VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
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ISBN: 978-1-925264-11-1
© Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority 2015
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VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 1
Administration .............................................................................................................................. 1
Curriculum..................................................................................................................................... 1
Developing a course ................................................................................................................... 1
Employability skills ...................................................................................................................... 7
Resources ................................................................................................................................... 7
Assessment................................................................................................................................... 7
Scope of tasks ............................................................................................................................ 9
Units 1 and 2 ............................................................................................................................... 9
Authentication ............................................................................................................................. 10
Learning activities ...................................................................................................................... 11
Unit 1: What ideas explain the physical world? .......................................................................... 11
Unit 2: What do experiments reveal about the physical world? .................................................. 19
Appendix 1: Scientific investigation .......................................................................................... 39
Appendix 2: Defining variables .................................................................................................. 46
Appendix 3: Examples of problem-based learning approaches .............................................. 47
Appendix 4: Sample teaching plan ............................................................................................ 49
Appendix 5: Definition of verbs in VCE Physics Study Design ............................................... 53
Appendix 6: Employability skills ............................................................................................... 54
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Introduction
The VCE Physics Advice for teachers handbook provides curriculum and assessment advice
for Units 1 and 2. It contains advice for developing a course with examples of teaching and
learning activities and resources for each unit.
The course developed and delivered to students must be in accordance with the VCE
Physics Study Design Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020; Units 3 and 4: 2017–2021.
Administration
Advice on matters related to the administration of Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE)
assessment is published annually in the VCE and VCAL Administrative Handbook. Updates
to matters related to the administration of VCE assessment are published in the VCAA
Bulletin.
Curriculum
Developing a course
A course outlines the nature and sequence of teaching and learning necessary for students
to demonstrate achievement of the set of outcomes for a unit. The areas of study broadly
describe the learning contexts and the knowledge and skills required for the demonstration
of each outcome.
Each outcome draws on the set of contextualised key skills for Physics listed on pages 11
and 12 of the Study Design. The development, use and application of the key science skills
must be integrated into the teaching sequence. These skills support a number of
pedagogical approaches to teaching and learning including a focus on inquiry where
students pose questions, explore scientific ideas, draw evidence-based conclusions and
propose solutions to problems.
Teachers must develop courses that include appropriate learning activities to enable
students to develop the knowledge and skills identified in the outcomes in each unit.
Attention should be given to designing a course of study that is relevant to students,
contextually based, employs a variety though manageable number of student tasks and uses
a variety of source material from a diverse number of providers. Learning activities must
include investigative work that involves the collection of primary data, including laboratory
and/or field work. Other learning activities may include designing, building, testing and
evaluation of devices and other investigations involving the collection of primary and/or
secondary data through local and remote data logging, simulations, animations and literature
reviews.
Investigations are integral to the study of VCE Physics; they enable students to explore
concepts through the application of scientific skills and often the scientific method. Common
to different methods of scientific inquiry and learning activities are three key aspects that are
central to the study design’s inquiry focus: asking questions, testing ideas and using
evidence.
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Students may work individually or as part of a group or class to complete an activity but
findings, analysis and conclusions should be reported individually. If optional assessment
tasks are used to cater for different student interests, teachers must ensure that they are
comparable in scope and demand.
Scientific inquiry focus
The VCE Physics Study Design enables students to engage with science-related issues by
building their capacities to explain phenomena scientifically, design and evaluate scientific
investigations, and draw evidence-based conclusions. Students see how science works as a
process by undertaking their own scientific investigations that involve generating, collecting
and analysing data and exploring the nature of evidence.
Teachers are advised to provide students with learning opportunities that allow students to
critically evaluate the stories, claims, discoveries and inventions about science they hear and
read in the media and to examine the relevance of science in their everyday lives.
The following table shows how students can draw links between scientific concepts studied
in Units 1 and 2 and their applications in relation to issues discussed in the media:
Unit
Concept
Issues
1
Thermodynamic principles
 Determination of energy ratings of home appliances and
fittings
 Global warming
 Bushfire prevention strategies
2
Acceleration, force and
momentum
 Effectiveness of car safety features, for example, seat
belts, child restraints, air bags, automatic braking systems
 Safe speed limits
 Development of buoyancy vests and swimming aids for
young children
The opportunity for students to work scientifically and respond to questions is an important
feature of the VCE Physics Study Design. Questions reflect the inquiry nature of studying
science and can be framed to provide contexts for developing conceptual understanding.
The VCE Physics Study Design is structured under a set of unit questions and area of study
questions. These questions are open-ended to enable students to engage in critical and
creative thinking about the physics concepts identified in the key knowledge and to
encourage students to ask their own questions about what they are learning. In responding
to these questions, students demonstrate their own conceptual links and the relevance of
different concepts to practical applications.
Teachers are advised to utilise the flexibility provided by the structure of the Study Design in
the choice of contexts, both local and global, and applications for enabling students to
develop skills and understanding. Opportunities range from the entire class studying a
particular context or application chosen by the teacher or agreed to by the class, through to
students nominating their own choice of issues, scenarios, research or case studies.
Appendix 3 provides examples of the use of a problem-based learning approach to develop
scientific skills and understanding.
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Designing scientific investigations
Students undertake investigations across Units 1 and 2 in VCE Physics. Research questions
of interest may be investigated through a range of research methodologies including
experimental investigations. Primary and/or secondary data should be collected in order to
test hypotheses, predictions and ideas, to look for patterns, trends and relationships in data
and to draw evidence-based conclusions.
An experimental investigation explores whether or not there is a relationship between
variables and therefore requires that students identify which variables will be investigated
and which will be controlled.
The following diagram represents a general process for undertaking scientific investigations:
research
question
Topic selection phase
problem
definition
report
Reporting phase
Planning phase
experimental
design
evaluation
data
collection
and analysis
Investigation phase
Topic selection phase
The selection of a suitable topic for investigation may begin with an idea or observation or
question about an object, event or phenomenon. Students may have already developed a
question as an extension of earlier completed work, or may be curious about a practical
problem, or a particular technological development. Once the topic has been identified
students articulate a research question for investigation. Questions may be generated from
brainstorming. Teachers may provide a question or scaffold the development of an
appropriate testable hypothesis that students can adapt and investigate.
A hypothesis is developed from a research question of interest and provides a possible
explanation of a problem that can be tested experimentally. A useful hypothesis is a testable
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statement that may include a prediction. An example of hypothesis formulation is included in
Appendix 1.
In some cases, for example in exploratory or qualitative research, a research question may
not lend itself to having an accompanying hypothesis; in such cases students should work
directly with their research questions.
Planning phase
Once teachers have approved research questions, students should produce a plan for the
investigation that outlines their reasons and interest in undertaking the investigation, defines
the physics concepts involved, identifies short-term goals, lists the materials and equipment
required, outlines the design of any experiment, notes any anticipated problems, identifies
and suggests how possible safety risks can be managed and outlines any ethical issues.
In planning the investigation students may formulate a hypothesis that will be tested by the
collection of evidence. They may also make predictions about investigation outcomes based
on their existing knowledge. Students should identify the independent, dependent and
controlled variables in their experiment and discuss how changing variables may or may not
affect the outcome. Students should be able to explain how they expect that the evidence
they collect could either refute or support their hypothesis. In planning the investigation
students could include background reading. In addition, students should learn the correct
use of scientific conventions, including the use of standard notation and International System
(SI) units and how to reference sources and provide appropriate acknowledgments.
A detailed explanation of types of variables is provided in Appendix 2.
Investigation phase
In the investigation, students will collect primary or secondary qualitative and/or quantitative
data as evidence. Data can be derived from observations, laboratory experimentation,
fieldwork and local and/or global databases. During the investigation students should note
any difficulties or problems encountered in collecting data. The data collected should be
recorded in a form according to the plan, for subsequent analysis and relevance to the
investigation.
Reporting phase
An examination and analysis of the data may identify evidence of patterns, trends or
relationships and may subsequently lead to an explanation of the physical phenomenon
being investigated. For VCE Physics, the analysis of experimental data requires an
evaluation of accuracy, precision, reliability, validity, uncertainty, and random and systematic
errors. For more detailed information see Appendix 1.
Students consider the data collected and make inferences from the data, report errors or
problems encountered and use evidence to answer the research question. They consider
how appropriate their data is in a given context, evaluate the reliability of the data and make
reference to its repeatability and/or reproducibility. Types of possible errors, human bias and
uncertainties in measurements, including the treatment of outliers in a set of data, should be
identified and explained.
For an investigation where a hypothesis has been formulated, interpretation of the evidence
will either support the hypothesis or refute it, but it may also pose new questions and lead
the student to revising the hypothesis or developing a new one. In reaching a conclusion the
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student should identify any judgments and decisions that are not based on the evidence
alone but involve broader social, political, economic and ethical factors.
The initial phases of the investigation (topic selection, planning and investigation) are
recorded in the student logbook while the report of the investigation can take various forms
including a written report, a scientific poster or an oral or a multimodal presentation of the
investigation.
For more detailed information on scientific investigations see Appendix 1.
Terminology in the study design
Use of verbs in key knowledge
The points listed in the key knowledge for each area of study In the VCE Physics Study
Design are activated by one of eighteen verbs. The verbs provide a guide to the depth of
treatment required for the key knowledge.
The following ‘cognitive triangle’ shows the hierarchical nature of the cognitive processes
associated with the use of these verbs within the Study Design.
Design
Justify
Evaluate
Investigate
Explain
Analyse
Model Apply Conceptualise Calculate Discuss
Distinguish
Convert
Relate
Compare
Identify
Interpret
Describe
Note: higher order cognitive processes in the above cognitive triangle
include capacities of those cognitive processes that appear below them
Definitions of the verbs contained in the ‘cognitive triangle’ are provided in Appendix 5.
Use of ‘force due to gravity’
For the purposes of the VCE Physics Study Design the force due to gravity will be referred to
as Fg and no reference will be made to weight or weightlessness. The normal reaction force
is referred to as FN and analyses of related motion will relate to these two forces.
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Terminology for force, Fon A by B
Objects are often described as 'having' force or reference is sometimes made to the force 'of'
an object. Such descriptions can lead to the student misconception that if an object is
moving it is because the object 'has' force. This misconception can exist in tandem with
students knowing that if an object is moving at constant velocity then the forces on it are
balanced.
This misconception may be dealt with by considering the momentum of an object in the first
instance. An object that is moving 'has' momentum. If the momentum is changing then there
is a force 'acting on' the object. The VCE Physics Study Design considers the motion of an
object in terms of the object and the forces acting 'on' it. Questions in physics generally
require that students identify all of the forces acting 'on' an object. Consistent with this is the
notation of describing the force 'on' an object 'by' a second object. Hence Fon A by B. The
emphasis is on the object on which the forces are acting.
Maintenance of a logbook
Students maintain a logbook for each of Units 1 and 2. The logbook is a record of the
student’s practical and investigative work involving the collection of primary and/or
secondary data. Its purposes include providing a basis for further learning, for example,
contributing to class discussions about demonstrations, activities or practical work; reporting
back to the class on an experiment or activity; responding to questions in a practical
worksheet or problem-solving exercise; or writing up an experiment as a formal report or a
scientific poster. No formal presentation format for the logbook is prescribed.
The logbook may be digital or paper-based. Data may be qualitative and/or quantitative and
may include the results of guided activities or investigations; planning notes for experiments;
results of student-designed activities or investigations; personal reflections made during or at
the conclusion of demonstrations, activities or investigations; simple observations made in
short class activities; links to spreadsheet calculations or other student digital records and
presentations; notes and electronic or other images taken on excursions; database extracts;
web-based investigations and research, including online communications and results of
simulations; surveys; interviews; and notes of any additional or supplementary work done
outside class. All logbook entries must be dated and in chronological order. Investigation
partners, expert advice and assistance and secondary data sources must be acknowledged
and/or referenced.
Teachers may use student logbooks for authentication and/or assessment purposes.
Student safety and wellbeing
When developing courses, some issues to consider include: duty of care in relation to health
and safety of students in learning activities, practical work and excursions; legislative
compliance (for example, electrical safety and copyright); sensitivity to cultural differences
and personal beliefs (for example, discussions related to medical issues); adherence to
community standards and ethical guidelines (for example, maintaining confidentiality of
personal details); respect for persons and differences in opinions.
For more detail regarding legislation and compliance, refer to pages 8–9 of the Study
Design.
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Employability skills
The VCE Physics study provides students with the opportunity to engage in a range of
learning activities. In addition to demonstrating their understanding and mastery of the
content and skills specific to the study, students may also develop employability skills
through their learning activities.
The nationally agreed employability skills are: Communication; Planning and organising;
Teamwork; Problem solving; Self-management; Initiative and enterprise; Technology; and
Learning.
The table (Appendix 6) links those facets that may be understood and applied in a school or
non-employment related setting, to the types of assessment commonly undertaken within
the VCE study.
Resources
A list of resources is published online on the VCAA website and is updated annually. The list
includes teaching, learning and assessment resources, contact details for subject
associations and professional organisation.
Assessment
Assessment is an integral part of teaching and learning. At the senior secondary level it:
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identifies opportunities for further learning
describes student achievement
articulates and maintains standards
provides the basis for the award of a certificate.
As part of VCE studies, assessment tasks enable:
 the demonstration of the achievement of an outcome or set of outcomes for satisfactory
completion of a unit
 judgment and reporting of a level of achievement for school-based assessments at Units
3 and 4.
The following are the principles that underpin all VCE assessment practices. These are
extracted from the VCAA Principles and guidelines for the development and review of VCE
Studies published on the VCAA website.
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VCE assessment
will be valid
This means that it will enable judgments to be made about demonstration of the
outcomes and levels of achievement on assessment tasks fairly, in a balanced way and
without adverse effects on the curriculum or for the education system. The overarching
concept of validity is elaborated as follows.
