SOCIO-ECOLOGICAL CHANGE AND LIVELIHOOD ADJUSMENT:
A CASE STUDY IN INDONESIAN RURAL COASTAL COMMUNITY
1
Viktor Amrifo1, Arya H Dharmawan2, Satyawan Sunito3, Endriatmo Soetarto4
Doctor Candidate, Study Program of Rural Sociology, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, Indonesia
2
Lecturer, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, Indonesia
3
Lecturer, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, Indonesia
4
Prof. Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor, Indonesia
1
E-mail: rifo_amvik@yahoo.com 2aryahadidharmawan@yahoo.com 3awansunito@gmail.com
4
endriatmo@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
A research on socio-ecological change and livelihood adjustment in rural coastal community has been
conducted in Riau Province, Indonesia. The research aims to find out the socio-ecological factors causing
rural livelihood adjustment, and the adjustment of rural coastal livelihood strategy. The research found
several driving factors for the change on rural livelihood including (1) different view and orientation on
fishery and marine resources utilization of regime in power, (2) the decrease on the quality of estuary
ecosystem, and (3) socio-cultural change in rural community. The rural livelihood has changed from
common arrangement type in batin community level to the one in common property right in rural
community level. Livelihood strategy developed in community level as the consequence of rural livelihood
change is the claim of menongkah activity as livelihood preservation that should be maintained and
institutionalized. Livelihood strategy in household level is the combination of community livelihood activity
and other livelihood activities.
Keywords: Socio-ecological change, Livelihood Adjustment, Menongkah, Indonesia
cultural change of society livelihood. Those
factors work by themselves or mutually in
encouraging rural livelihood change.
1. INTRODUCTION
Livelihood sociology developed in the East
(Southeast Asia) came from empirical findings
on livelihood issues in rural development
process; however, in the West, it came from
issues on poverty and natural resources damage
(Dharmawan, 2007). The article aims to
synthesize those views having different focus and
assumption. Social-economic factor is the main
interest in the discourse of eastern livelihood
sociology. In western, on the contrary, the
discourse is more about socio-ecological factor.
Our research assumes that rural livelihood
change and its consequences are pushed by
socio-cultural, ecological and political factors.
Based on the assumption, a case study is
conducted in a rural community having strong
livelihood history with issues on development,
poverty and environmental degradation.
In order to prove our assumption, a customary
community known as Duano Tribe in Riau
Province Indonesia is chosen. Based on literature
study, Duano Tribe has been experiencing some
changes on livelihood place since they live as sea
nomads. Before 1722, Duano Tribe did their
livelihood activities in Malaka Strain waters. In
1722 to 1932, they moved to shallow sea in
remote islands and Malaka Strain coastal area.
After 1932 to 1960, they moved again to Berhala
Strain waters, and after 1960, they lived in
Indragiri Estuary ecosystem until the research is
conducted in 2013 (Zen, 1993; Chou, 1994;
Lenhart, 1997). Based on those changes, Duano
Tribe’s livelihood can be grouped into life as sea
nomads (before 1960 or pre-independency of
Indonesian Republic and beginning of the
Indonesian Republic old order) and a sedentary
life on land (after 1960 which is during the end
of the Indonesian Republic old order to the
Indonesian Republic new order and the
Indonesian Republic reformation order).
Factors causing rural livelihood adjustment
include political, ecological, socio-cultural
factors. Political factors are related to natural
resources mastery, ownership, utilization and
management. Ecological factors are related to the
change
and
decrease
of
bio-physical
environmental quality (ecosystem). Sociocultural factors are related to social
environmental change (social system) and
Case
study
strategy
combined
with
phenomenologist and historical sociology
strategies was conducted to gain empirical facts
1
giving evidence for the determined basic
assumptions and research purpose. The research
tries to answer several following purposes,
including factors causing the adjustment on rural
livelihood, type of livelihood before and after the
change and the influence of socio-cultural and
ecological politics of rural change on the
livelihood strategy of Duano Tribe in
community, household and individual levels.
2. METHOD
This research was a qualitative that used three
research strategy (case study, historical
sociology, and phenomenologist). The first
strategy was case study that used to chose the
right coastal area and rural community that
empirical fact related to research assumption.
Indonesian coastal area locate in Indragiri Hilir
Sub-province in Riau Province which dwelt by
Duano Tribe Community was chosen (see figure
1).
