LITERARY FORMS ENCOUNTERED IN LUKE’S GOSPEL
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The form or type of texts influences the way we interpret them. ‘Why did the
chicken cross the road?’ is usually recognized as a joke and is then interpreted as a
joke, that is, it is understood that the answer is meant to be funny; however, if you
didn’t identify it as a joke, you might delve into the psychology of chickens to find
out why the chicken did cross the road, or you might want to examine the geography
or history of the scene to establish the answer.
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The same thing applies to other texts. We need to decipher what kind of text it is so we
know how to interpret it (and therefore find more reliable meaning/s).
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Looking at the type or form of a text allow us find patterns and meaning/s within that
text.
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Looking at the type or form of a text often includes examining how, when, where and for
whom the text was originally written.
There are different literary styles and devices that are found in the Gospels.
Allegory
The description of one thing under the guise of another that is suggestively similar, e.g. the parable of
the sower and its interpretation.
Alliteration
The close repetition of the same letter at the beginning of words.
Announcement Stories
A literary form, found mainly in the Old Testament, used when some important announcement such
as the annunciation of the birth of a child, is made to a believer. The usual elements are:
Appearance of an angel (or the Lord himself)
Fear response of person
The divine message:
person addressed by name
qualifying phrase describing person
person urged not to be afraid
woman is to have a child
name by which child is to be called
phrase interpreting the name
future accomplishments of the child
Objection of the person.
A sign to reassure the person.
The elements are not always found in this order, nor do individual stories always have all the
elements.
Sometimes these stories are called commissioning stories and are said to have the characteristics
of:
 confrontation where a divine representative or person issues an authoritative commission to
someone in the story.
 Commission which makes the recipient an agent or a higher authority and
 Reassurance is designed to eliminate any remaining resistance from the person being
commissioned.
 Other features which are sometimes present are an introduction, a reaction to the confrontation,
a protest to the commission and a conclusion. (Bailey and Vander Broek, 145,146)
The value of such a form is:
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To understand the primary intent to commission someone to carry out a divinely-instigated task.
The person is given God’s authority to do their job. The announcement becomes John’s
commissioning but there is a further commissioning for Jesus.
Underlines the importance of the announcement.
Provides the setting for a response of faith
In chapter 1 is used to tell us who John and Jesus are – the identity of the babies.
Also used in chapter 1 to tell us of the piety of John and Mary.
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Provides a link with the OT.
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Divine annunciations of the birth of significant individuals follow a standard form.
John the Baptist ~
20
Luke 1:8-
Jesus ~
Luke 1:25-37
Appearance of an angel
Fear expressed by the person
The divine message:
The person is addressed by
name
A qualifying phrase describes
this person
Person urged not to be afraid
Women said to be with child
She will give birth to a (male)
child
Name child to be called is given
The significance of the name is
given
Future of the child is foretold
Objection to the message
Sign given
Aphorism
An aphorism is a short statement that is like a proverb. The difference is that a proverb is general
whereas an aphorism is attributed to a particular person. An example: “the ballot is stronger than the
bullet”, said by Abraham Lincoln, 19/5/1856)
Call Stories
The pathway to discipleship invariably starts with a call. In most accounts the story is presented in a
stereotype form as follows:
Jesus passes by;
he sees somebody;
a more detailed account is given of the person’s occupation;
the call comes, “follow me”;
the person leaves all;
the person “goes after” Jesus or is “with Him” or “follows Him”.
This literary construction has its parallels in the Old Testament, e.g. the call of Elisha (1 Kings 19:1921), Amos (Amos 7:15), Abraham (Gen 12) and David (1 Samuel 16:17-21).
It was common in the Greco-Roman world for people to choose their teacher according to good
reports or interests. By contrast the disciples of Jesus respond to His call.
Chiasm
“A chiastic form can appear in poetry or prose and can include a single verse, an entire passage, or a
more extended section. In a short sentence, a chiasm normally has four terms or members wherein
the first is paralleled by the fourth and the second by the third. … chiasms as single verses can be
readily recognized but more complex ones are less apparent to most readers or hearers because the
chiastic structure is often dependent on similarities in content as well as in language and form”.
(Bailey and Vander Broek, 178)
You might like to have a think about the following suggested chiasm in Luke 1:6-25.