VCE assessment
should be fair and
reasonable
Assessment should be acceptable to stakeholders including students, schools,
government and the community. The system for assessing the progress and achievement
of students must be accessible, effective, equitable, reasonable and transparent.
The curriculum content to be assessed must be explicitly described to teachers in each
study design and related VCAA documents. Assessment instruments should not assess
learning that is outside the scope of a study design.
Each assessment instrument (for example, examination, assignment, test, project,
practical, oral, performance, portfolio, presentation or observational schedule) should give
students clear instructions. It should be administered under conditions (degree of
supervision, access to resources, notice and duration) that are substantially the same for
all students undertaking that assessment.
Authentication and school moderation of assessment and the processes of external
review and statistical moderation are to ensure that assessment results are fair and
comparable across the student cohort for that study.
VCE assessment
should be
equitable
Assessment instruments should neither privilege nor disadvantage certain groups of
students or exclude others on the basis of gender, culture, linguistic background, physical
disability, socioeconomic status and geographical location.
Assessment instruments should be designed so that, under the same or similar
conditions, they provide consistent information about student performance. This may be
the case when, for example, alternatives are offered at the same time for assessment of
an outcome (which could be based on a choice of context) or at a different time due to a
student’s absence.
VCE assessment
will be balanced
The set of assessment instruments used in a VCE study will be designed to provide a
range of opportunities for a student to demonstrate in different contexts and modes the
knowledge, skills, understanding and capacities set out in the curriculum. This
assessment will also provide the opportunity for students to demonstrate different levels
of achievement specified by suitable criteria, descriptors, rubrics or marking schemes.
Judgment about student level of achievement should be based on the results from a
variety of practical and theoretical situations and contexts relevant to a study. Students
may be required to respond in written, oral, performance, product, folio, multimedia or
other suitable modes as applicable to the distinctive nature of a study or group of related
studies.
VCE assessment
will be efficient
The minimum number of assessments for teachers and assessors to make a robust
judgment about each student’s progress and learning will be set out in the study design.
Each assessment instrument must balance the demands of precision with those of
efficiency. Assessment should not generate workload and/or stress that unduly diminish
the performance of students under fair and reasonable circumstances.
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Scope of tasks
For Units 1–4 in all VCE studies assessment tasks must be a part of the regular teaching
and learning program and must not unduly add to the workload associated with that
program. They must be completed mainly in class and within a limited timeframe.
Points to consider in developing an assessment task:
1. List the key knowledge and key skills.
2. Choose the assessment task where there is a range of options listed in the study design.
It is possible for students in the same class to undertake different options; however,
teachers must ensure that the tasks are comparable in scope and demand.
3. Identify the qualities and characteristics that you are looking for in a student response and
design the criteria and a marking scheme
4. Identify the nature and sequence of teaching and learning activities to cover the key
knowledge and key skills outlined in the study design and provide for different learning
styles.
5. Decide the most appropriate time to set the task. This decision is the result of several
considerations including:
 the estimated time it will take to cover the key knowledge and key skills for the
outcome
 the possible need to provide a practice, indicative task
 the likely length of time required for students to complete the task
 when tasks are being conducted in other studies and the workload implications for
students.
Units 1 and 2
The student’s level of achievement in Units 1 and 2 is a matter for school decision.
Assessments of levels of achievement for these units will not be reported to the VCAA.
Schools may choose to report levels of achievement using grades, descriptive statements or
other indicators.
In each VCE study at Units 1 and 2, teachers determine the assessment tasks to be used for
each outcome in accordance with the study design.
Teachers should select a variety of assessment tasks for their program to reflect the key
knowledge and key skills being assessed and to provide for different learning styles. Tasks
do not have to be lengthy to make a decision about student demonstration of achievement of
an outcome.
A number of options are provided in each study design to encourage use of a broad range of
assessment activities. Teachers can exercise great flexibility when devising assessment
tasks at this level, within the parameters of the study design.
Note that more than one assessment task can be used to assess satisfactory completion of
each outcome in the units.
There is no requirement to teach the areas of study in the order in which they appear in the
units in the study design.
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Authentication
Teachers should have in place strategies for ensuring that work submitted for assessment is
the student’s own. Where aspects of tasks for school-based assessment are completed
outside class time teachers must monitor and record each student’s progress through to
completion. This requires regular sightings of the work by the teacher and the keeping of
records. The teacher may consider it appropriate to ask the student to demonstrate his/her
understanding of the task at the time of submission of the work.
If any part of the work cannot be authenticated, then the matter should be dealt with as a
breach of rules. To reduce the possibility of authentication problems arising, or being difficult
to resolve, the following strategies are useful:
 Ensure that tasks are kept secure prior to administration, to avoid unauthorised release to
students and compromising the assessment. They should not be sent by mail or
electronically without due care.
 Ensure that a significant amount of classroom time is spent on the task so that the
teacher is familiar with each student’s work and can regularly monitor and discuss
aspects of the work with the student.
 Ensure that students document the specific development stages of work, starting with an
early part of the task such as topic choice, list of resources and/or preliminary research.
 Filing of copies of each student’s work at given stages in its development.
 Regular rotation of topics from year to year to ensure that students are unable to use
student work from the previous year.
 Where there is more than one class of a particular study in the school, the VCAA expects
the school to apply internal moderation/cross-marking procedures to ensure consistency
of assessment between teachers. Teachers are advised to apply the same approach to
authentication and record-keeping, as cross-marking sometimes reveals possible
breaches of authentication. Early liaison on topics, and sharing of draft student work
between teachers, enables earlier identification of possible authentication problems and
the implementation of appropriate action.
 Encourage students to acknowledge tutors, if they have them, and to discuss and show
the work done with tutors. Ideally, liaison between the class teacher and the tutor can
provide the maximum benefit for the student and ensure that the tutor is aware of the
authentication requirements. Similar advice applies if students receive regular help from a
family member.
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Learning activities
Unit 1: What ideas explain the physical world?
Area of Study 1: How can thermal effects be explained?
Outcome 1:
Examples of learning activities
Apply thermodynamic
principles to analyse, interpret
and explain changes in
thermal energy in selected
contexts, and describe the
environmental impact of
human activities with
reference to thermal effects
and climate science concepts.
 use a predict-observe-explain approach to investigate what happens when a
 small vial full of ice water with red dye is gently poured into a large
beaker of hot water; and when
 a small vial full of hot water with blue dye is gently poured into a large
beaker of cold water
 capture class interest and determine pre-conceptions by using a context
related to warming of Earth, for example the site
http://climate.nasa.gov/evidence/ includes engaging images, simulations and
current information for exploration
 investigate whether two identical open glasses, filled with hot and warm
water respectively, can cool at room temperature check whether the glass
filled with hot water reaches a lower temperature than the glass filled with
warm water; explain your results
 investigate factors that affect the drying of cutlery and crockery pieces
 discuss the following quote by Edward Teller: ‘A fact is a simple statement
that everyone believes. It is innocent, unless found guilty. A hypothesis is a
novel suggestion that no one wants to believe. It is guilty, until found
effective.’ (Teller, E.,Teller, W.& Talley,W.1991, Conversations on the Dark
Secrets of Physics, Basic Books, New York)
 design and undertake practical explorations of change of temperature and
change of state with a focus on the development of practical skills including:
observation; recording of qualitative and quantitative data; graphical analysis;
consideration of accuracy, precision and reliability
 use a temperature probe to monitor the phase change of wax cooling or
crushed ice warming
 construct and explain the operation of a Galilean thermometer
 investigate the claims that:
 - it is important to put a lid on the pot when you want to boil water for tea to
save energy and time; determine any energy and time savings
 - to cool a pot effectively ice should be placed above it rather than under it
 explain the thermodynamics of a chimney
 use a ‘predict-observe-explain’ approach to investigate what happens when
2 litres of blue-dyed cold water is added to 3 litres of red-dyed hot water in a
bucket; note the initial and final water temperatures ; discuss observations
with respect to thermal energy transfer
 investigate the rate that an ice cube melts when placed on different types of
blocks, for example, foam, rubber, wood, metal
 investigate the factors that affect the movement of the drying boundary as a
vertical wet paper sheet dries
 explore conduction, convection and radiation by setting up laboratory
stations with short thermodynamics activities around the room; relate the
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©VCAA 2015
ideas to methods used for heating and cooling homes
determine the specific heat capacity of a metal by using an immersion heater
undertake practical investigations and simulations related to energy such as
those at www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-physics/energy
design and investigate the effects of different types of earth surfaces (for
example, ice, grass, concrete, sand, water) on energy reflection or
absorption; relate findings to land use and its effects on atmospheric energy
use an interactive simulation such as at http://phet.colorado.edu / to
investigate the greenhouse effect: select and compare levels of greenhouse
gases during the Ice Age, in the 1800s, in the 1900s, today and in the future
to see how Earth’s temperature, sunlight and infrared photons change with
changing concentrations of greenhouse gases; explore the effects of adding
clouds or panes of glass
generate data to investigate the relationship between human activity and the
enhanced greenhouse effect over time; write a short media article that
summarises findings and includes a graphical representation related to the
summary
develop hypotheses and design and perform experiments to test the
following research questions:
 Does cold water freeze faster than hot water?
 How is the temperature of a fluid related to its viscosity?
 How does temperature affect the surface tension of a liquid?
 Does different hair colour affect its capacity to keep the head warm?
investigate how concepts of conduction, convection, radiation, specific heat
capacity and latent heat capacity are used to determine the energy rating of
appliance and features of homes, for example insulation; glazing (type and
size);choice of lighting; floor covering; window covering; appliances
explain the thermodynamics of cold and hot packs
design and perform an experiment to investigate whether gloves or mittens
are more effective in keeping hands warm in winter
design and perform an experiment, including formulation of a hypothesis and
control of variables, to test the research question: Does mint really cool
things down?
use phet.colorado.edu activities to explore electrical concepts, for example,
Battery-Resistor Circuit, Circuit Construction Kit, Ohm’s Law
discuss how the following quote by George Bernard Shaw applies to
thermodynamics: ‘Science never solves one problem without raising ten
more problems’(from a speech Shaw made at the Savoy Hotel in London in
October 1030, at a dinner in Einstein’s honour)
set up demonstrations or structure independent investigations related to
thermodynamics by accessing teacher worksheets, applets, media clips and
websites at the VicPhysics website www.vicphysics.org
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Detailed example
STOPPING AT ALL THERMODYNAMIC STATIONS
Aim
To explore the thermodynamic concepts of conduction, convection and radiation and to relate these concepts to
applications involving different methods for heating and cooling homes.
Preparation
Teachers should organise an appropriate number of stations. Stations could include:
 Scientific observation and measurement: put a piece of ice into a small glass filled with vegetable oil;
qualitatively and quantitatively analyse its motion
 Thermal effects: compare the effects of placing potassium permanganate crystals in a beaker of hot water
and a beaker of cold water
 Comparison of temperature above and beside a candle: using a cardboard tube, firstly place it vertically
above the candle and then place it horizontally adjacent to the flame; find the temperature of the air at the
furthest end of the tube in each instance
 Convection and flight: make a hollow cylindrical tube from an empty, dry tea bag: explain the factors that
affect the cylinder’s take off when the top end of the cylinder is lit
 Convection currents in air: place whirly gigs over a heat source
 Convection currents in water: half fill a beaker with cold water; using a spatula, gently drop a few crystals
of potassium permanganate down one side of the beaker; use a Bunsen burner to heat the base of the
beaker where the crystals had fallen
 Effect of colour: take readings of temperatures of thermometers that are painted different colours and
placed in a sunny spot in the laboratory or outdoors
 Movement of heat: heat different types of metal rods and compare how long it takes for the heat to reach
the end of the rod; affix corks with wax along the length of the rod to assist in measuring time
 Temperature gradient in warm water: place a temperature probe into some warm water; gently pour some
hot water to the top of the warm water; leave for a minute. Slowly remove the temperature probe and watch
the temperature gradient as the probe is removed.
 Conduction in metal: time how long it takes the temperature at the end of a metal rod to increase when
held in a flame and compare with rods made of different metals; use wax to attach corks at 10 cm intervals
along the rods to monitor the progress of heat conduction.
Health and safety notes
 Safety data sheets for chemicals (for example, potassium permanganate) used must be distributed to
students
 Students must be reminded of safe use of heating apparatus
Science skills
Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task
Method
Students should work through the activity at each station and record results in their logbooks. Data may include
descriptive observations, temperature readings, photographs and labelled sketches.
Discussion
Students could set up a table to show how the results of each station activity relate to different household
methods for cooling and heating.
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Area of Study 2: How do electric circuits work?
Outcome 2:
Examples of learning activities
Investigate and apply a basic
DC circuit model to simple
battery-operated devices and
household electrical systems,
apply mathematical models to
analyse circuits, and describe
the safe and effective use of
electricity by individuals and
the community.
 explore conceptual understandings and alternative prior conceptions of
electricity using techniques such as those described by the conceptual
understanding procedures (CUPs), which include the worksheets ‘What is
the current?’ and ‘What is the reading on the voltmeter?’
 discuss whether there is a role for ‘guessing’ in physics experimentation and
research
 experiment with a set of batteries and light bulbs in various series and
parallel combinations and explain the observations; add ammeters and
voltmeters to the batteries and light bulb circuits to measure the currents,
voltages and resistances of the bulbs
 experiment with a bulb, a battery and one lead and suggest how the bulb
can be made to light up
 investigate whether two 60 W light bulbs shine brighter than three 40 W light
bulbs
 compare and evaluate analogies used to explain current and potential
difference
 undertake practical explorations of series and parallel circuits including
potential dividers and transducers
 produce a flowchart to show what happens when somebody receives an
electric shock; annotate the chart with notes related to a media article on an
aspect of electric shock
 design and undertake experiments, including writing a hypothesis, to
investigate the following research questions:
 Is copper the best conductor of electricity?
