Cities
of Vesuvius
POMPEII
&
HERCULANEUM
ETHICAL ISSUES:
STUDY & DISPLAY OF HUMAN
REMAINS
Cities of Vesuvius
Terms and Concepts
Anthropologist
Custodianship
A person who specialises in the science that deals with the
origins, physical and cultural development, biological
characteristics, and social customs and beliefs of humankind.
Someone who has custody(care); keeper; guardian. They can
be a person, country or organisation.
Disarticulated
To make or become disjointed
In situ
Situated in the original, natural or existing place or position
Repatriation
To return to one’s own country
Important contributors to Pompeii & Herculaneum’s excavation of Bodies
Dr Sara Bisel
Giuseppe Fiorelli (1860 – 1875)
Dr. Estelle Lazer
Amedeo Maiuri (1924 – 1961)
A physical anthropologist and classical archaeologist who
played a prominent role in early scientific research at
Herculaneum, pioneering work in the chemical and physical
analysis of skeletons yielded new insights into the nutrition
and health of ancient populations.
He was an Italian archaeologist who established the
meticulous method of studying archaeological sites layer by
layer. He also hit upon the innovation of pumping plaster into
the cavities left by the victims' bodies in the hardened lava,
thereby producing casts of the corpses' clothing and features
An archaeologist whose research has been on the skeletal
remains found at Pompeii.
Neapolitan archaeologist famous for his revolutionary
excavations at Pompeii and Herculaneum. Famously
excavated the ‘House of the Surgeon’
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Cities of Vesuvius
Roman Society – Pompeii & Herculaneum:
Ethical Remains: To display or not to display?
Archaeology is no different to other scientific fields
in having a responsibility to apply ethical principles
to the recovery, analysis and display of artefacts.
Two continuing contentious issues are the study
and display of human remains. Are skeletal remains
just like other artefacts after a period of time? Who
has custodianship and, therefore, responsibility for
human bones? How far can scientific specialists go
to analyse human remains? These issues are
relevant to the study of Pompeii and Herculaneum.
Here you can look at the issues and the
appropriateness of some solutions.
Source 1.10. The plaster cast of a Pompeian body on
display
The aspects of ethical issues for investigation are:
the study of human remains
the display of human remains.
In the nineteenth and for most of the twentieth century, it was
accepted practice in scientific circles to collect and study human
remains.
Museums and other collections had extensive collections, and
displays of bodies and skeletons in various states of preservation
were relatively common.
The keeping of skeletal material for scientific study has come under
scrutiny, often from indigenous groups seeking repatriation of the
bones of their ancestors.
Source 1.11 Crouching man body cast
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Cities of Vesuvius
Theatre of the Dead
During the late eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries it was common
Example : The House of Surgeon
practice for the excavators of Pompeii
This was ‘discovered’ three times for royal
and Herculaneum to put on displays for
visitors. When the Austrian Emperor, Joseph II,
visiting nobility and the general public.
visited a house named after him in 1768, a
Human remains were presented as being
skeleton previously discovered in the kitchen was
in situ, and were sometimes manipulated
‘excavated.’ The emperor was not so easily
or arranged to create a theatrical effect.
fooled and quickly recognised the deception.
Specific areas would be salted with
Source 1.11
artefacts, such as coins and statues, then
‘excavated’ from the volcanic deposits.
Skeletons were also used as props on these theatrical displays.
House of Menander: Creating drama from bones
Amedeo Maiuri adopted a similar approach in the House of Menander, which he excavated from 1926
to 1927.
Room 19
Two adult skeletons
Female juvenile skeleton
Hoe and a pick near the bodies
Holes in the southern and western
walls of Room 19.
Location
Corridor L
(Other side of west wall of Room
19)
10, mostly adult, skeletons
Buried in Levels 2.5m above ground
Appear to have collapsed on top of each
other
Bodies were so intertwined it was hard to
distinguish individuals
A large cylindrical bronze lantern in
association with the bodies.
Source 1.12 Table showing the items that Maiuri claimed to have found at the House of Menander
He stated that the skeletons from Room 19 were later removed and replaced with those found in
corridor L.
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Cities of Vesuvius
Think about it.....
How excited would you be if archaeologists made a discovery at an ancient site whilst you were there?
Would you tell other s to go along to?