A
Godliness of Zechariah and Elizabeth, v6.
B Elizabeth barren, v7.
C Zechariah’s priestly service, v8.
D Zechariah enters the Temple, v9.
E The people outside, v10.
F Angel standing, v11.
G Zechariah’s fear, v12.
H The annunciation, v13-17.
G’ Zechariah’s doubt, v18.
F’ Angel who stands, v19,20.
E’ The people outside, v21.
D’ Zechariah exits from the Temple, v22.
C’ Zechariah’s priestly service, v23.
B’ Elizabeth pregnant, v24.
A’ God’s favour on Elizabeth and Zechariah, v25.
Such a structure emphasizes balance and inversion as well as focuses on the central verse or verses
as the important turning point in the events.
Summary:
 Taken form the design of the Greek Chi (Χ)
 A chiasm consists of a series of two or more elements which are then mirrored by
corresponding elements in reverse order.
 Can include a single verse, an entire passage, or a more extended section.
 The important point is found in the middle (marked below with D)
A. He stood up to read,
B. and the scroll of the prophet Isaiah was given to him.
C. He unrolled the scroll and found the place where it was written:
D. ‘The Spirit of the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me
Important
point
to bring good news to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the
captives And recovery of sight to the blind, To let the oppressed go free, to
proclaim the year of the Lord’s favour.’
C1. And he rolled up the scroll,
B1. gave it back to the attendant, and
A1. sat down.
COMMISSIONING NARRATIVE
(C H Talbert, Discipleship in Lk-Acts)
1. an introduction describing the circumstances
2. the confrontation between the commissioner & the one to be commissioned
3. the commission, in which the recipient is told to undertake a specific task
4. a protest in which the person questions in some way the word of the commissioner
5. a reaction of fear, amazement, unworthiness in the presence of the august commissioner
6. reassurance to the individual, providing confidence & allaying misgivings
7. the conclusion, usually involving the beginning of the commissioned one’s undertaking the
assignment
Direct Speech
Spoken words are reported directly. The opposite of indirect speech.
Dramatic irony
Putting into a speaker’s mouth words which have for the audience a meaning not intended by the
speaker.
Ephiphany
A few stories concentrate on a divine manifestation of Jesus and describe the strong reactions that
these epiphanies evoke in those who witness them. (Bailey, 138)
Figurative
Figurative language includes metaphor, simile and personification it is the opposite of literal.
Genealogy
In its simplest form a genealogy is a list or narrative that traces a line of descent from an ancestor or
ancestors for a person or group. There is one in Luke 3:23-38. In first century Palestine there was a
concern for ancestral purity and there is some evidence of Rabbinic speculation about the precise
ancestry of the Messiah.
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A list that traces a line of descent from an ancestor or ancestors for a person or group.
In Bible always patrilineal.
Served important purposes: Establish kinship or other claims about ancestry.
Gospel
The word Gospel can refer to the oral proclamation of the saving significance of Jesus’ crucifixion
and resurrection. It is also used by Mark (1:1) of his narrative about Jesus.
Three particular kinds of ancient literature offer possible parallels to the Gospels.
 The ‘acts’. Books about great historical figures and their deeds. But the Gospels contain more
teaching and fewer exploits of a political and military kind than would be expected in such a book.
Jesus was probably too doubtful and obscure a figure for such a book.
 The ‘memoirs’. Collections of individual stories about, or sayings of, a famous person. But most of
the action in the Gospels and the account of the death of Jesus would probably mean that ancient
readers would have considered it stretching the boundaries to include them as ‘memoirs’.
 The ‘lives’ of the ancient world. The Gospels lack the full coverage expected in a modern
biography (they say little about Jesus’ childhood and upbringing, they focus mainly on the three
years of his public ministry and mainly on the last period and they don’t tell us much about his
psychological and personal development) but many regard them as examples of these ancient
‘lives’.
Other scholars argue that the Gospels represent a new literary genre.