 Are heat and electrical conductivity related?
 Does electricity move faster through thin or thick wires?
 Is the light output of an LED temperature-dependent?
 use an LED control circuit to investigate detection of changes in light levels
 construct a table of typical power usage of domestic appliances and
investigate domestic electrical safety provisions
 undertake practical investigations and simulations related to electric circuits
such as those at www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-physics/electriccircuits-and-fields
 use a simulation program to model the operation of a DC circuit
 set experiments with an opportunity for extension or modification, for
example investigating variation of current with applied voltage for a resistor
to combinations of resistors and non-ohmic devices
 dismantle old electrical appliances (from which all cords and plugs have
been removed) and explain the workings
 investigate the output of a voltage divider circuit as the values of the two
resistors are changed where, for example, one of them is a LDR
 design and construct a circuit to measure and graph (on paper, calculator or
computer) the I–V characteristics of a diode
 make a model of a fuse; explain how a fuse helps to prevent a fire caused
by faulty household electricity wiring
 set up demonstrations or structure independent investigations related to
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electric circuits by accessing teacher worksheets, applets, media clips and
websites at the VicPhysics website www.vicphysics.org
Detailed example
INVESTIGATION OF ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES
A range of old domestic electrical appliances can easily be obtained by an appeal to the school community.
Items such as toasters, hair dryers, irons and heaters are suitable. For safety reasons it is important to remove
any cords and plugs.
The appliances can be prepared so that it is not too difficult for the students to dismantle them. The students
draw a circuit diagram of the wiring in the appliance. Help, where necessary, to identify components such as
thermostats and safety cut-outs.
Switches will often be found that combine elements in different series and parallel combinations to alter the
power settings. In the case of heating elements the resistance can be determined and from that an estimate of
the power used in the appliance made. This can be compared with the rating on the appliance. Where electric
motors are involved, the resistance will not give a good indication. The reasons for this can be discussed with
students.
Ensure that any appliances examined are not reassembled for use.
Area of Study 3: What is matter and how is it formed?
Outcome 3:
Examples of learning activities
Explore the nature of matter,
and consider the origins of
atoms, time and space. They
examine the currently
accepted theory of what
constitutes the nucleus, the
forces within the nucleus and
how energy is derived from
the nucleus.
 show a video of a simulated journey through the Universe based on Sloan
Digital Sky Survey data at https://vimeo.com/4169279
 simulate a solar system using http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/my-solarsystem/my-solar-system_en.html
 compile a timeline of changes in matter through the history of the Universe
based on temperature changes of the Universe over time: in groups explore
different stages of the development of the Universe (inflation, elementary
particle formation, annihilation of anti-matter and matter, commencement of
nuclear fusion, cessation of fusion and the formation of atoms); each group
focuses on the temperature of the stage they are investigating and the
impact of the temperature on how matter is manifested in that stage; each
group presents their research to the class in a negotiated format;
individually summarise findings of other groups and complete the timeline
 use the Big History Project - Chapter 1 The Universe at
www.bighistoryproject.com/chapters/1#in-the-beginning to enable
independent exploration of the origins of the Universe; guiding questions
include: How did temperature affect the development of matter? What
evidence do we have that supports this process of the development of
matter?
 undertake a laboratory experiment from the Contemporary Laboratory
Experiences in Astronomy (CLEA) set of projects available from
www.gettysburg.edu/academics/physics, for example, undertake an
investigation of the age of the Universe by simulating the use of a telescope
to obtain the spectra of galaxies: the red shift can then be measured by
comparison of various spectral lines, and from this the recession velocity
can be obtained; the distance of the galaxy is determined by finding the
absolute and apparent magnitudes; this data can then be entered into a
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spreadsheet (or plotted on paper) and the Hubble constant found; from the
value of the constant, the age of the Universe can be estimated
discuss the differences between predictions, hypotheses, theories and laws
with reference to comedian Mark Russell’s quote: ‘The scientific theory I like
best is that the rings of Saturn are composed entirely of lost airline luggage.’
use a puzzle to investigate making inferences from observations, for
example, How Does the Universe Work? A Puzzle Analogy at
http://ed.fnal.gov/samplers/hsphys/tmp10-06.pdf
an enterprising astronomer decided to supply physics laboratories with
vacuum from cosmic space: suggest possible uses for the cosmic vacuum
and discuss the enterprise’s chances of success?
discuss NASA's image for the direct proof of Dark Matter at
http://hubblesite.org/newscenter/archive/releases/exotic/dark%20matter/200
6/39/im/
discuss how much we know about the Universe with reference to Stephen
Hawking’s quote that ‘We are just an advanced breed of monkeys on a
minor planet of a very average star. But we can understand the Universe.
That makes us very special.’ Der Spiegel (17 October 1988)
simulate how unstable (radioactive) elements change into more stable
nuclei and explore the concept of half-life using a container of M&Ms®,
Skittles® or two-sided discs with different colours on each side and
performing a series of ‘spills’ and ‘removals’ to model nuclear decay
use a radiation counter to record the decay of the short-lived protactinium
source and determine its half-life
in groups calculate annual radiation doses at
http://scilearn.sydney.au/fychemistry/calculations/radiation-dose.shtml
compare the intensity of background radiation inside and outside a building,
in well- and in poorly-ventilated areas, at ground level and the top floor of a
multi-level building, and inside wood-, concrete- and plaster-walled rooms
play the Particle Puzzle Game at
www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/education/activities/3012_elegant_01.html
construct a classroom particle discovery timeline
http://teachers.web.cern.ch/teachers/archiv/HST2003/publish/standard%20
model/History/layer1.htm
develop a dichotomous key to categorise the particles in the particle zoo
discuss the video by CERN From the Big Bang to the LHC at
http://education.web.cern.ch/education/Chapter2/Teaching/from-the-bigbang-to-lhc.html
undertake practical investigations and simulations related to atoms and
nuclei such as those at www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-physics/atomsand-nuclei
use simulations to explore alpha and beta decay, for example
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/beta-decay
and https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/alpha-decay
explore fission and fusion using applets such as that at
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/nuclear-fission
set up demonstrations or structure independent investigations related to
atomic and nuclear physics by accessing teacher worksheets, applets,
media clips and websites at the VicPhysics website www.vicphysics.org
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Detailed example
SIMULATING RADIOACTIVE DECAY AND HALF-LIVES
Background
 A radioactive element will have some nuclei that are stable and other nuclei that are unstable. The stable
nuclei don’t change but the unstable nuclei transmute, or ‘decay’ into more stable nuclei and emit
radioactivity. The half-life is the time taken for half the radioactive nuclei to decay. Half-lives vary for different
elements, for example, lithium-8 has a half-life of 0.85 seconds while uranium-238 has a half-life of 4.51
billion years.
Aim
To simulate how unstable (radioactive) elements change into more stable nuclei and to explore the concept of
half-life.
Materials(for each group of students)
 between 60 and 130 M&Ms®, Skittles® or two-sided discs with different colours on each side into a
container to represent unstable nuclei
 1 plastic or paper cup
 2 sheets of paper towelling
 graph paper or a spreadsheet
Method
1. Place between 60 and 130 M&Ms®, Skittles® or two-sided discs with different colours on each side into a
plastic or paper cup to represent unstable nuclei.
2. Carefully spill the ‘nuclei’ onto a sheet of paper towelling. The spill represents a half-life of a radioactive
element.
3. Spread the nuclei out on the paper towelling to identify whether the manufacture’s label, or a selected disc
colour, is facing ‘up’ or ‘down’.
4. The ‘up’ facing nuclei represent decayed nuclei, and should be counted, recorded in a table such as the
one below, removed and placed onto a second sheet of paper towelling.
5. The remaining nuclei are replaced in the plastic or paper cup, and spilled again to represent the second
half-life. Decayed nuclei should be counted, recorded and removed.
6. Step 5 should be repeated until all nuclei have decayed.
Results
Students should record their results in their logbook using a table based on the following:
Spill
(half-life)
Expected number of nuclei
remaining based on
previous sample size
Actual number of nuclei
remaining after spill
% decayed nuclei
0
(starting number of nuclei)
-
-
1
2
3
4
5
6
Students should graph their results by plotting the spill (half-life) on the x-axis and the number of remaining
nuclei on the y-axis.
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Discussion
Class results should be collated and students could respond to a series of graded questions, for example:
 Identify: What are the strengths and weaknesses of this activity as a simulation of radioactive decay?
 Calculate and compare: How do your experimental results compare with predicted results?
 Compare and explain: Is there an advantage to collating class results?
 Apply: How does collating class results relate to radioactive nuclei?
 Explain: Can half-life predict the actual length of time it takes for a particular nucleus to decay?
 Compare and analyse: How is the graph of your results similar to, and different from, the graphs of other
students? How is the graph of your results similar to, and different from, the graph of collated class results?
 Evaluate: Does half-life depend on the initial mass of the sample?
 Evaluate and explain: If you could track a particular nucleus in a radioactive sample, could you predict
when it would decay?
Extension
This activity can be extended using a die. Calculations of theoretical half-lives in each case is more complicated
than using M&Ms®, Skittles® or two-sided discs with different colours on each side, and will require application
of probabilities.
 Students roll a die where rolling a 1 corresponds to decaying, and record results.
 Students roll a die where rolling a 1 or 2 corresponds to decaying, and record results.
 Students compare results and comment on predictability of radioactive decay of nuclei.
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Unit 2: What do experiments reveal about the physical
world?
This unit provides opportunities for students to design, conduct and report on investigations
and areas of interest. Area of Study 2 makes available twelve options for selection. Teachers
may negotiate a particular area of study with students; a selected number of options may be
made available from which students may choose; or students may negotiate options with
their teacher.
Area of Study 1: How can motion be described and explained?
Outcome 1:
Examples of learning activities
Investigate, analyse and
mathematically model the
motion of particles and
bodies.
 create a story based on a velocity-time graph
 if a small object is dropped into a bowl of flour, the impact will produce a
surface structure which resembles a lunar crater; what information about the
dropped object can be deduced from the crater?, form partners and take
turns so that one person drops an unknown object into a bowl of flour and
the other person attempts to identify the object
 explore the phenomenon that when a rectangular piece of paper is dropped
from a height of two meters it rotates around its long axis while sliding down
at a particular angle; determine the factors that affect the magnitude of the
angle
 determine the mass of an object by applying a force to a see-saw
 construct a model or simulation that explains why the flow of traffic can
sometimes experience sudden stops and starts
 at the start of a game of pool or billiards, 15 coloured balls are placed at one
end of the table to form a triangular shape: investigate the conditions under
which the impact of the 16th ball (white ball) will cause the maximum
disorder
 investigate a collision to explore momentum conservation
 explore conceptual understandings and alternative prior conceptions of
motion using techniques such as those described by the conceptual
understanding procedures (CUPs):
http://monash.edu/science-education/node/129
 compare the explanation of motion offered by Aristotle and Newton for a ball
rolling downhill
 set up dominoes in a straight line and calculate and measure experimentally
the maximum speed of the wave once the first domino falls to initiate a
‘domino wave’; how is the speed of the wave related to the distance
between dominoes? How is the speed of the wave affected if the dominoes
are set slightly askew?
 use phet.colorado.edu activities to investigate motion
 investigate why tall chimneys that fall may sometimes break into two parts
before they make contact with the ground
 view Veritasium videos about motion to initiate ideas for further
investigation, for example, slow motion analysis of a falling slinky spring
www.youtube.com/watch?v=uiyMuHuCFo4
 consider misconceptions about falling, for example,
www.youtube.com/watch?v=_mCC-68LyZM
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 discuss Galileo’s famous ‘thought experiment’ in his dialogues in which he
shows the logical flaws in Aristotle’s argument that an object will fall at a
speed according to the force on it due to gravity
 undertake practical investigations and simulations related to forces and
motion such as those at
www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-physics/forces-and-motion
 observe, measure and record data taken from an excursion to a playground
or amusement park; provide detailed graphical analysis of each motion
observed, estimating speed, frequency, periodicity, and acceleration
 drop a solid object into water from a height of 60 cm; investigate the factors
that would minimise the splash; suggest how Olympic divers minimise
splash on entry into the water
 use bathroom scales to measure reaction forces when sitting, leaning
against a wall and walking on the scales
 use bathroom scales to observe the change in reaction force when riding a
lift in a tall building
 use a motion detector to describe simple walking movements with reference
to distance, speed and acceleration
 capture photos of a rapidly occurring physical phenomenon related to
motion; use the images and add text to produce a photo-essay or
infographic of the phenomenon
 measure the acceleration of trolleys of different masses under the influence
of a range of known forces
 drop a piece of chocolate into a glass of soda water and observe it
periodically sink and rise to the surface; investigate the factors that affect
these oscillations
 discuss the reasons that a falling object usually does not accelerate at the
expected rate of 9.8 m s-2
 melt paraffin from a candle so that it drips into a saucer of water and note
the different solidified shapes that can be seen; investigate whether there is
a relationship between the height from which the wax falls and the shape of
the solidified drops
 measure power outputs as each class member runs up a flight of stairs
 graph force vs extension for a catapult and relate the stored energy to the
vertical height to which it will fire a projectile; ensure safe use of the catapult
 investigate Olympic records in running or swimming: is it possible to predict
maximum speeds at which a human could travel?
 explore applets that visually show energy transfer, for example, Skate Park
in Phet: https://phet.colorado.edu/
 investigate the factors that affect friction: attach a set of slotted masses via
a fishing line and pulley to an object and for a retarding frictional force use
the surface it is moving on; select one variable for the object that can be
changed independently (for example, mass, surface area, surface type);
use a ticker timer or a data logger to measure the average acceleration of
the object and use Newton’s second law to calculate the friction force acting
on the object; obtain a set of data for the friction force as the variable
quantity that is being investigated is systematically varied; produce a graph
of the data and make evidence-based comments that can be supported by
the graph about the effect of the selected investigation variable on the
friction force.
 observe, record, analyse and report on movement in different contexts
through measuring acceleration, video recording, constructing models and
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examining energy cycles of athletes
 investigate the properties of running shoes by collecting force-compression
data for a variety of running shoe soles; estimate the force on the runner’s
foot while running; construct a heel shaped from wood with a flat upper
surface which can be loaded with bricks or other heavy objects (some form
of horizontal stabilisation will be required that will not significantly affect the
load); use a telemicroscope or similar device to measure the amount of
compression under a range of loads that will approximate the forces likely to
occur in running; construct graphs of compression versus load for a variety
of running shoes, look at the differences between the graphs and relate the
differences to the particular properties or construction of the shoes; respond
to a pre-determined or negotiated question such as, ‘Are there significant
differences between the expensive and the cheaper shoes?’
 discuss desirable or ‘good’ physical properties of the soles of running
shoes; use the internet to research the physical properties of the soles of
‘good’ running shoes
 set up demonstrations or structure independent investigations related to
motion by accessing teacher worksheets, applets, media clips and websites
at the VicPhysics website www.vicphysics.org
Detailed example
OBSERVING MOVEMENT IN DIFFERENT CONTEXTS
Aim
To observe, record and report on movement in different contexts.
