Chapter 14 Outline – The Last Great Nomadic Challenges: From Chinggis Khan to Timur
III. The Postclassical Era
I. The Last Great Nomadic Challenges: From Chinggis Khan to Timur
1. Overview
- The Mongols, a nomadic group from central Asia, rose to power from the early 1200s to 1405
 Under Chinggis Khan, Mongols become strongest war machine world had ever seen and
rapidly conquered central Asia, northern China, and eastern Persia (and after he died they
conquered more: rest of China, Tibet, Persia, Iraq, Asia minor, and southern Russia
- When Chinggis died in 1227, empire divided into 4 regions (called khanates) ruled by his sons
 Mongols were last nomadic group to ever dominate and gain so much power
- Mongols brought devastation upon the people they conquered, but sometimes positives (including
peace amongst various groups and religious toleration)
 Mongols established code of law over wide area, which protected traders and travelers, and
therefore increased contact b/t civilizations (spread of food, technology, and ideas)
2. The Mongol Empire of Chinggis Khan
- Mongols were a nomadic society (relied on goats and sheep they drove from 1 pasture to another)
 Mongols drank milk and ate meat (plus grains and vegetables they got by trade w/farmers)
 Also got jewelry and cloth from cities and towns in exchange for hides and dairy products
 Mongols dressed in sheepskins, lived in felt tents, and rode ponies (learned to ride from time
they could walk and would ride for days, eating and sleeping on the saddle)
- The basic unit of Mongol society was the tribe, which was divided into kin-related clans
 Clans and tribes would untie in times of war, but then go back to normal after the fighting
 The men would elect the leaders for each clan and tribe
 Women had some influence: had say in the family, and the right to be heard in tribal councils
 Leaders would build up large followings so they could lead bigger clans or tribes
 Once a leader was too old to lead, his followers would leave him for someone else
a. The Making of a Great Warrior: The Early Career of Chinggis Khan
- Kabul Khan, Chinggis’ grandfather, defeated the Qin (north China) in the 1100s, but after he died,
the Mongols couldn’t maintain control and fell on hard times (and then when Chinggis was born)
 Chinggis’ father was leader of one of these clans when he was poisoned, leading to Chinggis
becoming leader (he was just a boy and many in clan refused to follow him and left the clan)
- Chinggis’ and his remaining followers were attacked, and he was taken as prisoner in 1182
 He escaped and joined up with a powerful Mongol clan that was allies with his father
 Chinggis able to take revenge on clans that had attacked and enslaved him
- With this new clan, Chinggis took revenge on those that enslaved him, and he got a reputation as a
great warrior and military commander (making other Mongols eager to ally with him)
 Within 10 years, Chinggis defeated Mongol rivals and other nomadic groups
 Kuriltai = Mongol chiefs meet to to elect supreme ruler, or khagan (chose Chinggis in 1206)
b. Building the Mongol War Machine
- Mongol men raised to be warriors from time they were little, and Mongol armies were cavalries
 Weapons Mongols used included: lances, hatchets, iron maces, and the most devastating – the
short bow (on horseback, could hit enemy 400 yards away without breaking stride)
 Later weapons included: flaming arrows, gunpowder projectiles, and bronze cannons
- Chinggis Khan brought discipline and unity to Mongols (clan rivalries gone, all loyal to Chinggis)
 Mongols became extremely powerful once they were united and stopped fighting each other
 Tumens = Mongol armies, which had a hierarchy of command for discipline and order
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 2 types of Tumens: heavy cavalry (lances, metal armor) and light cavalry (bow and arrow)
 Military discipline extremely important (ex: soldiers who deserted their units were executed)
 A special unit was formed to create maps of the areas the Mongols were about to invade
 By the 1220s, the Mongols were the best armed, trained and disciplined soldiers in world
c. Conquest: The Mongol Empire Under Chinggis Khan
- When Chinggis became khagan in 1206 his goal was to conquer as much land as possible
 Mongols attacked the Tangut kingdom of Xi-Xia in NW China, and then the Qin empire of
the Jurchens (first time the Mongols fought against people living in cities)
 City dwellers thought they could easily beat nomadic Mongols, and at 1 st Mongols struggled,