“A Gospel is a narrative, fashioned out of selected traditions, that focuses on the activity and speech
of Jesus as a way to reveal his character and develops a dramatic plot that culminates in the stories
of his passion and resurrection. This multifaceted narrative about Jesus relates to the larger
framework of biblical history, because the life of Jesus not only emerges from that history but also
transforms and transcends it.” (Bailey and Vander Broek, 91)
Maybe the gospels are a mixed genre. “In summary then, it must be said that the Gospels offer us
richly textured and multifaceted literary works that exhibit biographical interest in the figure of Jesus
but do so within the context of biblical history. In particular, the synoptic Gospels develop a narrative
pattern that creatively adapts literary and rhetorical forms and motifs used in Jewish and Hellenistic
literary traditions. All the Gospels obviously focus on the identity and significance of Jesus, presenting
him as a paradigmatic figure whose actions and words represent his character and possess immense
import for his followers.” (Bailey and Vander Broek, 92).
“If … the gospels exhibit traits shared by Hellenistic biographies, we would expect a stress on actions
and sayings as revealing Jesus’ character, which would then become a pattern for his disciples to
copy.” (Bailey and Vander Broek, 96)
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Old English godspel (god = good, spel = news)
‘gospel’ is the translation of the Greek word euangelion ()
In Mark (1:1) it is used to designate the entire narrative about Jesus.
Gospel has become the generic designation for all narratives about Jesus Christ.
Hymn
A hymn is a song of praise to God. A hymn expresses the feeling of the heart. It can also be a
communal expression.
Luke includes some obvious examples of hymns.
 The song of Mary, 1:46-55
 The prophecy of Zechariah, 1:68-79
 The song of the angels, 2:13,14
 The song of Simeon, 2:29-32
These “are best understood in light of the psalms of praise in the Hebrew tradition (Ps 33, 47, 48, 113,
117, 135, 136). Hymns in the Hebrew tradition exhibit the characteristics of poetry: figurative language
with vivid images and various patterns of rhythm and repetition. Most characteristic in Hebrew poetry
is parallelism, the practice of paralleling a second line to reinforce or reverse the meaning of the first
line.” (Bailey and Vander Broek, 162). A couplet is two consecutive lines of verse rhyming together,
usually in the same metre.
Synonymous parallelism:
Antithetical parallelism:
Synthetic parallelism:
A couplet in which each line expresses the same idea in different terms.
A couplet in which the idea expressed in the second line is in contrast
with that expressed in the first.
the second line completes or expands the meaning of the first one.
There is often an interplay between a narrative and a poem or hymn included in it. The poetry often
expresses explicitly what is implicit in the narrative.
“Lastly, hymns use poetic language of worship. It is not a linguistic world of explanation but one of
exaltation; not of practical reason, but of lament and praise. Even an interpreter only remotely aware
of the potential of worship will appreciate the use of hymns by the church as a daring act of worship
that shatters conventional patterns of viewing the world.” (Bailey and Vander Broek, 165)
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Hymns most certainly function as creeds or theological confessions
May have been used in worship
Largely poetry
Imagery
Poets use imagery to describe and to make us see and hear the thing itself. It is the use of words to
make a picture.
Infancy Narratives
“Overall, when reading the Infancy Narratives, one should bear in mind that both evangelists use
them as overtures to their Gospels, that is, they introduce themes that will be repeated over and over
again in the Gospel proper. … In Luke’s narrative, in addition to the theme of Jesus’ identity as an
agent of god’s salvation history, we have the following themes: the journey; universal salvation; the
simple and poor. Mary the first believer; missionary discipleship; and Jesus and the Temple”. (Goosen
and Tomlinson, 93).
The infancy narratives function as a preface to the Gospel and make the identity of Jesus clear to the
audience from the outset.
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An infancy narrative is the story of someone from their infancy, when they were a baby and
growing up.
It tells of the significant milestones and events.
Biblical infancy narratives not necessarily factual
Establish theological or Christological beliefs
Judgment Sayings
Short sayings that declare what will happen if a person does not follow Jesus’ teaching.
Miracles Stories
“The broadest definition of miracle story included any narrative that contains a description of a
miraculous event” (Bailey, 137) Hence can include the transfiguration and the conception of John and
Jesus.
In the popular use of the word a miracle is some event that disregards the laws of nature. In the bible
God is the God of all creation and all of history. At times his direction of this creation is more
extraordinary than at other times. “The biblical concept of miracle is that of a sign of the intervening
action of God, rather than the scientific concept of something that happens contrary to nature.”
(Goosen and Tomlinson, 139). The miracles of Jesus are God’s extraordinary intervention in nature
and events through Jesus. They are a manifestation of God’s power working in and through Jesus.