Introduction
A wide range of data collection devices can be used to record an object falling under gravity. Useful
comparisons between tickertape and electronic methods of recording motion may be made. Other alternatives
for measuring motion include ultrasonic detectors, accelerometers, light gates, two photogates, electronic timer
circuits and video analysis.
Science skills
Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key skills embedded in the task.
Procedure
Students may work in self-selected groups to investigate, analyse and communicate the results of different
types of motion involving ‘falling’. Primary data may be analysed individually or as a group, and students will
also have an opportunity to analyse secondary data as presented by other groups from their investigations.
Three examples of different types of motion that may be investigated are:
Student group 1: Recording spontaneous motion
 Use a video recorder to record 5–10 seconds of different objects being dropped from a height.
 Either from the video or using alternative measurements gathered by ultrasonic detectors, produce
quantitative data and prepare accurate graphs of the movement.
 Present the findings in an electronic format such as a web page, slideshow or video including a set of
questions for the rest of the class to complete as second-hand data analysis.
Student group 2: Rollercoaster ride
 Construct a roller-coaster with a low friction ‘car’.
 Perform measurements along ‘the run’ to determine the speed and vertical displacement of the ‘car’.
 Calculate the expected values of kinetic energy at suitable points along ‘the run’.
 Contrast, compare and account for the values measured and calculated.
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 Present the findings in an electronic format such as a web page, slideshow or video including a set of
questions for the rest of the class to complete as second-hand data analysis.
Student group 3: Motion in sport
 Examine the energy changes as a high jump athlete rises, falls and lands on the protective mat. Provide a
complete description, prediction and verification of kinetic and potential energy states through a complete
cycle.
 Determine the launch and landing speeds from the maximum height.
 Find the force–extension relationship for the protective mat.
 Show what happens when the athlete lands vertically or horizontally.
 Compare kinetic, gravitational potential and potential energy in the mat as well as total energy as a function
of position; account for any changes in total energy.
 Present the findings in an electronic format such as a web page, slideshow or video including a set of
questions for the rest of the class to complete as second-hand data analysis.
Teaching notes
 It is important that students are able to transpose formulas and perform calculations; some students may
need assistance with this.
 These activities provide opportunities to develop scientific skills including graphical construction and
analysis; the task could be modified to include students formulating hypotheses and making predictions
about motion
Area of Study 2.1: What are stars?
Outcome 2.1:
Examples of learning activities
Apply concepts of light and
nuclear physics to describe
and explain the genesis and
life cycle of stars, and
describe the methods used
to gather this information.
 discuss the use of standard notation in science with reference to the following
quote from Douglas Adams in The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy: ‘Space is
big. You just won’t believe how vastly, hugely, mind-bogglingly big it is. I
mean, you may think it’s a long way down the road to the chemist’s, but that’s
just peanuts to space.’
 use the applets on pHet.colorado.edu to investigate atomic spectra and star
composition, for example undertake the activities ‘Atomic spectra’ and
‘Composition of stars’
 use spectroscopy applets to explore emission and absorption spectra
 undertake practical investigations and simulations related to astronomy and
motion such as those at
www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-physics/astronomy
 demonstrate distance of stars using balls and an overhead projector
www.pbs.org/deepspace/classroom/activity3.html
 view ‘Life Story of a Star’ at www.webs.wichita.edu; compile a
‘dictionary/pictionary’ of space phenomena
 use the black body spectrum app at
https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/category/physics
to explore the temperature of the Sun
 explore stars using
www.classzone.com/books/earth_science/terc/navigation/chapter28.cfm
 measure distance in space using parallax
http://eaae-astronomy.org/WG3-SS/WorkShops/Triangulation.html
 develop your own Hertzsprung-Russell diagram
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www.atnf.csiro.au/outreach//education/senior/cosmicengine/stars_hrdiagram.
html
watch the video and complete the quiz related to black holes and the
Schwarzschild Radius
http://study.com/academy/lesson/black-holes-the-event-horizon-andschwarzschild-radius.html
watch videos and perform activities related to galaxies using
www.roe.ac.uk/vc/education/secondary/galaxies.html
use images to sequence stellar evolution, such as those found at
http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/stellar_ev/cosmic/image_set.pdf
and http://chandra.harvard.edu/edu/formal/stellar_ev/teachers_guide.pdf
set up demonstrations or structure independent investigations related to
astrophysics by accessing teacher worksheets, applets, media clips and
websites at the VicPhysics website vicphysics.org
conduct a panel discussion related to a question involving a physics-based
issue in society, for example, ‘Is it worth spending public funding on space
research?’
Detailed example
PANEL DISCUSSION: A PHYSICS-BASED ISSUE IN SOCIETY
Refer to the generic detailed example that applies across all options in Unit 2 Area of Study 2 on pp. 22 and 23.
Area of Study 2.2: Is there life beyond Earth’s Solar System?
Outcome 2.2:
Examples of learning activities
Apply concepts of light and
 discuss the nature of scientific proof by considering Richard Feynman’s
quote: ‘So my antagonist said, ‘Is it impossible that there are flying saucers?
Can you prove that it's impossible?’ ‘No’, I said, ‘I can't prove it's impossible.
It's just very unlikely’. At that he said, ‘You are very unscientific. If you can't
prove it impossible then how can you say that it's unlikely?’ But that is the
way that is scientific. It is scientific only to say what is more likely and what
less likely, and not to be proving all the time the possible and impossible.’
(The Character of Physical Law, p. 165, 1965)
 use spectroscopy applets to explore emission and absorption spectra
www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/quantumzone/bohr.html
 demonstrate gravitational lensing using a wine glass
www.youtube.com/watch?v=vLp6CwElGP4
 explore extreme organisms on Earth using Alien Safari
http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/system/interactable/3/index.html
 explore methods for finding a planet using ‘5 Ways to Find a Planet’
http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/system/interactable/11/index.html
 access exoplanet data bases, for example http://exoplanet.eu/catalog/:
estimate the number of civilizations in the galaxy by first estimating the
number of craters on the Moon and then by performing estimates of
multiple-variable systems culminating in the use of the Drake Equation; in
this three-part activity, use estimation techniques to describe complex
atomic physics to describe and
analyse the search for life
beyond Earth’s Solar System.
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situations http://btc.montana.edu/ceres/html/DrakeEquation/Drake.htm
explore the Fermi Paradox using sites such as
http://waitbutwhy.com/2014/05/fermi-paradox.html
use the video on www.nasa.gov/content/finding-life-beyond-earth-is-withinreach to evaluate the search for life beyond Earth and expand to consider
whether we should be spending money on the search for exoplanets
discuss the nature of evidence and the degree of confidence in the findings
of scientific investigations by considering the following quote by Richard
Feynman: ‘So my antagonist said, ‘Is it impossible that there are flying
saucers? Can you prove that it's impossible?’ ‘No’, I said, ‘I can't prove it's
impossible. It's just very unlikely’. At that he said, ‘You are very unscientific.
If you can't prove it impossible then how can you say that it's unlikely?’ But
that is the way that is scientific. It is scientific only to say what is more likely
and what less likely, and not to be proving all the time the possible and
impossible.’
set up demonstrations or structure independent investigations related to
astrobiology by accessing teacher worksheets, applets, media clips and
websites at the VicPhysics website www.vicphysics.org
conduct a panel discussion on a physics-related question, for example ‘Why
bother with searching for extra-terrestrial intelligence?’
Detailed example
PANEL DISCUSSION: A PHYSICS-BASED ISSUE IN SOCIETY
Refer to the generic detailed example that applies across all options in Unit 2 Area of Study 2 on pp. 36–38.
Area of Study 2.3: How do forces act on the human body?
Outcome 2.3:
Examples of learning activities
Analyse the physical
properties of organic materials
including bone, tendons and
muscle, and explain the uses
and effects of forces and
loads on the human body.
 evaluate models of parts of the human body as simple machines
 investigate the relationship between the height of a leap and the depth of
the squat
 investigate the strength of tissue (bone, tendons, muscle, skin) under load
using a chicken wing
 compare and contrast stress-strain curves of tendon and bone; access a
variety of curves on the internet and use them to determine the energy
stored in, for example, a tendon
 explore the age of bones with respect to toughness
 determine the centre of mass of a person using a plank, two bathroom
scales and two metre rulers: www.youtube.com/watch?v=2V8-c5k3bOs
 identify different body parts as Class I, II and III levers and then use masses
and calculations to determine the transfer of forces
 explore prosthetic limbs and how well they emulate the original limb;
investigate the different types of material used to make the limbs and
explain why these materials are chosen
 set up demonstrations or structure independent investigations related to
©VCAA 2015
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VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
forces and biomechanics by accessing teacher worksheets, applets, media
clips and websites at the VicPhysics website www.vicphysics.org
 conduct a panel discussion on a physics-related question, for example ‘Is
bionic better?’
Detailed example
PANEL DISCUSSION: A PHYSICS-BASED ISSUE IN SOCIETY
Refer to the generic detailed example that applies across all options in Unit 2 Area of Study 2 on pp. 36–38.
Area of Study 2.4: How can AC electricity charge a DC device?
Outcome 2.4:
Examples of learning activities
Construct, test and analyse
circuits that change AC
voltage to a regulated DC
power supply, and explain the
use of transducers to transfer
energy.
 compare Intensity vs frequency data for bulbs, LEDs and lasers
 explain the role of the diodes and capacitor in a rectifier circuit
 use practical activities to identify the various types and functions of
multimeters
 use a cathode ray oscilloscope to observe the voltage output of a half or full
wave rectifier circuit
 identify a pre-prepared fault in a circuit containing several elements
 use PhET activities at phet.colorado.edu to explore capacitors, for example,
Capacitor Lab, Circuit Construction Kit (AC+DC)
 use a spreadsheet or electrical simulation program to model the charging
and discharging of a capacitor in an R-C circuit
 measure the time constraint for a resistor-capacitor circuit: create a circuit
containing a large value capacitor in series with a DC power supply, a high
value resistor, and a switch; place a cathode ray oscilloscope across the
capacitor; use a stopwatch to measure the time taken to reach a certain
voltage and record results; change the target voltage and repeat the
procedure until there is sufficient data to produce a reliable graph of time
versus voltage across the capacitor; produce a graph of voltage versus time
for this data; the time taken for the capacitor to reach 63% of the supply
voltage is the time constant – compare the value with that obtained from the
product of the nominal values of the capacitor and resistor (a spreadsheet
may be used to tabulate and graph this data)
 construct a circuit containing a resistor and a smoothing capacitor; use a
cathode ray oscilloscope to analyse the smoothed output and view the
effect of changing resistance and capacitance; use a spreadsheet to
tabulate data
 set up demonstrations or structure independent investigations related to
electricity and electronics by accessing teacher worksheets, applets, media
clips and websites at the VicPhysics website www.vicphysics.org
 conduct a panel discussion on a physics-related question, for example ‘Is
living near electrical substations a health hazard?’
©VCAA 2015
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VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Detailed example
PANEL DISCUSSION: A PHYSICS-BASED ISSUE IN SOCIETY
Refer to the generic detailed example that applies across all options in Unit 2 Area of Study 2 on pp. 36–38.
Area of Study 2.5: How do heavy things fly?