but then they created new weapons like battering rams and bamboo rockets and able to win
- Mongols believed that people living in cities were soft
 Towns that fought back were burnt down and destroyed by Mongols (people sold as slaves)
 Towns that surrendered had to pay tribute to the Mongols, but generally were left alone
d. First Assault on the Islamic World: Conquest in China
- After conquering most of north China, the Mongols invaded west
 Defeated the Mongol-speaking Kara-Khitai empire in 1219 and Turkic empire of Khwarazm,
which allowed Chinggis Khan to bring thousands of Turkic horsemen into his army
 Now stronger, Chinggis Khan went back east to finish off the Tangut (who had surrendered
earlier and were paying tribute to Mongols, but when Mongols needed soldiers against KaraKhitai, Xi-Xia (Tangut) leader refused, so now Mongols went back to finish them off)
 By the time he died in 1227, Mongols ruled empire from eastern Persia to North China Sea
e. Life Under the Mongol Imperium
- Despite being aggressive warriors, the Mongols were tolerant rulers
 Chinggis was ruthless, but also open to new ideas and wanted to create a peaceful empire
 Once he conquered people, Chinggis took interest in learning their art and culture
 Karakorum = capital of the Mongol empire under Chinggis Khan
- In Karakorum, Chinggis Khan assembled the best and the brightest from other cultures (ex:
Muslim engineers, Confucian scholars, and Daoist holy men
 Chinggis Khan allowed for religious toleration
 Chinggis Khan created a written Mongolian language to keep records and a legal code (laws
designed to end quarrels and create unity, and a police force was created to enforce the laws)
- Mongol conquests brought peace to much of Asia, and scholarship, the arts, and trade flourished
 Trade routes protected which led to increased trade, growth of wealthy cities and merchants
f. The Death of Chinggis Khan and the Division of the Empire
- While finishing off the Tangut kingdom, Chinggis got ill and died in 1227
- Mongol empire was divided into 4 sections, known as khanates, each ruled by a son or grandson
 Ogedei = Chinggis’ 3rd son, chosen next khagan, worked to keep sections of empire united
 Batu = One of Chinggis’ grandsons, ruled one of the sections of the empire called the Golden
Horde, which conquered much of Russia
3. The Mongol Drive to the West
- Mongols conquered Russia as they advanced west in a desire to capture western Europe
 Russia at this time was divided into small kingdoms, centered on trading cities such as Kiev
 The princes of the various Russian kingdoms did not surrender (and suffer less wrath), instead
fighting back (they didn’t work together either, each on their own and no match for Mongols)
- In 1236 Mongols (called Tatars by Russians) under Batu, defeated the Russian heartlands
 Russians refused to surrender and lands destroyed and inhabitants slaughtered or slaves
- By late 1200s, Mongols conquered rest of Russia, including walled city of Kiev (100,000 people)
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 Because Kiev resisted, Mongols burnt city down (only sparing cathedral of Saint Sophia)
 Novgorod, next biggest Russian city, was spared b/c ruler surrendered (just pay tribute)
Russia in Bondage
Russia’s defeat to Batu and the Mongols led to 250 years of Mongol dominance in Russia
 Russians princes forced to be vassals (remained rulers, had to obey Mongols and pay tribute)
 Mongols tough on Russian peasants (had to give crops and labor to princes and to Mongols)
 Peasants became serfs to local Russian rulers in return for protection, others fled Mongols
 Mongol conquest increased trade, and some Russian towns made money off of this trade,
especially Moscow, which had been burnt down by the Mongols, but was rebuilt and grew
strong (it served as a collection town for the tribute the Mongols were receiving)
Mongol religious toleration helped both the Orthodox church and Moscow
 Mongols strengthened the Orthodox church (make its leader head of all of Russian religions)
 Moscow was made the location where the Orthodox church was based out of, further helping
Moscow grow into the leading city in Russia
 Battle of Kulikova (1380) = Russian victory over the Mongols, helped break Mongol control
(Mongols controlled parts of Russia for 100 more years, but real power was held by Moscow)
The 250 years of Mongol rule of Russia was mostly negative, but was big turning point for Russia
 Important to the rise of Moscow and Orthodox church