Four kinds of miracle stories
1. exorcism stories
2. healing stories
3. resuscitations
4. nature miracles.
) sometimes these two are not
) easily distinguished.
Healings and Exorcisms: Stories where Jesus either heals someone of an illness or casts out the
devil. They often follow a very similar pattern:
Setting: a description of the person and thee illness.
Cure: the method used to cure; the cure performed.
Acclamation: the people attest the cure and express praise of God etc.
Exorcisms often follow a set pattern:
1. The demon recognises the exorcist and puts up a struggle.
2. The exorcist utters a threat or command.
3. The demon departs, making a scene.
4. The spectator’s reaction is recorded. (Fitzmeyer I, 542)
In an exorcism “struggle is central. The destructive activity of the demon might be depicted, yet in the
presence of Jesus the demoniac becomes defensive and conciliatory. Jesus is in the commanding
position; he expels the demon with a word.” (Bailey, 137)
Nature Miracles: These show Jesus’ power over the forces of creation.
Meaning of miracles: The miracles are to be understood at two levels.
The sense level: What people saw, heard and touched.
The sign level: What faith discerns.
Signs of the Kingdom. “On the faith level, the miracles are a sign of god’s action through
Jesus to save us, make us complete, whole, so that we will be free of Satan’s reign,
and enter into the Kingdom of God, a journey begun here and fully realized at death.”
(Goosen and Tomlinson, 141). At times the miracles raise questions of Jesus’
identity. In a conflict situation a healing stands as a confirmation of Jesus’ argument
(Bailey, p138)
Miracles of Jesus generally required some faith in the people who surrounded him.
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Any narrative (story) that contains a description of a miraculous event
Could be an exorcism, a controversy story containing a miracle, a healing as response to a
plea for help, a gift miracle (feeding 5000), a rescue story, or an epiphany (shows
divine manifestation of Jesus - eg miraculous catch of fish Lk 5:1-11).
Myth
Describes transcendent reality in historical terms, e.g. Luke 4:1-13.
Parables
Parables make up about a third of the gospels. The word comes from a Hebrew word meaning ‘be
like’. It was a broad term used for any verbal image from a figurative saying or a proverb to a long
involved parable or apocalyptic prediction.
“A metaphor or simile drawn from nature or common life, arresting the hearer by its vividness or
strangeness, and leaving the mind insufficient doubt about its precise application to tease it into active
thought.” (CH Dodd, quoted in ISBE, vol 3, p657). The metaphor or simile is often extended to a short
narrative.
Jesus used the parabolic form of speech to illustrate and clarify the nature of the Kingdom of God.
(ISBE, vol 3, 657)
There are five important characteristics that identify it as a literary form and contribute to its success.
Introduction:
Often gives an indication of the setting and the purpose for the parable and
can contain clues about the meaning of the parable.
Repetition:
Look for the repetition of words and expressions.
Contrast:
Opposites and contrasts help to throw elements of a story into sharp relief.
Folkloric Threesome:Stories and jokes often feature groups of three. Three Little Hens, Three
Blind Mice, goldilocks and the Three Bears, Little Red Riding Hood and the
three sisters in Cinderella. Look for groups of three character, incidents or
events that could be examples of this.
The Rule of End Stress:Look for some emphasis, climax or concentration of attention directed
to the last character in the series.
Exploring the meaning of a parable
“The view today is that many items in the parables are there merely to make the story
interesting or more vivid. As a rule the parable presents one or two main points of comparison.
The lesson of the parable must be sought in the very specific terms of Jesus’ own historical
situation and eschatological message. Secondly where the parable concerns a course of action
to be taken, we must pass a judgment on the situation depicted. Who was the neighbor to the
man who fell among thieves? (Lk 10:36) Which of the two sons obeyed his father? (Mat 21:31).
Having passed judgment we ourselves are often encouraged to “go and do likewise”.
A parable then is designed to make people use their intelligence and imagination and by so
doing serve as a spur to spiritual perception and a practical response. Jesus used parables in
his preaching to sharpen our understanding and present truth in a vivid and memorable way.”
(Goosen and Tomlinson, 123).
Grouping parables
There have been different suggestions as to how parables can be grouped. One suggestion is:
Parables of Advent:
Develop the theme of a new time and history for those who will look
and search.