Figure 1. Research location
The second was historical sociology that used to
analyze the milestone of Duano Tribe community
related to socio-ecological change and livelihood
adjustment.
The
last
strategy
was
phenomenologist that used to interpret the
Duano’s meaning of their livelihood action.
were based on field observation, interview and
literature study and in general, it can be
concluded that those ecosystem has been
degraded.
One of aspects in ecological change of river and
estuary-coastal in Indragiri Hilir is the decrease
on waters quality. The indication of this decrease
can be seen in the turbidity level, the existence of
litter, and other physical-chemical parameter
researched in the laboratory, such as suspended
solid, COD, phenol compound, and heavy metal
content.
We used three techniques of data collection in
this research. The first was observation that used
to found the fact about socio-ecological
condition, and livelihood adjustment of Duano
Community. The second was interview that used
to found information from keys informed about
the milestones of Duano’s livelihood adjustment.
The last was literatures study that used to collect
the history of Duano Community documentation.
3. SOCIO-ECOLOGICAL CHANGE
RURAL COASTAL AREA
Level of river turbidity in research location,
Concong River, can be visually seen when
traveling to and from the research site. The water
in Concong River is light brown in color and soft
particles in form of mud mixed in the water.
Water’s turbidity in estuary and sea is lower
compare to Concong River waters. The further
from the river toward the sea the brown color of
the river looks even brighter.
OF
3.1. Ecological Change
Ecological change taken place in livelihood place
of Duano Tribe includes river, estuary-coastal
and land ecosystems (Table 1). Those changes
2
Table 1. Ecological Change of Duano Tribe’s Livelihood Place
Bio-physical
Environmental Change
River Ecosystem
1. Decrease on waters
quality
2. Shoaling
Estuary-Coast Ecosystem
1. Decrease on waters
quality
Change Dimension
1. Short term (everyday)
2. Short term (everyday)
1. Short term (everyday)
2. Beach erosion
2. Short term (everyday)
3. Damage on
mangrove forest
4. Shoaling
3. Short term (everyday)
5. Delta is increasingly
wide
Other ecosystems (land)
1. Reduce on land
cover
2. Land conversion into
plantation
4. Short term (everyday)
5. Short term (everyday)
Indication
1. Turbidity and suspended solid are
exceeding the quality standard of river
biota, many litter on the river
2. Data on depth is no longer match with
the newest observation
1. Turbidity, suspended solid, COD,
phenol compound, and heavy metal
content are exceeding the water quality
standard for sea biota
2. The collapse of beach slope and the
beach is increasingly slope
3. Forest density is increasingly spaced
4. Data on depth is no longer match with
the newest observation
5. The emergence of surfaced soil, delta
and new small island
1. Short term (everyday)
1. Increase on critical lands
2. Short term (everyday)
2. Increase on palm oil plantation
Source: Processed from Field Observation, Interview and Secondary Data
Result from interview with the local community
found that the condition of Concong River,
estuary and sea is more turbid than before. The
decrease on the quality of Concong River waters
is also indicated by many litters washed away
along the river either domestic litters from people
who live along the watershed or small branches.
those litters and woods. The litters can twist on
the screw propeller or the wood can hit pancung.
It takes longer when taking the deep route;
therefore, it is not effective. The difference
between taking the deep route and the outer route
was one hour, but now it can be 2 – 2.5 hours.”
Result from the visual observation and interview
with the community are similar to the result of
studies conducted by several marine and fishery
experts in Indragiri Hilir. Hilmi (2010) states that
the level of turbidity in Indragiri Hilir waters in
various sampling points are around 20-97 NTU
with suspended solid around 60-750 mg/l. The
turbidity and suspended solid are exceeding the
water standard for fishery cultural activities or
marine park conservation based on the Decree of
Ministry of Environment Indonesia No.
2/MENLH/I/1988.
AHG (36 years old) is running a speedboat every
day from Concong Luar to Tembilahan back and
forth. He has been doing that since he was 18
years old as a ship crew and now he is a captain.
AHG states “….back then, during the rainy
season, the waters where he traveled was clean;
however, now the water is more turbid when it is
rain”.