Dr. Estelle Lazer examined the skeletons now in Room
19 and observed the following:

3 male skeletons
1 female skeleton
At least 3 individuals under the age of 5
She also found that a number of the skeletons, and
even the skulls, had been ‘constructed’. One skeleton
had two left thigh bones, and skull number 5 had been
creatively formed from pieces from several different
skulls, slabs of wet ash and a vertebra. It was probably
done after Maiuri’s time.
What does this mean?
This indicates that the skeletons from
corridor L had been moved into Room 19.

Most popular books on Pompeii presume that all bodies now located in Room 19 were originally
discovered there.
Interpretation
The bodies belonged to looters who had returned to Pompeii after the
eruption and had been killed by the poisonous fumes trapped in the ash.
This is an excellent example of a conscious attempt by some archaeologists to create a dramatic scene
that would appeal to visitors.
POMPEII
GIUSEPPE FIORELLI & THE PLASTER CASTS
The Italian archaeologist Fiorelli’s systematic excavation at Pompeii helped to preserve much of the ancient
city as nearly intact as possible and contributed significantly to modern archaeological methods.
The special and dramatic feature of Fiorelli’s excavations was his technique of making plaster casts of
the dead.
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Cities of Vesuvius
STEP ONE:
An interesting aspect of the human remains at Pompeii is that when the lava, ashes and pumice cooled
in the aftermath of the eruption, they solidified around the bodies.
STEP TWO:
Over time, the flesh and clothing decayed, leaving cavities in the solidified lava that bore the imprint
and the shape of every detail.
STEP THREE:
Fiorelli pumped liquid plaster into the cavities and left it to set;
STEP FOUR:
Then he chipped the lava away to reveal an accurate plaster cast of the body caught in the moment of
death.
Source 1.13 Stages showing Fiorelli’s techniques for making plaster casts
Today, archaeologists are continuing to excavate the remains of more victims and they are preserved
using the techniques developed by Fiorelli. Instead of plaster however, they are using epoxy resin.
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Cities of Vesuvius
HERCULANEUM
DR SARA BISEL & THE BONES
In June 1982, Dr Sara Bisel, an archaeologist and an anthropologist received an urgent request from
National Geographic to help with the study of bones excavated at Herculaneum.
Workers who had been digging a ditch on the beachfront at Herculaneum had uncovered ancient
skeletons in what had once been boatsheds.
It had been previously thought that the people at Herculaneum had escaped as no bodies like those at
Pompeii had been found and only 30 skeletons had ever been discovered.
SO......???????
It was rare that these skeletons were completely intact. The
Romans normally cremated their dead and so up until the
discovery of these skeletons experts had never had a chance
to study skeletal remains!!!
Dr. Bisel task was to help excavate the skeletons, then to preserve, reconstruct and study them.
Altogether there were:
139 skeletons in the Chambers
o 42 skeletons in one & a horse
o 25 People huddled together in a different chamber
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Cities of Vesuvius
Dr. Bisel gives names to some of the
skeletons that she examined:
Portia
A woman estimated to be approximately
40 years old and 155cm tall.
The Ring Lady
A woman, also in her forties, and wearing
rings, earrings, and two golden bracelets.
The Soldier
A male, 173cm tall, with his sword in his
belt, carpenter’s tools and three gold coins
in his money belt.
Sarah Bisel....On walking into the boat chamber for the first time
‘As I entered the cave-like boat chamber, I could barely see even
though the sun flooded through the door. Someone handed e a
flashlight, but its light cast greenish shadows making it feel even
more spooky.
The light played over the shelter, no bigger than a single garage
and still crusted over with volcanic rock. I saw an oddly shaped
mound halfway back. I took several steps into the chamber and
pointed the light at the mound.
The narrow beam found a skull, the pale face a grimace of death.
As my eyes grew accustomed to the dim light I soon realised there
were more bones and skulls everywhere. They were all tangled
together – clinging to each other in their final moments – and it
was hard to distinguish one from another. But I knew that 12
skeletons had been found in all – 3 men, 4 women and 5 children.
One child had an iron house key near him. Did he think he would
be going home?’
Source 1.14 Dr Sara Bisel’s report on entering the boathouse.
The Fisherman
Approximately 16 years old, with muscular shoulders from rowing and worn teeth from holding his
fishing net in his teeth while he repaired it.