Parables of Reversal:
Conventional expectations are toppled or traditional worldviews are
turned upside down by a sudden new insight or illumination, e.g. the
Good Samaritan.
Parables of Action:
Depict crucial or critical situation which demand a prompt decision
and firm and resolute action. In some cases the decision is taken, in
others it isn’t, and in some cases the main character succumbs under
the pressure of the crisis.
Interpreting parables
Here is a suggested practical aid when interpreting a parable:
1. Write down the story in simple language and as far as possible, in its non-allegorical
form.
2. Analyze the parable according to:
a. Exegesis: Go to any standard commentary and read the comments relevant to
the parable.
b. Literary Criticism:
 Analyze the story using the four characteristics of repetition, contrast,
folkloric threesome and end stress.
 Consider the structure of the story and its plot.
 What is the introduction to the story?
 What events occur that develop the plot?
 What is the turning point in the story?
 Is there a resolution to the story?
 Who is the protagonist?
c. Other Disciplines:
Does history, archeology or psychology help us to understand the parable?
Bible dictionaries and Commentaries are helpful in filling in this background.
3. Interpret the Parable. Attempt to state the meaning of the original story in terms of the
Kingdom of God in one or two sentences.
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A short allegorical story, designed to convey some truth or moral lesson.
A story, metaphor, or simile drawn from ordinary life or nature and often used by Jesus to
make a religious point.
They are not meant to be simply pleasant or polite stories, they are meant to challenge
the hearer.
Parables are imaginary/fictional, and therefore not literal - 'any resemblance to persons
living or dead is purely coincidental'.
A parable works because it invites the audience to actively participate in it – that is, to
apply the scenario to their own lives.
Make yourself familiar with the parables in Luke:
New cloth on an old coat 5:36f, New wine in old wineskins 5:37f, Wise and foolish builders 6:47f, Moneylender 7:41f, The Sower 8:5f,
Lamp under a bowl 8.16 & 11:33, Good Sam 10:30f, Friend in need 11:5f, Faithful and wise servant 12:42, Watchful servants 12:35f,
Passion
Narratives
Rich
fool 12:16f,
Unfruitful fig tree 13:6f, The mustard seed 13:18f, Yeast 13:20f, Lowest seat at the feast 14:7-14, Great banquet
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Prologue
The preface or introduction to a discourse or performance.
Pronouncement story
“Stories from the life of a wise person which culminate in a striking saying. The story framework is
usually simple, brief and lacking in biographical detail. Such stories were very popular in ancient world
cultures, including the world of the New Testament with its stories of Jesus.” (Goosen and Tomlinson,
54).
A brief story about Jesus that culminates in a short, striking saying (and possibly an action) and
reveals something of his character and facility in repartee when challenged by others. Both the
specific situation described and the response it prompts, normally by Jesus, are indispensable to this
type of story.” (Bailey and Vander Broek, 114)
Six different types:
1. correction stories: the story ends when the main character corrects one or more individuals.
2. commendation stories: the story ends with the main character commending one or more
individuals, Luke 10:17-20.
3. objection stories: an objection calls forth the response from the main character.
4. quest stories: a secondary person’s success or failure in a quest of something important to
human well-being has prominence alongside the main character’s response.
5. inquiry stories: thee story ends with a response by thee main character to an inquiry, Luke
3:10-14.
6. description stories: the story ends with a description of the situation by the main character,
Luke 14:!5-24.
Proverbs
A short familiar saying expressing a truth or a moral lesson. They are generally known to people. A
concise and pithy observation or statement of a truth or doctrine.
Repetition
Sets up a tide of expectation, helps to give unity to a work of art.
Rhetorical Speech
Here we are concerned to trace the argument that a particular passage of Scripture uses to persuade
the audience. The following example is based on Luke 12:22-31 and is taken from Bailey and Vander
Broek, 131,132.
Proposition:
Reason:
Analogy:
v24.
Example:
Analogy:
Paradigm:
Analogy:
v28.
Conclusion:
Example:
Exhortation:
One should not worry about life (food) or body (clothing), v22.
Lie is more than food, and the body is more than clothing, v23.
Ravens do not work for food: God provides for them. You are worth more than birds,
No one can add a cubit to life by worry, v25,26.