AHG also states that “….I was taking the deep
route (through Concong River) when the tide
high season came because it was safe and
comfortable to avoid the high tide. Today,
however, I will think about taking the route even
though it is safe because there are many litters
and woods washed out along the river. Therefore,
when I take the route I should be careful to avoid
Physical and chemical condition of Concong
waters can be traced by result from a laboratory
study by Nasution (2009). The study found that
the temperature is around 29-30.30C, pH of 7 –
7.3, DO of 4.1-4.3 ppm, salinity of 24.3-28.6 ‰,
3
and brightness around 38.2-42 cm. The condition
is considered safe for estuary waters as long as
no toxic compounds exist in the waters.
excretion and abrasion process alternately. The
abrasion process occurs when hard wind hit the
beach, which is in trade wind season (the wind
blows from south and southeast). The high wave
caused by hard wind hitting the beach will result
in an abrasion.
Biophysical environmental change also occurs in
form of abrasion and sedimentation. Sediment
found in Indragiri Hilir estuary-beach is silt,
sand, and mud caused by fluvial process.
Sediments have formed bar in river estuary and
around the beach. According to research result by
PKSPL IPB (2002), the bar formation is caused
by the high volume of sediment from the river
and water movement energy that unable to
spread the sediment.
3.2. Socio-cultural Change
The change on socio-cultural aspects is related to
the arrangement made by the state and the entry
of market into Duano Tribe’s life. The sociocultural change related to social structure of
Duano Tribe includes social stratification,
agrarian structure, demographical structure and
utilization pattern of local ecosystem.
The high excretion rate in this area, especially in
estuary system of Indragiri and Gangsal Rivers,
has caused the bar turn into delta or small islands
in river estuary. This bar-causing shoaling is
obvious on the landsat image. Shallow area in
coastal waters can be noticed from the purplish
blue color; whereas the deep area is black in
color (PKSPL IPB, 2002). One of indications for
the shoaling is the depth of water ways issued by
hydro-oceanography
agency
of
TNI-AL
(Indonesian Navy) that no longer appropriate for
water ways from river estuary to the sea. Part of
water ways experiencing shoaling is the coastal
area from Indragiri River and Kuala Enok River
estuaries.
Box 1. Change on Social Stratification Aspect of
Duano Tribe
DGN (45 years old), who works as blood clam
trader in Panglima Raja, admits that “…at present I
already have a pompong (a wood boat) powered
with diesel that I use to load blood clam from
around 20 fishermen. In this position,
Alhamdulillah, I am able to send my kids to school
even to college. Even though, I am not a
descendant of Panglima Raja, such as our head of
the village, I can be tuake, with only one boat.
EFY (60 years old), who is regarded as an elder of
Duano Tribe in Basung Island area and live in
Concong Luar, adds that “….today, education is an
important thing for us. Alhamdulillah, many of
Duano people now are going to school and active in
the community. Our place might far but we are not
lack behind compare to other advanced tribes”.
Another important change from biophysical
environment of estuary ecosystem in Indragiri
Hilir is the destruction in mangrove forest. A
study conducted by Hilmi in 2005 indicated that
from 121,535.31 ha mangrove forest in Indragiri
Hilir, 66,355.11 ha (54, 60%) is damage and the
remaining 55,180. 19 ha (45.40%) is in severe
damage. The numbers show that none of the
mangrove forests are in good condition or have
dense population. The damage is spread in all
Indragiri Hilir coastal area indicated by medium
density and very spaced mangrove forest (Hilmi,
2010). The area of mangrove forest in 2012,
however, is decreasing compare to that of 2005,
which is 63,534.01 ha or around 52% decrease.
Social stratification of Duano Tribe was based on
descent when they lived in their boathouse,
which were Batin and not-Batin. Territorializing
and developmental agenda conducted by the
government on Duano Tribe since 1960s and the
market expansion since 1970s through fishery
modernization program has introduced new
stratification to the tribe based on economical
asset ownership and education. At present,
Duano Tribe views one’s position due to fleet
and fishing gear ownership or based on
educational level (Box 1).
Beach areas in Indragiri Estuary that open to tide
movement direction and are not sediment areas
have experienced abrasion, especially areas with
rare mangrove density. According to research
result from PKSPL IPB (2002) beaches in
Kateman Subdistrict open to travelling wave
from north-east Sea has experienced abrasion
especially during antitrades. Beach areas around
Kuala Enok, Baung Island, Burung Island, and
Burung Island Sub district have experienced
Demographical aspects, such as fertility,
mortality and demography, have slowly changed.
Duano Tribe started to adjust with their sedentary
life pattern. For example, marriage is no longer
between Duano Tribes only; fertility is higher
than mortality and migration pattern is no longer
in form of sea wanderer (Box 2).