Outcome 2.5:
Examples of learning activities
Apply concepts of flight to
investigate and explain the
motion of objects through
fluids.
 investigate practically the flight of water powered rockets and evaluate the
factors that influence the performance of the rocket
 make a simple aerofoil using an A4 sheet of paper, sticky tape, a straw and
string, for example, http://play.powerhousemuseum.com/make-and-do/thecraft-table/aerofoil-wing/; and investigate its behaviour in an air current
 place a light ball (balloon, table tennis ball) in the stream of air from a
vacuum cleaner hose to demonstrate the Bernoulli effect
 use sheets of paper to demonstrate the Bernoulli principle, for example
activities at www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-physics/bernoulliexperiments-sheets-paper; relate the Bernoulli principle to atmospheric
pressure; demonstrate the Bernoulli effect using, for example activities at
www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-physics/bernoulli-effect-demonstration
 suspend a model aircraft from a spring balance in the airstream from a fan;
identify and investigate the forces involved
 place a model aeroplane or aerofoil in the air flow from a fan; measure the
force required to maintain it in a fixed position; graph the force vs
windspeed and write a short paragraph to summarise findings
 create a paper plane and use the addition of mass via paperclips to model
the balancing of torques on an aircraft and the effect on its flight path
 discuss the various forces operating on an aircraft in flight and the effect of
each of them
 design and make a device, using one sheet of A4 paper and a small amount
of glue, that will take the longest possible time to fall to the ground from a
height of 2 metres; collate class results and identify the three most
important factors that affect flight ‘hang’ time
 construct a round-the-pole model aircraft running from simple balsa wood or
cardboard components and an electric motor and use it to investigate the
effect of different wing and tail configurations on achieving balanced flight
www.ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/mccarthy_rtp.html
 use photographs to analyse and compare the strategies used to reduce the
drag area of various vehicles in order to improve fuel efficiency
 use a fan and a model wind turbine to investigate the relationship between
airspeed and electricity generated
 research the effect of wing-in-ground effect on lift generation and efficiency
of aircraft
 apply the principles of the flight of conventional aircraft to explain the
methods used to control simple drones designs, such as a quadcopter
 use photographs to analyse the configuration of wings and other
aerodynamics on racing vehicles, for example, Formula-1 cars; compare
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VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
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and contrast the configurations used for different circuits and race types
discuss the effect of the various aerofoil surfaces of an aeroplane and their
purposes
investigate the dispersal of winged seeds; account for seed motion in terms
of its physical structure
operate an electrically-driven propeller on a varying voltage and measure
the thrust–power relationship
use a flight simulator program to investigate the effects of changing the
various controls of an aircraft and explain the effects with respect to the
physics concepts involved, for example: find the relationship between angle
of attack, as determined from the cockpit instruments, and speed over a
range of fixed power settings; investigate the effect of the flap settings on
the rate of climb at various power settings; investigate the relationship
between power and speed in straight and level flight
research the development of alternative fuels for use in commercial
passenger aircraft including solar-electric and biofuels
set up demonstrations or structure independent investigations related to
flight by accessing teacher worksheets, applets, media clips and websites at
the VicPhysics website www.vicphysics.org
conduct a panel discussion related to a question involving a physics-based
issue in society, for example, ‘Is flying safe? or ‘Can drones (UAVs) be
safely used in the community to provide services such as parcel delivery?’
or ‘Does commercial passenger aircraft travel have a greater impact on the
environment than alternatives such as car or train travel?’ or Should
supersonic jets be banned?
Detailed example
PANEL DISCUSSION: A PHYSICS-BASED ISSUE IN SOCIETY
Refer to the generic detailed example that applies across all options in Unit 2 Area of Study 2 on pp. 36–38.
Area of Study 2.6: How do fusion and fission compare as viable nuclear power energy power sources?
Outcome 2.6:
Examples of learning activities
Apply the concepts of nuclear
physics to describe and
analyse nuclear energy as a
power source.
 describe the process of fusion and explain the statement: ‘we are all only
stardust after all’
 nominate some benefits of using the fission process for transforming energy
from nuclei to energy in electrical form
 compare the similarities and differences between fusion and fission
reactions; Why is energy released in both reactions? What are the end
products in each case?
 research the use of fusion and fission as sources of power and compare
their viability as an energy source
 use a particle model to show how fission causes a heating effect and how
the heating effect can then be used to generate an electrical effect
 describe how a fission reactor is controlled and how the energy output is
©VCAA 2015
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VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
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managed
research the main types of nuclear reactors in use around the world today:
How does each type of reactor perform the key tasks of control of the rate of
reaction, moderation and cooling? What are the advantages and
disadvantages of each type of reactor?
research the issue of nuclear reactor ‘melt down’: What is a melt down and
why is it such a danger? What sort of precautions can be taken to avoid
melt down problems? What was the reason for melt down in a nuclear
accident of the past? Is there a way to make a nuclear reactor ‘fail-safe’,
and are any such reactors operating?
explore the effect on the environment of nuclear accidents by accessing
sites such as www.angelfire.com/extreme4/kidofspeed/chapter1.html which
provides an account of the impact of a nuclear accident on the environment,
in this case Chernobyl (1986), long after the accident took place
discuss the role of predictions in science with reference to the predictions
made immediately following the sequence of events at Chernobyl in 1986in
relation to the consequences of exposure? What has happened since then?
To what extent should predictions be moderated by caution?
set up demonstrations or structure independent investigations related to
nuclear energy by accessing teacher worksheets, applets, media clips and
websites at the VicPhysics website www.vicphysics.org
conduct a panel discussion related to a question involving a physics-based
issue in society, for example ‘Would you allow a nuclear reactor to be built
in your local area?’
Detailed example
PANEL DISCUSSION: A PHYSICS-BASED ISSUE IN SOCIETY
Refer to the generic detailed example that applies across all options in Unit 2 Area of Study 2 on pp. 36–38.
Area of Study 2.7: How is radiation used to maintain human health?
Outcome 2.7:
Examples of learning activities
Use nuclear physics concepts
to describe and analyse
applications of
electromagnetic radiation and
particle radiation in medical
diagnosis and treatment.
 visit the radiology department of a local hospital; construct a one-page
infographic that summarises the types of diagnostic and treatment options
offered by the department, including the medical purposes for each option
offered
 determine the effective dose that a 25-year-old person may expect to have
been exposed to in an average life
 use a radiation monitor to observe the activity of a variety of sources;
explain how a smoke detector works and the arrangements that should be
made for its disposal
 explain how X-ray images are formed; outline the benefits/dangers of
having teeth X-rayed and precautions taken by dentists when teeth X-rays
are being taken
 radioisotopes are routinely used to diagnose medical conditions of patients:
explain how this is achieved and identify the limitations of this technology for
©VCAA 2015
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VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
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diagnostic purposes
laser treatment of patients is becoming more frequent: Which procedures
are suitable for the use of lasers? Which use is the more common,
therapeutic or diagnostic?
using the internet, research what MRI was formerly known as, outline why
the procedure underwent a name change and explain, in simple terms, how
an MRI operates
describe how an X-ray procedure is different from that of a PET scan; list
the advantages and limitations of using each procedure/s
obtain an X-ray or ultrasound image; identify the features shown by the
image
research some of the ways in which radioisotopes can be used to diagnose
medical conditions; Investigation questions may include:
 What are the most common isotopes used to diagnose medical
conditions?
 Where and how are medical isotopes obtained?
 In what ways are medical isotopes used?
 What requirements are there on the lifetime and activity of medical
isotopes?
 What are the requirements for a radioisotope used for medical treatment
and how do these requirements differ from those used in medical
diagnosis?
 What types of medical problems can be treated by the use of
radioisotopes?
 In what ways can a sufficient radiation dose be delivered to cancer cells
without endangering the patient?
set up demonstrations or structure independent investigations related to
medical physics by accessing teacher worksheets, applets, media clips and
websites at the VicPhysics website www.vicphysics.org
conduct a panel discussion related to a question involving a physics-based
issue in society, for example, ‘Is medical radiation safe?’
Detailed example
PANEL DISCUSSION: A PHYSICS-BASED ISSUE IN SOCIETY
Refer to the generic detailed example that applies across all options in Unit 2 Area of Study 2 on pp. 36–38
©VCAA 2015
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VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Area of Study 2.8: How do particle accelerators work?
Outcome 2.8:
Examples of learning activities
Apply the principles related to
the behaviour of charged
particles in the presence of
electric and magnetic fields to
describe and analyse the use
of accelerator technologies in
high energy physics.
 compare the energy required to accelerate electrons in the Australian
Synchrotron with that for particles used in the Large Hadron Collider and
use this to justify accelerator design
 investigate an application of particle accelerator physics, for example,
materials analysis; electronics; nuclear energy; medicine; environmental
monitoring
 identify the use of accelerator technology in a selected Nobel Prize winning
research project
 investigate the problems of accelerating electrons to velocities near the
speed of light; make feasibility calculations of the amount of energy required
 make feasibility calculations of the strength of the magnetic field needed to
keep electrons in the storage ring at particular radii (use realistic momentum
values)
 describe types of X-ray scattering and their relevance to the use of the
synchrotron; explain applications of synchrotron radiation used to
investigate the structure of materials
 use supplied data from an educational synchrotron beamline website to
investigate the structure of a selected crystal
 investigate the evolving technologies used to accelerate particles using
guiding questions, for example:
 Why is the circumference becoming larger?
 Why is the LHC circular in shape and not linear?
 How can the Australian Synchrotron be so small and the LHC needs to
be 27 km long?
 The latest operating of the LHC has even faster particle collisions – how
was this achieved and why?
 create a Venn diagram to compare particle accelerators.
 develop a data analysis line of inquiry to explore the data that is produced in
one of the LHC detectors:
 How much data is collected and how is it selected and why?
 How is all of this data stored and analysed?
 Who is able to use the data?
 explore ethical questions related to accelerator technologies, for example:
 Is the use of the large amounts of energy required by the LHC or a
synchrotron justifiable?
 Is the information that the LHC collects worth the energy use and
subsequent effects on the environment?
 How is data collected at an accelerator shared between scientists?
 Who is able to use the accelerator and is this equitable?
 investigate current accelerator particle research at the Australian
Synchrotron at www.synchrotron.org.au
 set up demonstrations or structure independent investigations related to
nuclear physics and accelerator technologies by accessing teacher
worksheets, applets, media clips and websites at the VicPhysics website
www.vicphysics.org
©VCAA 2015
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VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015

conduct a panel discussion related to a question involving a physics-based
issue in society, for example, ‘Is it worth spending public funding on
particle colliders?’
Detailed example
PANEL DISCUSSION: A PHYSICS-BASED ISSUE IN SOCIETY
Refer to the generic detailed example that applies across all options in Unit 2 Area of Study 2 on pp. 36–38.
Area of Study 2.9: How can human vision be enhanced?
Outcome 2.9:
Examples of learning activities
Apply a ray model of light and the
concepts of reflection and
refraction to explain the operation
of optical instruments and the
human eye, and describe how
human vision can be enhanced.
 design a lens system to assist a person with a specific eye problem
 investigate refraction through different media that model parts of the human
eye
 investigate qualitatively the changing nature of the image in a concave
mirror and/or a convex lens
 experiment with two convex lenses of different focal length to construct a
simple telescope
 construct an air or water lens; investigate the capacity of the lens to focus
light; modify the lens so that it has an adjustable focus; identify strengths
and weaknesses of suggested applications of the lenses in everyday
situations
 undertake practical investigations and simulations related to optics such as
those at www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-physics/optics
 investigate the operation of a bionic eye
 explore how new technologies are being used to help people improve
vision, for example, different types of laser eye surgery (LASIK, PRK,
LASEK and EpiLASIK), extended wear contact lenses, intraocular lenses;
produce an infographic that explains how a selected technology works
 dismantle an old and unusable digital camera; identify the components that
form images and compare with the parts of the human eye; follow up with
an animal eye dissection (obtained from the butcher) or an online virtual
dissection; use a multimodal format to report findings
 some medical reports claim that babies between 0 and 2 months of age see
the objects around them upside down; suggest how this could be tested;
suggest possible reasons to explain young babies seeing inverted images
 set up demonstrations or structure independent investigations related to
optics by accessing teacher worksheets, applets, media clips and websites
at the VicPhysics website www.vicphysics.org
 conduct a panel discussion on a physics-related question, for example,
‘Will bionic eyes supersede seeing eye dogs?'
©VCAA 2015
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VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Detailed example
PANEL DISCUSSION: A PHYSICS-BASED ISSUE IN SOCIETY
Refer to the generic detailed example that applies across all options in Unit 2 Area of Study 2 on pp. 36–38.
Area of Study 2.10: How do instruments make music?
Outcome 2.10:
Examples of learning activities
Apply a wave model to
describe and analyse the
production of sound in musical
instruments, and explain why
particular combinations of
sounds are more pleasing to
the human ear than others.
 determine the natural frequency of objects using sound and resonance
 investigate the design of a musical instrument and the production of sound.
 use a dB meter to measure sound levels at several distances from a
loudspeaker on the school oval, and investigate how intensity varies with
distance
 fill a glass with water, place a teaspoon of salt into the water and stir it:
explain the change of sound produced by the clicking of the glass with the
teaspoon as the salt dissolves; what happens when the experiment is
repeated using sugar?
 working in a group, create a multi-part musical instrument using blades of
grass or paper strips; explain how it is possible to produce a sound by
blowing across a blade of grass or a paper strip
 use a frequency analyser to display and analyse the harmonics in the sound
produced by a signal generator, tuning fork or musical instrument
 explore resonance using demonstrations, for example, swinging pendula of
various lengths, Tacoma bridge failure, the metal pronged head scratchers
(where matching natural frequency and length of oscillator leads to
maximum oscillation)
 investigate how length, tension in the string and frequency of oscillation are
related: suspend a mass over the edge of a table using a string over a
pulley, attach the other end to an oscillator connected to a signal generator,
and vary the signal to produce various standing waves on the string
 investigate the nature of the sounds that can be produced by a didgeridoo
and how they are formed
 explore waves on a string using applets, for example,
http://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/wave-on-a-string/latest/wave-on-astring_en.html
 explain how you can play music at top volume without disturbing your
neighbours
 research psychoacoustics and produce an infographic or multimedia
product to explain how we can use our knowledge of the human ear to
make the most use of sound production
 use a dual trace CRO and two signal generators to explore beats
 set up demonstrations or structure independent investigations related to
sound by accessing teacher worksheets, applets, media clips and websites
at the VicPhysics website www.vicphysics.org
 conduct a panel discussion related to a question involving a physics-based
issue in society, for example, ‘When does music become noise?’
©VCAA 2015
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VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Detailed example
PANEL DISCUSSION: A PHYSICS-BASED ISSUE IN SOCIETY
Refer to the generic detailed example that applies across all options in Unit 2 Area of Study 2 on pp. 36–38.