Lilies do not work, yet are ‘clothed’, v27.
Solomon was not so arrayed, v27.
Notice the grass that is burned. If God clothes it, how much more will he clothe you?,
You should not seek food (or worry), v29.
All the nations do that, v30.
Seek instead the reign of God, and all the rest will be added to you, v31.
“A pattern practiced in Hellenistic rhetoric is evident. The argument begins with a proposition or
theses in v22 and then immediately offers the reason in v23 (signalled by the ‘for’). Support for the
proposition assumes the form of analogy (from the world of nature), example (from the social world of
human interaction), and paradigm (an example of a historical personage). The analogies (v24,28) are
based on reasoning ‘from the lesser to the greater’ (human beings are more than ravens or lilies),
whereas the final exhortation in v31 moves ‘from the greater to the lesser’ (concern for the kingdom
takes precedence over all else in life). The passage as a whole develops the following rhetorical
syllogism: Lie is more than food and clothing (major premise); God will provide for human needs
(minor premise); therefore, there is no reason for humans to worry (conclusion). Also, according to
Mack, the imperative in the passage reveal a stress on the authority of Jesus as teacher (ethos) and
underline the audience’s need to accept his teaching (pathos).”
A consideration of the rhetorical form helps us to identify the major point of the argument.
Short Sayings
These are short sayings that have no story framework. Some are in the form of a proverb and others
are judgment sayings.
Simile
A simile makes an imaginative comparison for purposes of explanation, allusion, or ornament,
introduced by a word such as ‘like’, ‘as’, or ‘such’. It can be simple and brief or long and sustained in
which case it is known as an epic simile. An example, “my heart is singing like a bird”.
Stories about Jesus
These are stories that don’t have the identifiable features of other types of stories. They do have the
features of a brief narrative: the development of a plot in response to some deficit or need, the
development of characters, Jesus is the hero of such stories. Many of these depict this ministry of
Jesus, concentrating on his identity and mission, some including mythical language and others an
oracle that recognises who he was.
SUMMARY TABLE PREPARED BY THE CLASS OF 2004
Literary form
Description
Aphorism
A proverb whose author we know
Apocalyptic
Makes use of vivid imagery to
discuss the Last Days and show
how the redemption of the world
will proceed.
Call story
A story of Jesus or God calling
someone to some action.
Chiasm
A stepped pairing of ideas. If
there are four terms the first will
be paralleled by the fourth and the
second by the third.
Epiphany or
Angelophany
Stories of a divine messenger
appearing with glory to humans.
Often such stories include an
introduction, confrontation,
reaction, commission, protest and
reassurance.
A speech intended to strongly and
earnestly urge a course of action.
Exhortation
Genealogy
List of a person’s ancestors
Hymn
Hymns are modeled on the
psalms of the Old Testament.
They include figurative language,
vivid images and various patterns
of rhythm and repetition.
Exaggerated statement not meant
to be taken literally.
The use of words with humor or
satire so that the meaning is the
direct opposite of what is actually
said. It implies the simulated
adoption of another’s point of view
for the purpose of ridicule and
sarcasm.
Hyperbole
Irony
How does it contribute to the
passage?
As for parable
Graphically describes the fate of
those who will suffer and the
blessings of those who will be
saved so as to prompt
repentance and to foster the
hope of believers in God’s
ultimate victory.
The similarity to Old Testament
call stories emphasizes the
continuity with the Old
Testament. Reminds that the
call has come from God and so
is important and to be taken
seriously.
Emphasizes balance and
inversion as well as focusing on
the central verse of verses as
the important turning point in the
events.
Capture the attention of the
hearers, give authority to the
message and give observers
insight into the nature of Jesus
as the glorious Son of God.
Used by John the Baptist and
Jesus to urge people to
undertake a particular course of
action, e.g. to repent.
Important to establish the
person’s identity and their place
in the Jewish nation.
Used to express joy, praise and
worship of God. The expression
of ideas in them lends itself to
community expression.
Exaggeration for the purpose of
emphasis.
Heightens the sense of
opposition between two people.