4
wanderer is only conducted by Duano Tribe to
visit their relatives in other villages.
Box 2. The Change on Survival Patterns of
Residential and Wandering Having
Consequences on Marriage Aspect
Another change is on aspect of work division
between man and woman. When they lived on a
boat, men and women of Diano Tribe were asked
to have the same ability in facing the ocean;
however, they were sharing the jobs. A mother’s
duty was educating and monitoring the children
on a boat. Children aged 6 years old were asked
to help their parents make a living. Fish hunting
was conducted by adult men using arrow, lance
or by diving. The children who wait on a boat
helped the job. Men or women could do fishing.
Adult women and children then dried the fish
gained from the fishing activities. Fish that have
been cleaned were dried on a small boat specific
for drying fish, which located in the front part of
the boat.
JK (56 years old), who works as penongkah
(people who do menongkah which is an activity to
look for blood clam using a board called tongkah
board) of blood clam in Panglima Raja, states
“…..my family consists of six people. It is
considered a big family in Suku Duano. Back then,
a family only has two children because the boat
was unable to accommodate more than five people;
especially when the kids are grown up, whilst we
have to be on the boat all the time. However, now
we live in a wood house that can accommodate up
to eight people.”
RBN (58 years old) adds “….once we only married
with someone from the tribes. Yes, because we
only socialized with people among our tribes, the
marriage was aimed to protect Duano people.
However, now, we have people from our tribe who
get married with people from Melayu, Bugis or
Banjar; even Chinese. Our children who study in
Tembilahan or Pekanbaru are no longer live here;
many of them are married with other tribes. I do not
mind with the situation, as long as they still admit
that they are from Duano Tribe and they do not
forget their origin…….”
Pattern on local ecosystem utilization conducted
by Duano Tribe has adjusted from era to era.
Principally, Suku Duano is a devoted people and
they do not think about patterns on local
ecosystem utilization established by the state as
long as the patterns do not endanger their life and
livelihood. During pre-independence era, the
utilization pattern and natural resources
arrangement in Duano Tribe is by mutual
utilization in the batin community level and the
pattern is characterized with common property in
village community level once they have resettled.
EFY (60 years old) also states “….a couple who
wants to live together will have them to get married
soon. Previously, the marriage procession was lead
by Batin from the bride. The newest wedding
couple at first will live on a canoe called tunda. The
couple was allowed to socialized with kajang
group, siket or batin who stopped by in the island.
There, they could build new kajang canoe
mutually…..”
3.3. Political Change
Relationship between the state and Duano Tribe
during Johor-Malaka Kingdom and SiakIndragiri Kingdoms era was very strong compare
to that of during NKRI government. It is
indicated by the position of Duano Tribe that
more important during the kingdom eras. At that
time, they were situated as guard army of
kingdom’s waters area. During the NKRI
government era, however, their position is as a
remote
and
less-developed
community.
Moreover, during the era of Siak Kingdom,
Duano Tribe was the loyal supporter of the
kingdom in a war against Johor Kingdom. As the
guard army of waters area, Duano Tribe had
access to fishery resources in their area.
In order to maintain the existence of Duano
Tribe, most of Duano people still choose to get
married among their tribes or endogamy. Interethnic marriage is not forbidden in Duano Tribe;
therefore, there are a lot of Duano people were
born from mix marriage or no longer pure
strains. Duano Tribe people who continue their
school in regency or provincial areas is no longer
maintain the endogamy marriage and stays in the
capital city of the regency or province.
Fertility and mortality were kept in proportional
as a form of arrangement since limited spaces
were available when Duano Tribe lived as
wanderer. Since resettled in 1960s, the
population of Duano Tribe continues to grow
with fertility is larger than mortality. Migration
culture once conducted while living as a
Duano Tribe was selected as the waters guard
because they were considered as experienced
sailor and mastered the subtleties of the waters at
Malaka Strain. The relation has formed agrarian
system strengthening the fishery resources-based
livelihood culture of Duano Tribe. Their access
was higher than that of private party. Duano
5
Tribe was also known as a Sea Tribe and they
were the confidant of the states in collecting tax
from traders who passed by the kingdom’s
waters territory.
The structuring process conducted by the new
order government through the policy considers
that Duano Tribe’s prosperity can be achieved
only if their livelihood accommodates modern
technology advancement and market economy.
