In most cases, results from a study tend to imply
that cooperative learning has been effective in displaying increased improvement for students
with disabilities, although there have been a few instances where it has not. Further research
suggests that in cases of raising the scores of students’ Reading and literacy achievement levels
the instances in which cooperative learning doesn’t always seems to be as effective is heavily out
weighed by the instances in which cooperative learning is effective(O’Connor & Jenkins, 1996).
It will be very important for elementary educators to encourage equality in their
classrooms, helping the students to realize that we all have our own unique qualities and
differences. Another method used to encourage peer interaction was getting the class to see
these students as they would any of their other classmates. They need to see that even though the
teacher changes some things for these particular students, they are expected to abide by the same
rules and in some ways should be treated the same. Also, that they do not and should not alter
the way they act around these students, in the sense that if the student upsets them it is ok to let
them know.
Within these classrooms it was clear to the students when it was and wasn’t appropriate
to help their peers with disabilities. The students understood that a few of their classmates had
slightly different work and that when the teacher was not teaching they could offer assistance. It
was observed that most times there were no problems with having students volunteer to help,
many did so willingly. The results of this study imply that once students are taught the proper
skills for helping their peers with special needs it is necessary for teachers to “step aside” and
allow the students a chance to work together without the direct-influence or presence of an adult.
In doing so it became apparent that student interaction increased. As stated by a special
education teacher in one of the elementary schools, “When no adults are around, they don’t feel
so intimidated, and they’ll do ‘kid stuff’ (Janney & Snell, 1996)”
When using these types of strategies it will be important to monitor the amount of adultlike responsibility being place on the students, so as not to hinder any friendships between the
students (Janney & Snell, 1996).
Students with special needs are going to need adaptations to not only the physical
classroom environment but to the curriculum and method of instruction as well. Trying to
combine these modifications and the use of collaborative learning or peer tutoring can be
difficult. Research has provided effective strategies for providing these students with the
modifications necessary while still including them in cooperative learning groups with their
same-age peers. In cooperative learning situations adaptations may be made to what the student
is expected to contribute, their level of participation, and alternate goals for completing the
particular group activity. From a study conducted by O’Connor of the University of Pittsburg
and Jenkins of the University of Washington, comes an example of an adaptation made to a
student’s level of participation within a group. They observed students with disabilities involved
in a cooperative reading lesson. From their observations, even though a particular student may
not be able to contribute in written form, they can contribute verbally, their understanding of
word meanings (O’Connor & Jenkins, 1996). So for this student the teacher is still requiring that
they participate but modified how in the form of instead of writing their understanding of the
word meaning he verbalized it to his group. This could be combined with having someone
transcribe his answer, or have it be part of a collaborative assignment to be turned in. When
modifying the length of type of assignment for students with LD or disabilities, it is very
important to consider how it is going to be modified and what. It is crucial not to modify it to the
point that the students’ level of participation is cut-out halfway through the activity or that it
creates a discrepancy as to what instructions apply to what tasks (O’Connor & Jenkins, 1996).
An important point to keep in mind when modifying and assignment for any student is what
would be crucial for that student to know according to their needs.
Three university professors, Ryndak, Morrison, and Sommerstein conducted a seven year
case study of a student with moderate to severe disabilities, and the improvement in her literacy
skills before and after her inclusion in a general education class with her same-age peers. They
describe some of the curriculum adaptations that were made to meet the needs of
IEP(Individualized Educational Plan) and how even those changed after her inclusion to the
application of previously learned skills in various settings, school, home, community, work, etc.
A group of her teachers and staff members at her school came together and decided upon what
would best suit her need both in a means functioning in a group setting or any kind and to help
facilitate her learning experience in the general education classroom. During a science course
this student had instructional goals that included but were not limited to using clear and concise
speech so others could comprehend, giving team members correct directions for dissection of a
frog and learning any basic terminology related to the specific topic or unit. After inclusion the
following types of goals were developed and implemented:
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Display age appropriate behaviors by interacting with nondisabled peers in
general education classrooms and during after school activities
Improve articulation skills throughout the day so as to be understood by adults,
peers, including initiating questions in general education classrooms
Apply and improve reading skills to adapted general education curriculum and
content that is relevant to her life at home, school and community
Improve reading skills by following written directions for high interest tasks at
home and at school
Initiate verbal request for assistance from adults and peers when presented with a
stressful situation in which support is needed
These are some of the ‘alternate goals’ that were put in place for this student while learning
along side her peers in the general education classroom and any type of peer interaction or
cooperative learning situation(Ryndak, Morrison, Sommerstein, 1999).
Most times students that have difficulties with literacy will have had difficulty with
reading comprehension due to not being able to correctly read all words. For younger students if
books on tape are available they can be provided in advance to help them achieve greater
comprehension and give more to the group during the discussion of a book within cooperative
learning situations. With the use of an audio version of a book the student can listen to the book
being properly read to them while they follow along with their finger, tracing the words. While
the students without disabilities are engaged in silent reading of the book, student would
simultaneously being listening as the test is properly read to them and following along, until the
teacher instructs them to get into groups to discuss the story they read(O’Connor & Jenkins,
1996).
Through research it became apparent that the more talked about methods and strategies
used for effective inclusion are those which are carried out in the classroom. Some research
articles used other methods of effective inclusion. They were offering various opportunities for
staff development. It has become apparent that too often teachers lack the knowledge and skills
of practicing proper inclusion of students with disabilities and students with LD, so this is why
staff development seminars are a vital piece in implementing inclusion programs into schools
and classrooms. In a cross-cultural study conducted over two countries by Rouse & Florian,
teachers and local authority comprised a list of what they considered to be some of the essential
elements that should be included in staff development. These various elements ranged from
providing information on special needs (motor development problems, problems with
communication, seizures, etc), ideas for awareness and acceptance activities for children,
training should be specific to the individual school(every school is different), and training on
proper cooperative staff collaboration(Rouse & Florian, 1996). It became evident that the school
personnel all expressed willingness to include students with special needs and do so in the
general education classrooms. The results of these studies showed that those in charge have a
huge impact on the school environment and atmosphere. Some of the school personnel already
had some experience in the field of special education so this influenced the schools environment
in terms of the support given. An individual in a position like this may take certain things into
consideration that other may not think of. These would include the fact that class size is very
important when considering changes to classroom environment, providing multiple opportunities
for both general education and special education teachers’ time for collaboration. This time is
absolutely essential so that everyone is on the same page as far as necessary curricular and
instructional adaptations that will need to be made to meet a students’ needs. Successful teacher
collaboration will give way to greater student achievement (Rouse & Florian, 1996).
It has become apparent that effective inclusion requires more than just having students
with disabilities in the general education classroom. Through conducting my research I’ve
realized that effective inclusion is not only the use of all the mentioned in-class strategies and
methods, but also adaptations to curriculum and instruction, along with proper and sufficient
opportunities for staff development. It is also important to note that it takes the help and support
of school personnel, parents, students, and the community to make effective inclusion possible.