Example
“It is easier for a
camel to go through
the eye of a needle
than for someone
who is rich to enter
the kingdom of
God” 18:25
The parable of the
10 pounds, 19:1127 and the signs
and persecutions,
21:5-38
Calling of the
disciples, 5:1-11
Rejection in
Nazareth, 4:16-30
Appearance of the
angels to the
shepherds, 2:8-20
and the
transfiguration,
9:28-36
Jesus’ call to
repent, 13:1-5
Jesus’ genealogy,
3:23-38
Simeon’s hymn,
2:29-32
9:25
Healing on the
Sabbath and saving
animals, 13:10-17.
See your notes.
Lament
A durge composed and sung or
played on the occasion of a death
or calamity.
Metaphor
The application of a name or a
descriptive term to an object to
which it is not literally applicable.
An implied comparison.
Midrash
Jewish way of interpreting the Old
Testament that attempted to
demonstrate both the authority
and relevance of the scriptural
passage for the community. The
passage was quoted and then its
authority and relevance
discussed.
Stories of God’s extraordinary
intervention in nature and events
through Jesus. Could be healings,
exorcisms, resurrections or nature
miracles.
Miracle story
Parable
Pronounceme
nt story
Prophecy
Proverb
A broad term for a verbal image
from a figurative saying or proverb
to a long involved parable. “a
metaphor or simile drawn from
nature or common life, arresting
the hearer by its vividness or
strangeness, and leaving the
mind in sufficient doubt about its
precise application to tease it into
active thought”. (Dodd)
The story framework of a
pronouncement story is usually
simple, brief and lacking in
biographical detail.
Pronouncement stories usually
include a short, striking saying
(and possibly action) which
reveals something about Jesus’
character.
Prophecy is foretelling the future
or simply proclaiming God’s word
by a prophet who speaks with the
authority of God under the
inspiration of the Holy Spirit.
A short familiar saying expressing
a truth or a moral lesson. They
are generally known to people.
A familiar form used by Jesus to
express his grief and emotion
over a particular event, e.g. the
destruction of Jerusalem. It is a
window into Jesus’ emotions on
this occasion.
Conveys meaning more
memorably.
Creates a lingering thought.
Shows the connection of
meaning between the Old
Testament and the life of Jesus.
Lament over
Jerusalem, 13:3135.
Jesus’ desire to
care for the people
of Jerusalem like a
hen gathers her
brood under her
wings, 13:34
Jesus’ reading from
Isaiah and his
comments in the
Nazareth
synagogue, 4:1630.
A manifestation of God’s power
working through Jesus. They
can be understood at the sense
level (what people saw, heard
or touched) or the sign level (the
meaning of the miracle
recognized by faith).
Used to make people use their
intelligence and imagination and
so spur to spiritual perception
and response. Used to sharpen
understanding and present truth
in a vivid and memorable way.
Often used to teach about the
Kingdom of God.
Healing a crippled
woman, 13:10-17
Used to emphasize the
pronouncement that is found in
the concluding saying.
Temptation, 4:1-13
Gives the hearers insight into
the future and into the character
of Jesus as it marks him as
having this authority. It reminds
the readers too that Jesus’ life
had implications beyond his
time on earth.
Help make teaching
memorable, often provide a little
summary of the main point.
Anna in the temple,
2:36-38 also Jesus
about the
destruction of
Jerusalem, ch 21.
Barren fig tree,
13:6-9
“some are last who
will be first, and
some are first who
will be last” 13:30
Repetition
Common Hebrew literary style.
Often the repetitions had subtle
differences between them which
are often significant.
A question that is asked by a
speaker but doesn’t expect an
answer. Usually it is expected that
the hearers know the answer to
the question.
Used to give emphasis and
indicate importance.
Parable of the 10
pounds, 9:11-28
A more effective substitute for a
simple statement.
Story about
Jesus
A narrative which shows Jesus
meeting with people. It has a
small plot and involves characters
like a short story.
Transitional
note
A short statement that shows the
end of one stage of a story and
provides a small summary of an
intervening period before the next
stage begins.
Contribute to the historical
background of the gospel as a
whole and help the reader to
understand more of the
character of Jesus.
Shows transitions in the overall
story of Luke and by the
summary shows significant
ideas in a period. Prepares the
reader for the section about to
begin.
“Do you think that
because these
Galileans suffered
in this way they
were worse sinners
than all other
Galileans?” 13:1-5
Entry to Jerusalem,
19:28-40 and
cleansing the
temple, 19:45-48
Rhetorical
question
Summary of Jesus’
childhood years,
2:52 and John’s
arrest, 3:18-20.