The policy has attracted fishery companies to
operate in river estuaries at Indragiri Hilir,
including Concong area where Duano Tribe
lives. During this era, those mischievous
industrialists had used non-environmental
friendly catching tools. One of disturbing cases
for Duano Tribe’s life was the use of songko
powered with engine by private sectors to exploit
blood clam. However, the tool finally forbidden
since it caused damage on estuary’s ecosystem,
threatened the sustainability of blood clam, and
strong protest from Duano Tribe and
environmentalists.
Duano Tribe who had been living on boat around
Indragiri Estuary during early Independence Day
period has lost their important position before the
states. Even though Indonesia is a maritime state,
the state’s orientation and priority during the old
and new orders era was more dominant on the
life aspect on land. The important position of
Duano Tribe given by Johor-Malaka and SiakIndragiri Kingdoms was completely different
than that of NKRI government. Nomadic tribes
in Indonesia were drawn to be closer to
governmental centers (land). It was an indication
for the effort of the state to instill livelihood
culture oriented more to natural resources on the
land.
The policy taken by the new order government
has forced the livelihood culture of Duano Tribe
into market economy; however, the tribe
maintained their livelihood culture and did not
rely on modern fishing technology. Shell
collection activity or menongkah is the main
livelihood for Duano Tribe. Motorization of fleet
and catching tools mechanization has created
new problem, which is the use up of fishery
resources in Indragiri Estuary. Overfishing
symptoms is increasingly obvious with the
decline in the catch of traditional fisherman,
scarcity on certain fishes and the more distant
fishing ground. The condition is worsening by
the decrease on environmental quality at
Indragiri.
Duano Tribe who had strong relation with
kingdoms during pre-independence period has
been placed as a less developed community in
NKRI government era. All tribes who lived
beyond the ring of power and government, such
as those who lived in the jungle, high land,
remote islands and sea waters and rivers, needed
to be re-arranged, according to the government.
Li (2002) termed the arrangement process
conducted by the government as territorializing
and development.
The agrarian structure formed during the
beginning of Independence Day differed to that
of in kingdom era. Strong relationship between
the state and Duano Tribe during preindependence day period has shifted into agrarian
structure with strong relation between the state
and the private sector during new order
government. Through fishery modernization
policy, the state embraced the private sector to
reach targets of increasing fishery production.
The policy implemented since 1970s was known
as blue revolution.
Another policy related to issue of waters
ecosystem damage and the increase of
fishermen’s prosperity at Indragiri Hilir in
reformation order era (after new order era) was
Marine and Coastal Resources Management
Project (MCRMP) from 2001 to 2006. Activities
conducted within the project mostly related to
mangrove conservation and income increase for
Duano Tribe’s fishermen from other activities
other than menongkah. The government
introduced technology of blood clam culture to
Duano Tribe fishermen aimed to maintain the
stability of blood clam production and the
sustainability of blood clam stock in nature.
Agrarian structure formed has put Duano Tribe
in a position as a less developed traditional
fisherman. Livelihood activities conducted by
Duano Tribe are considered inconsistent with the
effort in increasing fishery production. The state
encourages Duano Tribe to follow the step taken
by private sector, which is mechanization and
motorization in exploiting fishery resources. The
implementation of the policy is by a communitystructuring program directed towards motor boat
and catching tools aid.
MCMRP indicates the failure of the state in
previous order (new order) through blue
revolution program. Fishery modernization has
caused overfishing and waters ecosystem damage
in many waters locations and coastal villages in
Indonesia with no significant improvement on
6
fishermen’s prosperity. Both indicators were
basing the selection of villages target for
MCRMP. Paradigm used in MCRMP is
environmental-friendly sustainable development
through co-management model. Productivity
orientation was felted in the activities designed
within the MCRMP.
system was related to production arrangement in
village community level characterized with
common property rights; whereas, distribution
and consumption were given to each household
following market mechanism.
4.2. Adjustment on Livelihood Strategy
Initially, the livelihood strategy in Duano Tribe
in community level was an arrangement related
to natural, human and social capitals supporting
common
production,
distribution
and
consumption processes (before 1960 era).
However, it has shifted into an arrangement
related to human, financial and social capitals
supporting efforts to maintain access to physical
and natural capitals (period of 1960 – 2000).
Furthermore, it shifted again to an arrangement
related to security, protection and restoration of
natural and physical capital; therefore, the
community can access and utilize it
continuously. The form of livelihood strategy in
Duano Tribe in community level can be
differentiated based on technology arrangement,
social organization, demographic aspect and
combination of livelihood resources.