Source 1.15 Bones discovered at Herculaneum
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Cities of Vesuvius
Ethics
Anyone dealing with archaeological human remains should consider the ethics associated with study &
display.

Ethics
The systematic reflection on moral issues
Morals
Concerned with the correct conduct and are based on the perception of what is
right or wrong
Source 1.16 Brennan & Lazer

So what’s the problem???
Determining what is actually right or wrong. Attitudes vary between cultures and can change
over time. It is also possible for a cultural group to alter accepted opinions over a short period of
time. Also, there may be a number of opinions within one cultural group as to what is right or
wrong about a particular issue.
That particular issue is the study of human remains from archaeological contexts. There is no correct
answer when it comes to determining what should be done. We can only determine what the best
course of action is on a case by case basis.
A global Perspective
We cannot look at these issues in isolation. In order to understand the ethical considerations that
relate to the human remains from Pompeii and Herculaneum, it is necessary to look at the issues
relating to human remains on a more global perspective.
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Cities of Vesuvius
Tradition until the mid 20th Century
Tradition of collecting, studying and displaying human remains, often without consent, that continued
in Western society well into the 20th Century.
Racial Supremacy
Studies of skeletons in the past were often made to prove theories of racial supremacy.
Tradition in the latter half of the 20th Century
Increase in pressure by various groups of people around the world to have remains returned, often for
reburial. E.G Indigenous Australian communities want the remains of their ancestors returned for
reburial in their country.
Guidelines and Codes of Ethics
These help scholars to address the difficult issues associated with the ethics of dealing with human
remains.
Who created them:
Various professional Associations of Archaeologists
Individual Universities
Mostly involve considerations of indigenous people.
Shift in attitude over the last 20 years.
Much more interest in dealing with the remains of other cultures in a more sensitive manner.
There is a flow on effect from the need to address the wishes of traditional communities.
Resulted in the development of guidelines for dealing with European remains and cemeteries.
Yay!
Australia is a leader in this field!!!! In 1982 the Council of
Australian Museum Directors passed a resolution that human
remains would not be displayed in public.
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Cities of Vesuvius
Modern Example...In the United Kingdom
English Heritage has just produced guidelines for the reburial of Christian
bones from archaeological contexts
Source 1.17
2005 – Major
conference in
London, Law and
Ethics of the
Historical display of
Human Remains,
attracted speakers
from a range of
European countries.
Source 1.18
International Council of Museums (ICOM) Code of Ethics for Museums 2004
3.
Exhibition of Sensitive Materials
Human remains and materials of sacred significance must be displayed in a manner
consistent with professional standards and, where known, taking into account the
interests and beliefs of members of the community, ethnic or religious groups from
whom the objects originated. They must be presented with great tact and respect for the
feelings of human dignity held by all peoples.
4.4
Removal from public display
Requests from removal of public display of human remains or material of sacred
significance from the originating communities must be addressed expeditiously
with respect and sensitivity. Requests for the return of such material should be
addressed similarly. Museum policies should clearly define the process for
responding to such requests.
Source 1.19
Give me your opinion
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Should human remains be displayed to the general public?
How do human remains help us understand the past?
Could this understanding be achieved in any other way?
Is there any difference between displaying plaster casts of human bodies and skeletons?
What is the difference between displaying the remains of people from Pompeii and
Herculaneum and displaying the remains of more recent victims of disasters such as the Haiti
Earthquake?
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Cities of Vesuvius
Human Remains – Pompeii & Herculaneum
Since the commencement of excavation of the Vesuvian site in the 18 th Century, human remains have
been viewed, firstly as objects for display and secondly as resources for research.
Pompeii
Herculaneum
Bodies discovered from first excavations in 1748
Bodies discovered 1982 onwards
Attitudes to human rights remains still had NOT
Attitudes to human rights developed
developed
Actual forms of bodies in Pompeii are preserved
Only skeletons preserved
Remains were used to illustrate the gruesome
Remains were used research
manner in which the victims were killed
Pompeii
Unique type of preservation has made the individual victims more accessible to visitors to Pompeii,
and the casts of people have been one of the main attractions to this site since the 19 th Century.
Skeletons and casts have been displayed in Pompeii, wither in the houses in which they were found or
in other protected buildings. Some human remains have been displayed in museums and most
recently in travelling exhibitions.