Area of Study 2.11: How can performance in ball sports be improved?
Outcome 2.11:
Examples of learning activities
Apply concepts of linear,
rotational and fluid mechanics
to explain movement in ball
sports.
 investigate and compare the performance of a variety of balls in diverse
sports
 explore the effect of air resistance on the flight of a ball using an applet,
for example
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/projectile-motion/projectile-motion_en.html
 evaluate the accuracy of the physics contained in videos related to
explanations of the Magnus Effect, for example
http://thekidshouldseethis.com/post/the-physics-behind-a-curveball-themagnus-effect
 investigate ball design to determine the internal and external design
features, and explain how these features differ in balls of different quality
 investigate how sports coaches use physics to enhance the skills of players
in ball games
 design and perform an experiment to investigate whether there is a limit to
how heavy a golf club or tennis racquet can be for an effective swing
 use video capture to record motion in a selected sport; examine the
technique used and explore how the technique can be improved; record the
motion again after the technique has been tried and comment on the role of
practice in developing and applying new techniques
 observe a sport technique and explore strategies for improvement of
performance based on knowledge of physics
 make a video of 5 minutes of a ball game; analyse the motion of the ball
using physics concepts
 discuss the scientific accuracy of the story presented at
http://blogs.abc.net.au/victoria/2015/04/science-with-dr-scott-why-dodifferent-designs-of-volleyballs-float-better-than-others.html?site=gippsland&program=gippsland_breakfast
 set up demonstrations or structure independent investigations related to
motion and sports science by accessing teacher worksheets, applets, media
clips and websites at the VicPhysics website www.vicphysics.org
 conduct a panel discussion related to a question involving a physics-based
issue in society, for example, ‘Should golf clubs, tennis racquets and other
personally-selected sporting equipment be standardised?’
Detailed example
PANEL DISCUSSION: A PHYSICS-BASED ISSUE IN SOCIETY
Refer to the generic detailed example that applies across all options in Unit 2 Area of Study 2 on pp. 36–38.
©VCAA 2015
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VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Area of Study 2.12: How does the human body use electricity?
Outcome 2.12:
Examples of learning activities
Explain the electrical behaviour
of the human body and apply
electricity concepts to biological
contexts.
 compare the resistance of various tissues by testing parts of a chicken wing
(bone, fat, muscle, nerves and skin); apply the results to electricity in the
human body
 model nerve transmission including electrical transmission along the neuron
and transmission of neurochemicals across the synapse
 use YouTube videos or animations to visualise how ions move around the
heart to create a potential difference that generates a heartbeat, for
example www.youtube.com/watch?v=1-NA86aAMvY; create an infographic
using screen capture software to explain how heartbeat is generated
 draw a sketch of the human body and model it with electric circuits using
known resistances and potential differences; use these values to determine
current in different body circuits
 model one application of electricity involving the human body, for example,
a reflex action such as blinking, the perception of taste
 construct a simple lie detector such as that at:
www.instructables.com/id/Simple-Lie-Detector/; use this as the basis for a
report on how lie detectors work
 make your own model EEG (and ECG)
www.instructables.com/id/DIY-EEG-and-ECG-Circuit/
 set up demonstrations or structure student independent investigations
related to bioelectricity by accessing teacher worksheets, applets, media
clips and websites at the VicPhysics website www.vicphysics.org
 conduct a panel discussion on a physics-related question, for example,
‘Should polygraph results be used as court evidence?’
Detailed example
PANEL DISCUSSION: A PHYSICS-BASED ISSUE IN SOCIETY
Refer to the generic detailed example that applies across all options in Unit 2 Area of Study 2 on pp. 36–38.
©VCAA 2015
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VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Detailed example for a selected option in Unit 2 Area of Study 2
PANEL DISCUSSION: A PHYSICS-BASED ISSUE IN SOCIETY
Introduction
Many contemporary issues in society involve physics ideas and concepts. The focus of this activity is on
students being able to communicate a response to an issue generated through their studies in a selected option
in Unit 2 Area of Study 2. A sample question is listed below for each Unit 2 option:
Option 2.1: Is it worth spending public funding on space research?
Option 2.2: Why bother with searching for extra-terrestrial intelligence?
Option 2.3: Is bionic better?
Option 2.4: Is living near electrical substations a health hazard?
Option 2.5: Is flying safe?
Option 2.6: Would you allow a nuclear reactor to be built in your local area?
Option 2.7: Is medical radiation safe?
Option 2.8: Is it worth spending public funding on particle colliders?
Option 2.9: Will bionic eyes supersede seeing eye dogs?
Option 2.10: When does music become noise?
Option 2.11: Should golf clubs, tennis racquets and other personally-selected sporting equipment be
standardised?
Option 2.12: Should polygraph results be used as court evidence?
Teachers must consider the management logistics of the investigation, taking into account number of students,
whether a local or broader issue will be investigated, student interest in particular issues, whether all students
will investigate the same issue and the format for the response. The following questions require consideration:
 How many different issues will be investigated in the class?
 Will different issues be selected within one option, or will issues across different options be manageable?
 How will the issue for investigation be selected?
 To what extent will students work on their issue inside and outside the class, and how can work completed
outside the class be authenticated?
 To what extent will students work independently? Collaboratively?
 To whom will students be expected to communicate?
 What form will the communication take?
Aim
To communicate a justified response to a social issue involving physics concepts through participation in a
‘Question & Answer’ panel discussion.
Introduction
For each selected issue, students role-play a Question & Answer (Q&A) panel type discussion, moderated by
the teacher or a student from another issue group, to examine the possible implications (benefits and limitations)
for stakeholders affected by decisions relating to the selected issue. Initially each student will assume the role of
one stakeholder associated with the issue and become part of a panel-type discussion. The moderator initiates
discussion and also canvasses questions from the Q&A audience (other students in class). Each student then
selects a different stakeholder and writes a media communication (approximately 300 words) from their
perspective, for example a newspaper article, TV ad script, blog entries over period of time, or another media
communication.
Science skills
Teachers should identify and inform students of the relevant key science skills embedded in the task.
Preparation:
 Students should have discussed examples of ‘effective’ and ‘ineffective’ oral and written communication
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techniques and practices.
 Issue could be pre-selected by the teacher or negotiated as a class through discussions generated from a
number of options presented to students by the teacher and/or student suggestions.
 Information for the issue could be presented to students as a case study or a series of ‘fact sheets’, in
addition to details about the sources of information, to allow students to conduct further research as
required. Research may be undertaken within and outside class, but must be recorded in the students’
logbooks.
 Students become panel members that represent stakeholder interests (students select the names of
stakeholders at random ‘from a hat’), for example a relevant scientist, a local government representative,
someone who gains from the issue, someone who is negatively impacted by the issue, a local resident with
young family, and a philanthropist.
Health, safety and ethical notes
 Students should be respectful of others and their opinions at all times.
 Students should be reminded that this activity is simply a role-play and the comments made do not
necessary reflect the attitudes of the individual speakers.
Procedure for students
Stage 1: Each student considers general information about the selected issue; role-plays one stakeholder and
presents their position; constructs a question their stakeholder would like addressed by a discussion panel;
prepares possible responses to these questions from the perspective of the stakeholder.
 Read through the case study or ‘fact sheets’ relating to the issue.
 In the logbook, note down any initial questions about the case study or issue.
 Each student selects at random the name of a stakeholder relevant to their case study or issue.
 Spend 10 minutes brainstorming the likely perspective of the stakeholder towards the issue. Note results of
discussions in logbook.
 Present a 30-second oral summary of the stakeholder perspective to the class, for example: ‘My name is X
and I am the local member for Town Y where construction of a nuclear reactor is proposed. The majority of
my constituents are against the proposal since there are concerns about the safe operation of the plant and
a reported fear of nuclear accidents. People are worried about possible short- and long-term health effects.
Since I represent the views of my constituency, this means that I am unable to support the proposal.’
 On a slip of paper, construct one question to be addressed by another stakeholder relating to this issue.
Which stakeholder should respond to the question? The question should be well thought out and allow the
class to gain insight into the issue from as many perspectives as possible. The following list of question
terms might assist– select one term from each list to construct the question:
List 1: Who/What/Where/When/Why/How…?
List 2: …would/could/should/is/are/might/will/was/were…?
Submit the question to the teacher, who will collate these (perhaps by photocopying all slips onto a single
sheet of paper) and distribute them to the relevant discussion panel and panel moderator.
 Working with the other members of the panel, discuss the questions that have been submitted and note in
the logbook responses to the questions from the perspectives of each stakeholder. Include as much
scientific data as possible in the responses. Additional internet research may need to be conducted to
develop the responses.
Stage 2 – Each student role-plays the perspective of their stakeholder as part of a panel discussion. They may
use any notes written in the logbook and may also make additional notes in the logbook during the class.
Stage 3 – Each student writes a media communication in their logbook from the perspective of a different
stakeholder from that role-played in the panel discussion. They may choose to write a newspaper article, TV ad
script, blog entries over time or another type of written media communication. By the end of this lesson each
student will submit approximately 300 words. They may use any notes from the logbook.
The media communication should identify/highlight the:
 specific scientific concept/s being communicated
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 likely target audience
 scientific data used to justify the position of the stakeholder
Students will be assessed with respect to:
 accuracy of scientific information
 clarity of explanations
 appropriateness for purpose and audience.
Area of Study 3: Practical investigation
Outcome 3:
Examples of learning activities
Design and undertake an
investigation of a physics
question related to the
scientific inquiry processes of
data collection and analysis,
and draw conclusions based
on evidence from collected
data.









How do different materials affect air resistance?
Which types of bubble wrap provides the most protection?
Are more expensive tennis balls better?
What is the relationship between volume of air inside a soccer ball/
basketball and its bounce/ distance it travels?
Is there an ideal angle and direction that solar panels should be faced?
How can I make my boomerang come back?
How does aerofoil shape affect performance?
What factors affect the detection of sound by the human ear?
Does humidity affect the bounce or spin of a ball?
Detailed example
WHAT FACTORS AFFECT THE DETECTION OF SOUND BY THE HUMAN EAR?
The practical investigation builds on knowledge and skills developed in Unit 2 Area of Study 1 and/or any of the
options in Area of Study 2. Teachers must consider the management logistics of the investigation, taking into
account number of students, available resources and student interest. The following questions require
consideration:
 What input would students have into the selection of the investigation question?
 Will different groups of students in the class be able to undertake different investigations?
 To what extent will all students consider the same investigation question, or complete different parts to the
same question so that class data can be pooled?
 What input would students have into the design of the experiment?
 Will off-school site work be involved?
Teachers could provide students with a template that structures the investigation into a series of timed phases.
Students may subsequently adapt the template as a personal work plan in their logbooks.
Topic selection phase
In Unit 2 Area of Study 2, the teacher had negotiated with the class to offer five different options. Part of the
communication aspect of the student investigations involved student group presentation of findings to the rest of
the class. In this detailed example, the investigation question was generated following student interest in
exploring different aspects of music, sound and hearing as a consequence of the initial work of the group of
students undertaking Option 2.10: How do instruments make music? From this discussion students formulated a
number of research questions for investigation, based on a general question: What factors affect the detection
of sound by the human ear?
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Sample student-generated research questions include:
 What factors affect localisation of sound?
 What instruments are used to mimic bird sounds in classical music?
 Are two ears better than one?
 Are there particular frequencies of sound that older people cannot pick up?
 What factors will improve the sound quality of a homemade PVC pipe instrument?
 Do musicians have better hearing?
Planning phase
Students may need guidance in:
 fitting the investigation into the time available, and developing a work plan
 identifying the technical skills involved in the investigation, and
 ensuring that resources are available that meet the requirements of the investigation.
Teachers should work with students to:
 determine to what extent students will work independently or in groups (different students or groups may
investigate instruments
 discuss the independent, dependent and controlled variables in proposed experiments
 identify safety aspects associated with undertaking experiments related to hearing and sound
 establish the use of physical units of measurement and standard notation, and how to reference sources and
provide appropriate acknowledgments.
Investigation phase
Prior to students undertaking practical investigations, the teacher must approve student-designed
methodologies. A possible schedule for management of the multiple investigations in the class is as follows:
 each student undertakes internet research to find background information related to the general topic for
investigation
 students work individually or in groups to confirm a research question, formulate a hypothesis and propose a
research methodology, including management of relevant safety and health issues
 students perform investigations, record and analyse results and prepare final presentation of their findings
using an agreed report format to a selected audience.
Reporting phase
Students consider the data collected, report on any errors or problems encountered, and use evidence to
explain and answer the investigation question. Other avenues for further investigation may be developed
following evaluation of their experimental design and quality of data.
The above phases could be recorded in the student logbook. The report of the investigation can take various
forms including a written report, a scientific poster or a multimedia or oral presentation of the investigation.
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Appendix 1: Scientific investigation
Hypothesis formulation
Once a topic has been identified students develop a research question for investigation,
which may involve formulating a hypothesis.
Teachers should guide students so that they do not proceed with a research question or
hypothesis that is not testable.
Variables
The formulation of a hypothesis includes the identification and control of variables. A variable
is any quantity or characteristic that can exist in differing amounts or types and can be
measured. Values for variables may be categorical or they may be numerical, having a
magnitude.
Not all variables can be easily measured. Length can be measured easily using, for
example, metre rulers. Shades of colour are less easily measured and are more likely to be
subjective. They might be measured by, for example, using photographic comparisons to
produce a set of graduated ‘standards’ that are nominated and named for the purposes of
the investigation.
In VCE Physics, students are required to identify independent and dependent variables.
They should also understand the need to control other variables (extraneous variables
including confounding variables) that may affect the integrity of the experiment and the
interpretation of results. Operationalisation of variables is beyond the scope of the VCE
Physics Study Design.