The orientation of structuring process conducted
by the government on Duano Tribe toward the
end of MCRMP has shifted from productivity
orientation to sale value orientation. Everything
related to Duano is promoted as cultural heritage
that should be maintained and preserved.
Activities to promote Duano Tribe become
annual agenda of local government. Monongkah
festival has been conducted since 2005 and in
2008, the monongkah committee listed
menongkah in MURI (Indonesian Record
Museum). During menongkah festival, people
can watch tongkah race, menongkah dance and
memorable kajang boat exhibition
4. LIVELIHOOD
ADJUSMENT
DUANO TRIBE COMMUNITY
OF
4.1. Adjustment on Livelihood Base and
Livelihood Resources Combination
Strategy of technology arrangement implemented
in pre-old order era consists of strategy to unify
the residence and fishing fleet and strategy to
develop technology based on the characteristic of
migration fish. In the end of old order and new
order eras, the strategy consists of separating the
residence and fishing fleet and developing
appropriate technology for estuary ecosystem (to
accommodate modern technology into local
technology). During the reformation era, the
strategy consists of relating menongkah
technology with environmental conservation
issues and strengthening local community
livelihood.
The change on ecological and social system has
caused the change on livelihood base of Duano
Tribe. Before 1960, the livelihood was the
combination of livelihood resources using natural
capital in the livelihood place at sea ecosystem of
Malaka and Berhala Strain and it changed into
natural capital utilization in Indragiri Estuary
after 1960. The natural capital used before old
order era is group of migration fish and surface
fish in waters ecosystem of Malaka Strain relying
on the technique and survival knowledge of
human capital in bio-physical environment of sea
waters. Adjustment made after old order era was
by utilizing fish and blood clam in waters
ecosystem of Indragiri estuary by combining
various livelihood resources (natural, physical,
financial, human and social capitals).
Strategy of social organization arrangement
implemented in pre-old order consists of
arrangement strategy on mutual production,
distribution and consumption in batin level. In
the end of old order and new order, the strategy
consists of securing common natural and
physical capitals, arranging production in village
community
level
and
institutionalizing
menongkah in Suku Duano life. In reformation
order, the strategy consists of legalizing the
security of common natural and physical capitals
and arranging production in village community
level into village arrangement, institutionalizing
menongkah and claiming it as the cultural
The change on livelihood base and combination
of livelihood resources on different regime of
natural resources control implicated the change
on type of livelihood system built and developed
at Duano Tribe. The livelihood built before 1960
was a mutual arrangement in Batin community
level related to production, distribution and
consumption. The production, distribution and
consumption were arranged and monitored by the
head of batin to fulfill the requirements for food,
clothes and house. After 1960, the livelihood
7
heritage of Duano, and strengthening the identity
of Duano and the role of indigenous leaders.
related to human capital development of
community members and strengthening social
capital in community and accommodating the
occurrence of new financial capital sources (state
and private). In reformation order the strategy
consists of fostering new institutional that help to
secure
natural
and
physical
capitals,
strengthening access to financial capital for
Duano Tribe and in turn, strengthening the
existence human and social capitals.
Strategy of demographic aspect arrangement
implemented in pre-old order consists of strategy
on limiting the number of batin community
member and the number of household member
and migrating together in one batin community.
In the end of old order and new order eras, the
strategy consists of implementing the importance
of endogamy marriage without any prohibition
for inter-tribes marriage. In reformation order the
strategy consists of relating the importance of
endogamy marriage with indigenism issues.
Strategy of livelihood of low stratum household
can be categorized as survival strategy. Husband
in Duano household do livelihood activity as
fisherman that collect blood clam. This activity
was called menongkah and the profession was
called nelayan penongkah by local community.
On the other hand, wife and child does sideline
livelihood activity, especially on processing of
dry prawn, small scale trading, and boat rent
service, and temporary worker in boat building.
This household stratum makes a living through
multiple employment and labor power spreading.
Strategy for each strata can change or adjust
along with the change on livelihood strategy of
the community level livelihood resources stock
and the regime of natural resources control. The
livelihood adjustment of Duano Tribe is
presented on Table (Table 2).
Strategy of livelihood resources combination
arrangement implemented in pre-order era
consists of standardizing human capital of all
batin community members and strengthening
social capital in batin community and building
network to outer communities (state / kingdom).