 Led to Russian changes in military organization and tactics and political style of Russian
rulers (gave Russian princes idea of centralizing their ruler and reduce power to those that
threatened their power such as nobility, clergy, and wealthy merchants)
 Biggest impact was Russia was further divided from lands to the west:
o Russia was politically divided, and Mongol rule prevented a takeover by kingdoms to the
west (Poland, Lithuania, and Hungary) and prevented threat of the Crusades attacking
Russia (they had attacked Constantinople)
o But, Russia was cut off from the European Renaissance, hurting Russia’s development
Mongol Incursions and the Retreat from Europe
At 1st, western European did not dislike the Mongols (offered religious tolerance), but when
Mongols conquered Hungary (1240) and the German ruler Henry of Silesia, western Europeans
realized the threat the Mongols posed
Just as it appeared that western Europe could be conquered, the Mongols disappeared
 Ogedei died in Karakorum, and Batu withdrew troops to prepare for fight over succession,
and Mongols never returned to western Europe (only place otherwise spared was India)
The Mongol Assault on the Islamic Heartlands
Hulegu = grandson of Chinggis Khan who led Mongol assault on the Middle East
 Ended Abbasid rule by brutally destroying Baghdad in 1258 and killing the Abbasid caliph
 Beat Seljuk Turks (1243) - ultimately led to rise of Ottomans (who soon dominated region)
Mongols devastated the Middle East (Muslims consider Mongols raids a great catastrophe)
 Many Christians in Middle East (called Nestorians) helped Mongols defeat Muslims
(Mongols allowed religious toleration)
Mongols conquered the Middle East until they were stopped by the Mamluks (dynasty in Egypt)
in 1260 at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260
 Baibars = originally a slave of the Mongols who was sold to Egypt, he became leader of
Mamluks when they defeated Mongols at Ain Jalut
 This time, Christians helped Muslims (feared Mongols would go after western Europe next)
Berke = ruled different division of Mongol empire (the Golden Horde to the north) and fought
with Hulegu, which along with Egyptian defeat ended the Mongol attempt for expansion
The Mongol Impact on Europe and the Islamic World
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Although mostly negative, Mongol forays into Middle East and Europe had some positive
 Taught new ways of making war, and introduced gunpowder, and increased trade
 Traders gained great wealth (especially those from northern Italy – Venice and Genoa became
trading empires, which led desire for overseas expansion by the Portuguese and English)
- But the biggest long-term impact of Mongol drive west was that they unknowingly carried the
fleas that would cause bubonic plague (Black Death)
4. The Mongol Interlude in Chinese History
- Soon after Ogedei was elected great khan (1227), Mongols resumed their advance into China
 Finished defeating Xi-Xia and Qin, and then invaded what remained of the Song to the South
 South China (Song) very difficult to defeat and it took Mongols a long time (1235-1279)
 Kubilai Khan = Chinggis’ grandson who became khagan in 1260 and conquered China
 Yuan Dynasty = name Kubilai Khan gave to China when Mongols defeated and ruled it
- Kubilai Kahn was intent of keeping Chinese and Mongol cultures separate and distinct
 Chinese not allowed to learn Mongol written language, Mongols and Chinese couldn’t
intermarry, military units kept separate, and friendship b/t Mongols and Chinese discouraged
- Despite wanting to keep the cultures separate, Kubilai was fascinated by the Chinese culture
 Kubilai surrounded himself with Chinese Confucian, Buddhist, and Daoist advisors, used
Chinese calendar within the Mongol empire (though did not keep the exam system)
 Tatu (or Dadu) = Mongol capital in China (located where Beijing is today)
- Yuan dynasty (Mongols) created a new social structure in China
 Mongols at top followed by Muslims from central Asia who allied with the Mongols and
together they ran the bureaucracy of the Yuan dynasty (ethnic Chinese had lower status)
a. Gender Roles and the Convergence of Mongol and Chinese Cultures
- Mongol women fairly independent, and didn’t adapt to Chinese culture, which limited freedom
 Mongol women could own property, have control within household, and even hunt
- Chabi = wife of Kubilai, advised him politically (shows Mongol women not adopting to