Herculaneum
The discoveries in boathouse and on the beachfront raised a number of issues regarding research and
display.
Sara Bisel was worried about what to do once the skeletons had been exposed.
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Cities of Vesuvius
Problem...
Should the bones be rearticulated and posed
as they were found in a re-created setting, as is
museum practice around the world?
OR
Should they be taken away and stored
appropriately?
Evidence
Solution!?
Use casts! Casting techniques are used to
create replicas of human remains, which
can be displayed on site in the location that
the skeletons were found. This means that
the original material can be studied and
stored appropriately. It also means that the
forms of the skeletons rather than the
actual remains are displayed.
Casts have been made from a number of bones found at
the beachfront in Herculaneum.
Think about it....
We might question why we would treat a dead body from a modern catastrophe, such as the Haiti
Earthquake differently from some of the bodies at from Pompeii and Herculaneum. We would not
expect to see the remains of these people on display or view photographs of their dead bodies. Even if
there was a scientific interest in the cause of these deaths during a volcanic eruption, it would
currently be considered unethical to permit public viewing of any kind.
Why then is it acceptable to allow the display and photography of the dead from Pompeii and
Herculaneum?
How might you justify this practice on educational or scientific grounds?
Does this issue only concern respect for the dead or does it also encompass distress to living
groups or individuals who claim some cultural or genetic association with the deceased, that is,
the stakeholders?
Is the elapse of considerable time also an important factor in our attitude to the dead?
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Cities of Vesuvius
Display of human remains
In the 19th and 20th Centuries, the collection of skulls and other remains of indigenous peoples was
justified by reference to the needs of scientific study. However, in recent years, museums in various
countries have been under pressure for the return of human remains to the communities to which
these skeletons belonged. Some people like indigenous Australians, consider that it is unacceptable to
display the remains of ancestors to the public.
Our heightened awareness has led to reassessment of how we treat the remains of dead people from
other countries. For example, there has been much discussion in recent years about whether the
remains of ancient peoples who have been removed from tombs, should be displayed, as they were
clearly meant to spend eternity in their resting places.
This same consideration is given to the remains of ancient
European people.
New Technology!
Allows holographic displays of
these people rather than placing
actual bodies on view. Source 1.21
Example
Tollund Man
Found in a peat bog, only his head
was conserved and displayed.
Source 1.20
An Important Note!
Not all cultures consider the display of
human remains to be offensive.
The Capuchin Monks – Italy
Italy as the custodians of the human remains from the sites
associated with the AD79 eruption, display human remains in
a religious context.
The disarticulated remains of 4000 brothers who died
between 1528 and 1870 are displayed in an ossuary (bone
house) in the crypt of the church of Santa Maria della
Source 1.23 Crypt of the church of Santa
Maria della Concezione in Rome.
Concezione in Rome. The bones have been arranged to form
decorative patterns. Signs explain the philosophical purpose of
the display. One reads: ‘What you are now, we once were;
what we are now, you will be.’
Source 1.22
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Cities of Vesuvius
Recent Cases – Human Remains
As population grows, more space is required. Cemeteries must be occasionally relocated to meet the
needs of industry and growing populations. Indeed, in some highly populated countries, cemeteries
are considered only temporary.
SYDNEY CEMETERY RELOCATIONS
Under Town Hall
Near Central Station
Randwick Destitute Children’s Asylum
Mining Town at Cadia – Central Western
NSW
Source 1.24 Mortuary Station Cemetery
These two cemeteries
population expanded.
were
relocated
as
Source 1.25 Excavation at Town Hall Cemetery
Sometimes the need to move cemeteries can highlight problems between different groups within a
community. A good example is seen in the case of the African American slave cemetery, dating to the
colonial period in New York. The cemetery was discovered during the construction of a federal office
tower in Lower Manhattan in 1991. The cemetery had been closed in 1794 and the modern African
American population did not wish to have their ancestors moved. Eventually 400 skeletons were
excavated and studied. Though a number of people were initially opposed to the excavation of the
bones, the study provided an opportunity to learn more about the lives of enslaved African Americans
in the 18th Century. It was considered important for this study to be conducted by African American
scholars. The bodies were re-interred in 2003.