Concepts related to variables that apply to VCE Physics are specified in Appendix 2.
Developing a testable hypothesis
A hypothesis is developed from a research question of interest and provides a possible
explanation of a problem that can be tested experimentally. A useful hypothesis is a testable
statement that may include a prediction. In some cases, for example in exploratory or
qualitative research, a research question may not lend itself to having an accompanying
hypothesis; in such cases students should work directly with their research questions.
There is no mandated VCE Physics style’ for writing a hypothesis. Recognition of null and
alternate hypotheses, one- and two-tailed hypotheses, and directional and non-directional
hypotheses is not required.
The following table provides an example of how a hypothesis may be constructed from a
research question using an ‘If-then-when’ construction process:
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Step 1: Ask a research question of interest: Does the functionality of a yo-yo depend on string ply?
Step 2: Identify the independent variable (IV): thickness of a yo-yo string
Step 3: Identify the dependent variable (DV): number of oscillations of a yo-yo
Step 4: Construct a hypothesis (a – f below):
a
b
c
…then…
d
trend indicator
e
…when…
f
If…
relationship phrase
(the
DV)…
(to the IV)
(effect on the DV)
(action by the IV).
…depends on…
...show an increase/
decrease ...
…increased/ decreased…
…results from…
…is affected by…
…is directly related to…
trend indicator
…greater/ less…
…be greater than/less
than…
…large/small…
…be larger /smaller…
Hypothesis: If the number of oscillations of a yo-yo is inversely related to string ply, then the number of oscillations of a yo-yo
using low-ply string will be greater than when lower-ply string is used.
Notes:
 Different writing styles for hypotheses can be equally valid.
 Some hypotheses include reasons for the inherent prediction, for example the above hypothesis may be extended as: ‘If
the number of oscillations of a yo-yo is inversely related to string ply, since the friction will be reduced in having fewer
fibres, then the number of oscillations of a yo-yo using low-ply string will be greater than when lower-ply string is used.’
Accuracy, precision, reliability and validity
Accuracy
Experimental accuracy refers to how close the experimental result obtained is to the
accepted, or ‘true’, value of the particular quantity subject to measurement. The true value is
the value that would be found if the quantity could be measured perfectly. For example, if an
experiment is performed and it is determined that a given substance had a mass of 2.7 g,
but the actual or known mass is 9.6 g, then the measurement is not accurate since it is not
close to the known value. The difference between a measured value and the true value is
known as the ‘measurement error’.
While accurate measurements and observations are important in all science experiments, in
some cases it may not be possible to determine the accuracy of a measurement since a true
value for a particular quantity may be unknown. Often, measurement accuracy is evaluated
by making comparisons with accepted values for a physical quantity.
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Precision
Experimental precision refers to how closely two or more measurements agree with other.
Precision is sometimes referred to as ‘repeatability’ or ‘reproducibility’. A set of precise
measurements will have very little spread about their mean value. For example, if a given
substance was weighed five times, and a mass of 2.7 g was obtained each time, then the
experimental data are very precise. Precision is independent of accuracy, so that if the true
mass was 9.6 g then these data are very precise but inaccurate. Results can also be
accurate but imprecise. For example, if repeated measurements were repeated to
determine the mass of a given substance and masses of 9.5 g, 9.7 g and 9.8 g were
obtained, then if the true mass was 9.6 g the data would be accurate but not precise since
the measurements for the given substance are close to the true value, but the
measurements are spread over a range.
The reproducibility of an experimental method is dependent on its level of experimental
precision. A measurement that is highly reproducible tends to give values that are very close
to each other.
Experimental precision can be improved by:
 repeating the experiment multiple times
 collecting results from other groups to further increase the number of samples
 practising experimental techniques so that expertise in using equipment is improved.
Quantitatively, a measure of precision (or imprecision) is the standard deviation or the
magnitude of the error (or uncertainty). The larger the uncertainty, the less assurance there
is that any repeated measurements taken will be within a very narrow range of values, for
example, a measured mass of 2.7 g ± 0.1 g is less precise than 2.702 g ± 0.001 g.
Replication of procedures: repeatability and reproducibility
Experimental data and results must be more than one-off findings and should be repeatable
and reproducible in order to draw reasonable conclusions. Repeatability refers to the
closeness of agreement between independent results obtained with the same method on
identical test material, under the same conditions (same operator, same apparatus, same
laboratory and after short intervals of time). Reproducibility refers to the closeness of
agreement between independent results obtained with the same method on identical test
material but under different conditions (different operators, different apparatus, different
laboratories and/or after different intervals of time). Reproducibility is often used as a test of
the reliability of an experiment.
Reliability
Experimental reliability refers to the likelihood that another experimenter will perform exactly
the same experiment under the same conditions and generate the same results (within a
very narrow range of values). Experiments that use human judgment may not always
produce reliable results.
Validity
Experimental validity refers to how well the experimental design matches the requirements
of the investigation to produce results that address the stated aim/s.
Both internal and external validity should be considered in evaluating experimental results:
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 internal validity dictates how an experimental design is structured and encompasses all of
the steps of the scientific research method
 external validity is the process of examining the results and questioning whether there are
any other possible causal relationships.
Data are said to be valid if the measurements that have been made are affected by a single
independent variable only. They are not valid if the investigation is flawed and control
variables have been allowed to change or there is observer bias.
Experimental uncertainties and errors
It is important not to confuse the terms ‘error’ and ‘uncertainty’, which are not synonyms.
Error is the difference between the measured value and the accepted value of what is being
measured. Uncertainty is a quantification of the doubt associated with the measurement
result. It is also important not to confuse ‘error’ with ‘mistake’.
Experimental uncertainties are inherent in the measurement process and cannot be
eliminated simply by repeating the experiment no matter how carefully it is done. There are
two sources of experimental uncertainties: systematic errors and random errors.
Experimental uncertainties are distinct from human errors.
Human errors
Human errors include mistakes or miscalculations such as measuring a height when the
depth should have been measured, or misreading the scale on a thermometer, or measuring
the voltage across the wrong section of an electric circuit, or forgetting to divide the diameter
by 2 before calculating the area of a circle using the formula A = π r2. Human errors can be
eliminated by performing the experiment again correctly the next time, and do not form part
of error analysis.
Systematic errors
Systematic errors are errors that affect the accuracy of a measurement. Systematic errors
cause readings to differ from the accepted value by a consistent amount each time a
measurement is made, so that all the readings are shifted in one direction from the accepted
value. The accuracy of measurements subject to systematic errors cannot be improved by
repeating those measurements.
Common sources of systematic errors are faulty calibration of measuring instruments, poorly
maintained instruments, or faulty reading of instruments by the user (for example, ‘parallax
error’).
Random errors
Random errors are uncertainties that affect the precision of a measurement and are always
present in measurements (except for ‘counting’ measurements). These types of
uncertainties are unpredictable variations in the measurement process and result in a spread
of readings.
Common sources of random errors are variations in estimating a quantity that lies between
the graduations (lines) on a measuring instrument, the inability to read an instrument
because the reading fluctuates during the measurement and making a quick judgment of a
transient event, for example, the rebound height of a ball.
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The effect of random errors can be reduced by making more or repeated measurements and
calculating a new mean and/or by refining the measurement method or technique.
In the VCE Physics Study Design, random errors are shown on graphs using error bars.
Error bars are a graphical representation of the uncertainty of data. When determining the
average and uncertainty of a set of readings, the average is the simple mean with outliers
ignored while the uncertainty should take account the spread of readings using one of the
many common procedures used in data analysis.
Outliers
Readings that lie a long way from other results are called outliers. Outliers should be further
analysed and accounted for, rather than being automatically dismissed. Extra readings may
be useful in further examining an outlier.
Quantitative analysis of uncertainties in measurement
The experimental uncertainty is the estimated amount by which a particular measurement
might be inaccurate. For example, if a measured mass is 2.70 g and the uncertainty in the
measurement is 0.05 g, the actual value is likely to be in the range between (2.70 - 0.05) g to
(2.70 + 0.05) g, that is, between 2.65 g and 2.75 g.
Significant figures
Non-zero digits in data are always considered significant. Leading zeros are never significant
whereas following zeros and zeros between non-zero digits are always significant. For
example, 075.0210 contains six significant figures with the zero at the beginning not
considered significant. 400 has three significant figures while 400.0 has four.
Using a significant figures approach, one can infer the claimed accuracy of a value. For
example, 400 is closer to 400 than 399 or 401. Similarly 0.0675 is closer to 0.0675 than
0.0674 or 0.0676.
Columns of data in tables should have the same number of decimal places, for example,
measurements of lengths in centimetres or time intervals in seconds may yield the following
data: 5.6, 9.2, 11.2 and 14.5. Significant figure rules should then be applied in subsequent
data analysis.
Calculations in physics often involve numbers having different numbers of significant figures.
In mathematical operations involving:
 addition and subtraction, the student should retain as many digits to the right of the
decimal as in the number with the fewest significant digits to the right of the decimal, for
example: 386.38 + 793.354 - 0.000397 = 1179.73
 multiplication and division, the student should retain as many significant digits as in the
number with the fewest significant digits, for example: 326.95 x 10.2 ÷ 20.322 = 164.
Determining uncertainties in measured data
The uncertainty of a measured value is half of the smallest deviation on a graduated scale
and half of the smallest digit shown on a digital scale, for example, the uncertainty in an
individual measurement can be written as 2.5 ± 0.05 g. However, where several readings
are averaged, the average should have the same number of decimal places as the
uncertainty. For example, if the rebound heights of a basketball are measured to the nearest
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centimetre yield the set of results: 60 ± 0.5, 62 ± 0.5, 59 ± 0.5, 60 ± 0.5, 61 ± 0.5, then the
average rebound height is 60.4 cm with a maximum of 62 and a minimum of 59. The larger
difference of these two values from the mean is 62 - 60 = 2 cm, so the reading now becomes
60.4 ± 2. Since the average has more decimal places than the uncertainty, the number
recorded should be 60 ± 2 cm.
Propagation of uncertainties
There are various ways to represent uncertainty. For VCE Physics, students should
represent uncertainties as absolute uncertainties, for example x ± Δx, or as percentage
uncertainties, for example, z ± Δz%. Tables of results usually include uncertainties that are
represented as absolute uncertainties.
When adding or subtracting quantities, absolute uncertainties are added. When multiplying
or dividing quantities, percentage uncertainties are added. When a variable is raised to a
power, for example, y = xn, the percentage uncertainty in y, Δy/y, is determined using
│nΔx/x│, and the percentage uncertainty is determined by multiplying by n.
For any other mathematical treatment of variables students may simply substitute the lowest
and the highest data points to determine the range.
Presenting and analysing data
To explain the relationship between two or more variables investigated in an experiment,
data should be presented in such a way as to make any patterns and trends more evident.
Although tables are an effective means of recording data, they are limited in depicting the
design of an investigation and may not be the best way to show trends, patterns or
relationships. Graphical representations can be used to more clearly show whether any
trends, patterns or relationships exist. The type of graphical representation used by students
will depend upon the type of variables investigated:
 pie graphs and bar charts can be used to display data in which one of the variables is
categorical
 line graphs can be used to display data in which both the independent and dependent
variables are continuous
 lines of best fit can be used to illustrate the underlying relationship between variables
 scattergrams can be used to show an association between two variables
 sketch graphs (not necessarily on a grid; no plotted points; labelled axes but not
necessarily scaled) can be used to show the general shape of the relationship between
two variables.
When drawing graphs, students should note that:
 the independent variable is represented on the horizontal axis while the dependent
variable is represented on the vertical axis
 the existence of a correlation does not necessarily establish that there is a causal
relationship between two variables
 not all experiments will show a correlation between variables
 common types of relationships in physics include linear, power and sometimes
exponential.
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Students should understand why it is important not to ‘force data through zero’. In drawing
conclusions they should examine patterns, trends and relationships between variables with
the limitations of the data in mind. Gradients and y-intercepts should be considered in terms
of what these may indicate about the relationship between independent and dependent
variables. Conclusions drawn from data must be limited by, and not go beyond, the data
available.
Representation of uncertainties in graphs
Absolute uncertainties can be represented on graphs using error bars. Students should
normally include vertical error bars; at times, horizontal error bars may also be appropriate.
A trend line (if used) should lie within the region of the error bars. Deviation of trend lines
should be discussed in the analysis of results.
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Appendix 2: Defining variables
The table identifies types of variables that apply to VCE Physics.
Type of variable
Definitions
Categorical
Categorical variables are qualitative variables that describe a quality or
characteristic typically addressing ‘what type?’ or ‘which category?’ They are
generally represented by non-numeric values and may be further classified as
ordinal or nominal.
 Ordinal variables can take values that can be logically ordered or
ranked, for example, order of the planets in the solar system from the Sun
(1st, 2nd 3rd), degree of satisfaction with a new gadget (small, medium,
large) and attitudes (strongly agree, agree, disagree, strongly disagree)
 Nominal variables can take values that cannot be organised in a logical
sequence, for example, gender, colour and type of sub-atomic particle
Bar charts and pie graphs are used to graph categorical data.
Numerical
Numerical variables are quantitative variables that describe a measurable
quantity as a number, typically addressing ‘how many?’ or ‘how much?’ They
are further classified as continuous or discrete.
 Continuous variables can take any value between a certain set of real
numbers, for example, distance (2.85 kilometres), length (12.5 seconds)
or temperature (25.4 °C)
 Discrete variables can take a value based on a count from a set of
distinct whole values and cannot take the value of a fraction between one
value and the next closest value, for example, number of stars in the solar
system or number of electrons in an atom
Scatter plots and line graphs are used to graph numerical data.
Independent
An independent variable is the variable for which quantities are manipulated
(selected or changed) by the experimenter, and assumed to have a direct
effect on the dependent variable. Independent variables are plotted on the
horizontal axis of graphs.