In the end of old order and new order the strategy
consists of accepting development program
Livelihood strategy of middle stratum household
can be categorized as consolidation strategy.
Livelihood activity of this household is small
scale blood clam marketing that produced by low
stratum household (nelayan penongkah). This
profession was called pedagang pengumpul
(merchant of compiler) by local community. This
household stratum has already reached a more
secure level of livelihood and start to encourage a
more stable and steadier economic position.
Pedagang pengumpul makes a living through
income source diversification strategy; especially
on expanding ownership of boat, and wife do
sideline livelihood activity as temporary nelayan
penongkah.
5. CONCLUSION
Rural coastal livelihood adjustment taking place
in indigenous community of Duano Tribe is
caused by inter-relation between ecological,
socio-cultural and political factors. The change in
Indragiri Estuary ecosystem taking place
naturally is worsen with developmental policy
oriented more to growth; therefore, it changes
Duano Tribe livelihood system. The change is
also encouraged by socio-cultural aspect
developed in the community level.
In addition, livelihood strategy of upper stratum
household is accumulation strategy. Livelihood
activity of this household is large scale blood
clam marketing, that it is buyed from some
pedagang pengumpul. This profession was called
tauke by local community. Tauke sell blood clam
for fulfill the demand of local market (village,
sub-province, and province) and demand of
neighboring province market (Kepulauan Riau
Province and Jambi Province). This household
stratum has left the consolidation phase and has
been quite stable and solid enough to enlarge the
economic capacity. Asset acquisition and
investment are Tauke’s household livelihood
strategy, i.e., investment on ship, land and
coconut plantation.
Menongkah is mainly livelihood activity that has
important role for all level Duano Tribe. This
livelihood activity always shipted into new
arrangement related to the change of rural coastal
so-so-ecological conditions. The effort of Duano
Tribe preserved menongkah has been done by
institutionalized and maintained it into all Duano
living aspect.
8
Table 2. Duano Livelihood Adjustment in Some Indonesian Regime of Natural Resources Control
Household Livelihood Strategy in some Indonesian Regime
Duano
Household
Pre Independency and
Beginning of Old Older
The End of Old Order and
New Order
“accessing aid program”
strategy (resettlement
program for remote
community)
2. Multiple employment
and labor power
spreading strategy
3. Patronage relationship
strategy (nelayan
penongkah-pedagang
pengumpul)
1.
Low
stratum
(The livelihood built was a
mutual arrangement in Batin
community level related to
production, distribution and
consumption. Strategy in all
household level was like
community level)
Reformation Order
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
The strategy has shifted
into an arrangement
related to human,
financial and social
capitals supporting
efforts to maintain
access to physical and
natural capitals
2. Consolidation strategy
(specially on expanding
ownership of boat)
3. Patronage relationship
strategy (pedagang
pengumpul-nelayan
penongkah- tauke)
4. Local cultural based
business strategy (wife
do menongkah activity
on the abundance of
blood calm season)
1.
Strategy to unify the
residence and fishing
fleet
2. Strategy to develop
technology based on the
characteristic of
migration fish
3. Strategy on limiting the
number of batin
community member and
the number of household
member
4. migrating together in one
batin community
1.
Middle
Stratum
5.
Upper
Stratum
Standardizing human
capital of all batin
community members and
strengthening social
capital in batin
community and building
network to outer
communities
Asset acquisition and
investment strategy
(especially on coconut
plantation).
2. Patronage relationship
strategy (taukepedagang pengumpul)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
9
“accessing aid program”
strategy (housing aid for
poverty household)
Multiple employment and
labor power spreading
strategy
Patronage relationship
strategy (nelayan
penongkah-pedagang
pengumpul)
Developing new
menongkah technique
(menongkah in the dark
condition)
The strategy has shifted
into an arrangement
related to security,
protection and restoration
of natural and physical
capital; therefore, the
community can access
and utilize it continuously
Consolidation strategy
(specially on expanding
ownership of boat)
Patronage relationship
strategy (-pedagang
pengumpul-nelayan
penongkah- tauke)
Local cultural based
business strategy (wife do
menongkah activity on the
abundance of blood calm
season
Participating on Duano
cultural event
(Menongkah Festival)
Asset acquisition and
investment strategy
(especially on shop
building).
Patronage relationship
strategy (tauke-pedagang
pengumpul-nelayan
penongkah)
“be a donor “ Strategy
(specially on cultural
events)
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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
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