THE LITERARY STRUCTURE OF LUKE’S GOSPEL

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What are the major movements in the narrative?
Where do the natural breaks come?
Where is the climax of the narrative?
How does the structure help the author achieve his purpose?
A knowledge of structure helps to locate the context of a particular paragraph within the Gospel as a
whole and this influences our understanding of its meaning.
Some important features of the structure of Luke.


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The infancy narrative explains the relationship of Jesus to John the Baptist, introduces us to many
ideas found later in the Gospel and showing Jesus as incorporated into Israel.
The scene in the Nazareth synagogue (Luke 4:16-30) is programmatic for the ministry of Jesus.
His rejection by his townspeople anticipates his future rejection.
Chapter 9 is pivotal in that Jesus deals directly with the question of his identity, predicts his
suffering and death and the beginning of the travel narrative.
Luke’s travel narrative is unique in the Gospels and shows Jesus moving resolutely toward
Jerusalem, the city of destiny.
Luke’s emphasis on Jesus’ Jerusalem ministry as one of teaching in the Temple.
Chapter 24 is a climax with its assertions about the suffering Messiah expected in prophecy and a
final commission to witnesses who are to await the promise of the Father.
Much of Luke’s presentation finds an unfolding in his second volume.
FORM CRITICISM (or genre analysis)


taken from Hayes & Halliday, Biblical Exegesis
Form Criticism examines the form, content and function of a particular passage.
Form critics strive to determine the ‘situation in life’ (Sitz im Leben) in which the particular
genres were produced, shaped and used, for example:
In a classified ad for a house designed to sell the property, hyperbole and exaggeration are expected.
The description of the same house in a deed is expected to record accurately what has been sold.
We read with different expectations and interpret them. We recognize the ‘setting in life’.

In everyday exegesis, we recognize what is said (the content), how it is said (the form) and
in what setting it is said (the setting in life), and we put all 3 together as we understand and
interpret all sorts of statements.

The exegete – asks - what is the genre?
- what is the literary structure?
The exegete - tries – to determine the life setting or the actual situation(s) in which such a
text originated and developed.
- to work out how the text functioned (worked) in that setting.

Within Luke there are many different literary forms including miracle stories,
pronouncement stories, parables, birth stories, hymns, prayers, kerygmatic (preaching) or
sermon outlines, confessions…

Let’s look at The healing of the Gerasene demoniac ( Mt 8:28-9:1, Mk 5:1-20, Lk 8:26-39) as an
example of information gained from examining the literary form:
a) It is a Miracle Story, more specifically, it is an exorcism
b) Note the literary structure
Look for a
i) Description of the man v. 2-5
pattern typical
ii) His encounter with Jesus v. 6-10
of miracles
iii) Description of the healing v.11-13
iv) The aftermath – The impact on the crowd
- Description of the healed man v. 14-20

It possible to determine the ways in which the story has been shaped, or edited, in the final
stage of writing. In these circumstances we can see that the text, even in its final literary
form, also possesses another ‘life setting’ from that of the author/compiler.

In many instances, it is clear that the final setting differs quite significantly from earlier
settings in which the story or saying was used. This final ‘setting in life’ obviously must take
into account the author’s own historical, geographical and social setting and also his literary
purposes, and the theological interest as well. FOR EXAMPLE Matthew & Luke might both
use the same story or passage which is also found in Mark or the Q Sayings Source, but they
place it differently to suit their own purpose in their story.

Form criticism is very valuable for parables. This is clearly seen in the parable of the lost
sheep as found in Matthew (18:12-14) and as found in Luke (15:3-7) where they are placed in
different contexts:
Context
(where
it sits)
Matthew (18:12-14)
Luke (15:3-7)
Proper behaviour in the church
Jesus is disputing with Pharisees & Scribes about his
Reminds us to care for the ‘little ones’
(probably recent converts)
associating with social outcasts, tax collectors &
sinners.
It is joined by the parable of lost coin & parable of
lost son & serves to underscore the inestimable worth
of even 1 sinner.
Type of
Catechetical, providing concrete
passage
instructions for church conduct
Polemical controversy