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Cities of Vesuvius
Town Hall dig yields secrets
Wendy Frew Urban Affairs Editor
January 15, 2008
IT'S not quite CSI but an archaeological excavation under way at Sydney Town Hall could solve some
of the mysteries that lie beneath one of the city's most important buildings.
After a preliminary investigation in August, archaeologists have begun excavating what is left of one of
Sydney's first cemeteries, as part of a restoration of the Town Hall. A team headed by Dr Mary Casey
and Tony Lowe has found human remains, including a leg bone, in two of seven graves they expect to
hold bone fragments.
If the bones are in good condition, testing could reveal the sex, approximate age and possibly ethnicity
of these early Sydneysiders. Tests might even be able to reveal details of the lives they led.
"For example, if any of the dead were convicts who had done hard labour you might be able to see the
stress in their bones," Dr Casey said.
"It is a really important site and it would be our preference to leave it there but we need to keep using
the Town Hall."
The excavation will create space for plant and equipment required for the building to meet modern fire
safety standards. The public will be allowed to view the diggings during an open day on January 22.
Dr Casey said the preliminary investigation had identified 53 potential grave sites but most were
expected to be empty. Anything found will be recorded.
"In 39 of the graves there was some evidence of coffins but in the majority of cases the lids had been
removed, suggesting the graves have already been exhumed," she said. "Any bone fragments found in
these graves could possibly be the result of an incomplete exhumation process conducted during the
1880s, when the hall was built."
The principal cemetery for Sydney town from 1793 to 1820 was bounded by George, Druitt, Bathurst
and Kent streets. Government records show about 2000 bodies - including those of convicts, soldiers
and free settlers - were interred there.
This story was found at: http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2008/01/14/1200159363460.html
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Cities of Vesuvius
Back to Pompeii & Herculaneum
In Pompeii and Herculaneum, there is still much work that needs to be done on the human remains.
One argument for continued access rests on the need for the replication of scientific studies and the
possibility of future advances in technology that will enable the extraction of new information from
these bones.
According to...Brennan & Lazer
‘To date, the study and display of human remains from Pompeii and
Herculaneum has not been an issue that has generated any level of discussion or
controversy. As attitudes towards treatment of the dead change in many
countries, it is only a matter of time before this becomes an issue from the
human remains from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.’
Source 1.26
Q.What problems did you encounter when studying the human bones?
A.The human skeletal remains were not appreciated as a valuable scientific resource until the
latter part of the twentieth century. While they had been stored, they had not been adequately
curated and as a result had become disarticulated. This meant that I had to design a research
project to accommodate the limitations of the material.
The bones were stored in unoccupied ancient buildings in Pompeii with other uncatalogued
artefacts. These bones had to be studied in situ with no laboratory facilities, or even tables or
adequate light. I had to be locked in with them as these stores also contained precious finds, like
portions of marble statues. Only three custodians had security clearance to handle the keys to
these buildings. Occasionally the morning custodian forgot to tell the afternoon one about my
location when they changed shifts. This meant I had to suffer many hours of incarceration. They
were invariably quite apologetic when I was eventually liberated. Although I worked alone I had
many companions as these buildings also housed their own ecosystems. These included bats,
rodents of various kinds, snakes, insects, lizards and birds who found empty skulls to be
convenient nesting places.
Source 1.27 An interview with Dr. Estelle Lazer
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Cities of Vesuvius
Considerations...
Is it disrespectful to display human remains at Pompeii and Herculaneum, or in a museum?
Is it less disrespectful to have the casts of the human victims on display?
Should the skeletons be given a proper burial?
What sort of burial; Christian etc?
Where would they be buried?
Are they being treated as nothing more than curiosities?
Is it no longer an issue because they have been dead for such a long time?
Should the casts and skeletons of animals be on display?
Should bones be seen solely as artefacts that provide valuable information?
What is the most appropriate way to store and display human remains?
Should archaeologists have the freedom to pursue knowledge and scientific enquiry without political
pressures and legal constraints?
Who should have custodianship over human remains?
Questions
1. Why were Pompeian bones displayed in the past? Is it respectful to continue to do
this? Are the bones important to our understanding of the site?
2. Is there a difference between a holographic display of human remains and the actual
remains of a human being on display? Which is better and why?

Think About it...
How would you feel if a team of archaeologists were to dig up and study the remains of your
family members? What would be your reaction to research on your great grandparents as
compared to a study on your parents or siblings?

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