restrictive Chinese culture) – Mongols only ruled China 100 years, so bad Chinese treatment of
women didn’t have time to rub off on the Mongols
b. Mongol Tolerance and Foreign Cultural Influences
- Kubilai had cosmopolitan tastes - patronized scholars, artists, and artisans (many of the top ones
were Muslims, and Muslims designed capital city, method for tax collection, and were doctors)
 Persians and Turks also had high status (Persian astronomers used advanced Middle Eastern
instruments and corrected the Chinese calendar and made very accurate maps)
- Kubilai also welcomed emissaries from foreign lands to his court (capital)
 Kubilai had interest in all religions and was tolerant, and people of all religions came to China
 Marco Polo was one traveler who came in 1200s, and his accounts created interest in Europe
in traveling to China, and finding new ways to get there (like Columbus tried)
c. Social Policies and Scholar-Gentry Resistance
- Despite Kubilai’s acceptance of Confucian rituals, and his employment of Chinese bureaucrats,
Chinese scholar-gentry did not like Mongol rule (thought Mongols were barbaric)
 By not using exam system, Kubilai blocked scholar-gentry from dominating politics
 Kubilai’s support of artisans and merchants (never had high standing) upset scholar-gentry
 Mongols improved transportation and supply of paper money in China, and economy grew
 Mongols built strong navy (key to defeat Song and later protect commerce from pirates)
- Ironically, cities and sedentary life, which Mongols despised as weak, flourished under the Yuan
 Chinese poetry and essay writing suffered under Yuan (compared to their flowering under
Tang and Song), but popular entertainment, like musical dramas, flourished
 The Romance of the West Chamber = famous Chinese drama, written in Yuan period
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 Actors and actresses, who were despised by Confucian scholars, gained status as celebrities
The one thing the scholar-gentry did approve of was Kubilai’s policies towards peasants
 Preserved farmland, restored granary system of food storage, reduced taxes, lessened time
peasants had to do labor for government, and tried setting up education system for the villages
d. The Fall of the House of Yuan
- Mongols only ruled China for about 100 years
 Kubilai failed when invading Japan and Vietnam, showing Chinese that Mongols were not as
strong as they seemed, which led to many revolts (especially under Song loyalists)
 After Kubilai died, his successors were not good leaders – much corruption and money
stealing went on, and peasants got angry because they had to pay more in taxes to compensate
 Scholar-gentry used this peasant anger to call for more peasant uprisings
- By 1350s, signs of Mongol rule in decline were evident
 Crime and theft were widespread and several famines led to uprisings throughout empire
 White Lotus Society = secret religious sect dedicated to overthrowing Yuan
 Zhu Yuanzhang = a peasant who became a leader of the Chinese, and drove out the
Mongols, ending the Yuan dynasty and beginning the Ming dynasty
5. Conclusion: The Mongol Legacy and an Aftershock: The Brief Ride of Timur
- The impact the Mongols had on the areas they raided and conquered varied greatly
 Sedentary people living in towns and cities got the most fury from the Mongols
 Mongol conquest eventually led to the rise of Moscow as the leading city of Russia
 Ended Abbasid and Seljuk power, opening way for Mamluks and Ottomans to rise
 Mongols promoted and increased trade, but it also led to Black Death
 Mongol rule brought stable government and religious toleration to the areas they conquered
- As Mongols were being defeated, a 2nd nomadic group from central Asia posed a major threat
 Timuri-I Lang (or Tamerlane) = leader of Turkic nomads; beginning in 1360 from base at
Samarkand, launched attacks in Persia, the Fertile Crescent, India, and southern Russia
 Timur was highly cultured, but also a ruthless conqueror (committed great atrocities)
 Timur never got empire as big as Mongols, but they were just as fierce (ex: built pyramid of
heads of thousands of people slaughtered after beating city of Aleppo in Asia Minor (Turkey)
and had thousands of people slaughtered in Delhi, India
 Unlike Mongols, Timur’s rule did not increase trade or cultural exchange
 When Timur died in 1405, his empire was torn apart, so reign was brief
 With death of Timur, the last threat to civilizations in Eurasia from nomads was eliminated
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