Dependent
A dependent variable is the variable the experimenter measures, after
selecting the independent variable that is assumed to affect the dependent
variable. Dependent variables are plotted on the vertical axis of graphs.
Controlled
A controlled variable is a variable that has been held constant in an
experiment in order to test the relationship between the independent and
dependent variables.
Extraneous
Any variable that is not intentionally studied in an experiment is an
extraneous variable and must be controlled (kept constant), or at least
monitored, in order that it does not threaten the internal validity of
experimental results by becoming a confounding variable.
Confounding
Confounding variables are types of extraneous variables that correlate either
directly or inversely with both the independent and dependent variables and
can interfere with the validity of the experiment by providing alternative
explanations for experimental results.
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Appendix 3: Examples of problem-based
learning approaches
A problem-based learning environment is conducive to linking scientific concepts to sciencebased issues in society. Scenarios can be developed from actual research studies reported
in scientific journals, local scenarios or issues, an imaginary scenario, an interesting physics
phenomenon or a fact-based or fictional case study as in the following example:
Step 1: Define the question/scenario/problem carefully: what are you trying to find out?
Case study: The dangers of children being left in hot cars:
Every summer, cases are reported where children have been left in cars, often with fatal consequences. A real
or imaginary case study can be presented to students; for the purpose of confidentiality, teachers are advised
to use fictitious names in actual case studies.
Quotes from appropriate people may be included in the stimulus material presented to students, for example:
Parent: I only wanted to pick up some milk and a loaf of bread at the supermarket – I knew I’d only be
gone for five minutes.
Doctor: There is no safe amount of time to leave a child alone in a car. Children are more susceptible
and at higher risk of heat-related injuries and illnesses than adults because their bodies generate more
heat relative to their size and their abilities to cool through sweating are not as developed as adults. Heat
stroke can occur when body temperature passes 41 °C.
Automobile engineer: Even on a 22 °C day, the temperature in a car can increase by 16 to 22 degrees,
and 70% of this increase occurs in the first half hour.
Student task: Draw on physics concepts related to heating, cooling and the greenhouse effect to develop a
car heating model that illustrates the dangers of leaving children in cars on hot days..
Step 2: Refine the question/
explore possible options
(class brainstorming)
Step 3: Plan the actual
investigation/narrow your
choices
(class consensus)
Step 4: Test ideas and obtain further
information
(group and/or individual)
Step 5: Write a conclusion that draws upon discussions/research/experiments, including specific scientific
terminology.
Notes:
 problem-based scenarios do not necessarily have a single solution
 students must be sensitive to different views and suggested ideas and solutions presented by other
students in discussing scenario options and when evaluating other students’ models
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A problem-based learning approach can also be used to develop specific science skills. The
skills should link to relevant physics content. The following example focuses on the skill of
hypothesis formulation.
Step 1: Define the question/scenario/problem carefully: what are you trying to find out?
Question: Does temperature affect the sound of musical instruments?
Task: This research question is vague – needs refining with a narrower focus in order to develop a testable
hypothesis.
Step 2: Refine the question/explore
possible options
(class brainstorming)
Possible responses:
Question needs to be more specific:
 What type of musical instrument will
be investigated – string? wind?
percussion?
 Which part of the instrument will be
investigated – casing? strings?
 Does the tuning ability of the
musician have an effect?
Students may use a literature review or
surveys of musicians to identify
different practices and issues, for
example:
 some trumpet and flute players cool
their instruments to change tone –
claim that sound is more ‘mellow’ at
cooler temperatures
 some piano players claim that
higher temperatures and humidity
cause bushings to swell in the
piano, leading to an increased time
– called ‘sluggishness’ - between
when the pianist hits a key and
when the hammer hits the string
 some violinists claim that warmer
weather changes the amount of
friction between the bow and the
strings, changing the way the bow
pulls on each string
Step 3: Plan the actual investigation/
narrow your choices
(class consensus)
Possible responses:
Need to identify dependent and
independent variables and control
other variables.
Independent variable (being selected)
relates to the temperature. Cool,
warm and hot temperature
environments may be set up for the
experiment:
Dependent variable (being measured)
relates to ‘quality of sound’ being
investigated and could be:
 frequency of vibration of a string
 tone
 pitch
 the frequency of a musical note,
as measured by a tuner.
Control of other variables is
dependent on selected independent
and dependent variables.
Step 4: Test ideas and obtain
further information
(group and/or individual)
Possible responses:
 Hypothesis example: ‘If the
frequency of a musical note
is dependent on
temperature, then changing
the temperature
surroundings of a string will
change its frequency’
 Not all hypotheses are
testable and not all variables
can be controlled for some
experiments
 For this problem, students
generate possible
hypotheses; provide
feedback on each other’s
hypotheses; modify own
hypotheses
 Extensions/alternate
experiments could relate to
the effect of humidity on the
sound produced by a
musical instrument.
Step 5: Write a conclusion that draws upon discussions/research/experiments, including discussion of scientific
terms, control of variables and evaluation of experimental methodology.
Note: This class problem-based learning approach can be used to generate different questions for students to
investigate, particularly for experimental investigations.
©VCAA 2015
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VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Appendix 4: Sample teaching plan
Sample Course Outline – VCE Physics Unit 1
Note: This is a sample guide only and indicates one way to present the content from the Study Design over the weeks in each school term.
Teachers are advised to consider their own contexts in developing learning activities: Which local fieldwork sites would support learning in the
topic area? Which local issues lend themselves to debate and investigation? Which experiments can students complete within the resource
limitations of their learning environments?
Week
Area
Topics
Practical work
Temperature; kinetic energy model; Zeroth law; first law; internal energy.
Measuring temperature
Energy required to change temperature and state (latent and specific heat capacity); evaporative cooling.
Conduction, convection and
radiation; heat capacity
Heat transfers (conduction; convection; radiation); regions of the electromagnetic spectrum; radiation from the sun; Wien’s Law.
Design-build-test solar hot
water system
Stefan-Boltzmann law; modelling tectonic plates; modelling weather; greenhouse effect; greenhouse gases; human activity and the
enhanced greenhouse effect.
Greenhouse effect model
5
Thermodynamics Investigation (student choice of topics, including: energy use for heating vs cooling; heating and cooling systems;
passive house design; thermal imaging; energy ratings; cooking alternatives; automotive fuel sources)
Dependent on student chosen
topic and focus area
6
Charge and current; potential difference and emf; circuit analogies; making measurements (ammeters, voltmeters, multimeters);
conductors and insulators.
Basic circuits; conductors and
insulators
7
Resistance; I–V graphs; Ohm’s Law; circuit components (light bulb, resistor, diode, LED, thermistor, LDR, potentiometer); ohmic and Resistance of pencil lines;
non-ohmic devices; energy and power.
I–V characteristics
3
4
How do electric
circuits work?
2
How can thermal effects
be explained?
1
Series and parallel circuit characteristics (voltage, current, energy, power); effective resistance in series and parallel; calculating
resistance.
Series and parallel circuits
Voltage dividers; applications of transducers.
Sensing light and temperature
10
Household circuit components (circuit breakers, switches, loads); parallel circuits; kilowatt-hours; AC and DC.
Appliance energy use
11
Safety devices (fuses, circuit breakers, RCDs); electric shock (causes, effects, treatments).
8
9
©VCAA 2015
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VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
12
13
14
15
Area
What is matter and
how is it formed?
Week
16
17–18
©VCAA 2015
Topics
Practical work
Origins of the Universe; Big Bang theory; space and time; using scientific notation; the changing Universe (expansion, cooling);
changes of matter.
Modelling expansion
Nuclear stability and forces in the nucleus (strong, weak); isotopes and radioisotopes; types of radiation;
Detecting radiation
Radioactive decay and half-life; decay equations and decay series diagrams; stability of isotopes
Measuring half life
Prediction and discovery (neutron, neutrino, positron, Higgs boson); quarks; leptons, hadrons, mesons and bayrons; anti-matter.
Nuclear energy from conversion of mass; fusion and fission; synchrotron radiation; light from electrons transitions.
All
Unit revision.
50
VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Sample Course Outline – VCE Physics Unit 2: What do experiments reveal about the physical world?
Note: This is a sample guide only and indicates one way to present the content from the Study Design over the weeks in each school term.
Teachers are advised to consider their own contexts in developing learning activities: Which local fieldwork sites would support learning in the
topic area? Which local issues lend themselves to debate and investigation? Which experiments can students complete within the resource
limitations of their learning environments?
Topics
Practical work
Vectors and scalars; describing motion (position, displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration); motion graphs.
Graphing everyday motion;
matching motion graphs
Constant acceleration motion (suvat equations; falling vertically under gravity).
Measuring g (1)
Forces as 2D vectors (magnitude and direction, components, resultant); everyday forces (gravity; friction; reaction).
Balancing forces
Newton’s Laws of Motion (first law; second law; third law).
Measuring g (2)
Analysis of connected bodies; motion on inclined planes.
Newton’s second law
Torque; rotational equilibrium; simple structures.
Bridge building challenge
Impulse and momentum; collisions; conservation of momentum; applications of momentum to sports and vehicle safety.
Video analysis of
momentum in collisions
Work; Hooke’s Law; energy (gravitational potential, elastic potential, kinetic).
Video analysis of energy
transformations
9
Conservation of energy; power; efficiency.
Efficiency of a motor
10
Student choice of topic for option from those available. Theory (prepare summary of chosen aspect of theory to present; complete
set theory questions).
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
11
12
©VCAA 2015
How can motion be described and explained?
Area
Options
Week
Application (investigate chosen application aspect of topic; prepare for presentation).
Dependent on student
chosen topic and focus area
Student presentation (present theory and application to class); self-assessment; peer and teacher feedback; reflection.
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VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
13
14
15
Area
Practical
Investigation
Week
16
17–18
©VCAA 2015
Topics
Practical work
Topic selection (research possible topics, shortlist ideas, teacher feedback, select); plan investigation (aim, hypothesis, relevant
theory, method, resources required).
Receive feedback and revise plan; conduct experimental trials.
Conduct experimental trials; analyse results; start poster preparation.
Student-designed practical
investigation task
Finalise poster preparation; science fair (poster presentations).
All
Unit revision
52
VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Appendix 5: Definition of verbs in VCE Physics
Study Design
Verbs (from lower
to higher order)
Definition
Describe
Communicate the characteristics and features of an event, object, procedure, concept
or process using written, oral or visual representations.
Identify
Recognise and name particular elements of a whole or part; select from a number of
possibilities; select relevant information or aspects of key ideas.
Convert
Change from one form to another, usually related to expressing quantities in
alternative units of measure
Interpret
Construct conceptual meaning from information provided in a variety of forms.
Compare
Identify and list the similarities and differences between two or more objects,
situations, concepts or processes.
Relate
Make a connection between two objects, situations, concepts or processes.
Distinguish
Recognise and explain differences between two objects, situations, concepts or
processes.
Discuss
Provide a balanced review that includes a range of ideas, viewpoints and arguments.
Calculate
Use mathematical formulas and modelling to solve quantitative problems.
Conceptualise
Make sense of an abstract idea by constructing a useable mental or physical model.
Apply
Use knowledge, ideas, formulas, principles, theories, laws, models and/or techniques
in a new situation or context; propose a solution or response to a problem or issue.
Model
Use a familiar and known concept or construct to facilitate the understanding of anew
and more complex concept or construct.
Analyse
Use qualitative and quantitative methods to identify and distinguish between the
elements and constituent parts of the whole, and explain the relationships between
them; recognise patterns.
Explain
Make clear; account for the reason for something or the relationship between cause
and effect; state why and/or how; provide reasons, mechanisms and outcomes;
incorporate quantitative data as appropriate.
Investigate
Use theoretical and/or experimental methods to explore and inquire into physical
phenomena.
Evaluate
Make reasoned judgments or decisions on given or collected information, based on
established criteria.
Justify
Provide evidence and/or reasons in support of a claim, conclusion, proposed solution
or course of action.
Design
Create a plan, object, model, system, simulation or set of procedures to suit a
particular purpose.
©VCAA 2015
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VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Appendix 6: Employability skills
Assessment task
Employability skills selected facets
Annotations of activities or
investigations from a practical
logbook
Communication (writing to the needs of the audience)
Problem solving (testing assumptions taking the context of data and
circumstances into account)
Self-management (articulating own ideas and visions)
Data analysis
Communication (using numeracy; persuading effectively; writing to the
needs of the audience)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising
information)
Problem solving (applying a range of strategies to problem solving;
using mathematics to solve problems; testing assumptions taking the
context of data and circumstances into account)
Technology (using information technology to organise data)
Design, construction and evaluation
of a device or physical model
Communication (sharing information; using numeracy; persuading
effectively)
Initiative and enterprise (being creative; generating a range of options;
initiating innovative solutions)
Learning (managing own learning; being open to new ideas and
techniques)
Planning and organising (planning the use of resources including time
management)
Problem solving (developing creative, innovative solutions; developing
practical solutions; showing independence and initiative in identifying
problems and solving them; applying a range of strategies to problem
solving; using mathematics to solve problems)
Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and
visions; evaluating and monitoring own performance; articulating own
ideas and visions)
Teamwork (working as an individual and as a member of a team;
knowing how to define a role as part of the team)
Explanation of the operation of a
device or physical model
Communication (sharing information; speaking clearly and directly;
writing to the needs of the audience; persuading effectively)
Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and
visions; articulating own ideas and visions)
Media response
Communication (listening and understanding; reading independently;
writing to the needs of the audience; using numeracy; persuading
effectively)
Problem solving (showing independence and initiative in identifying
problems and solving them; testing assumptions taking the context of data
and circumstances into account)
©VCAA 2015
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VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Assessment task
Employability skills selected facets
Problem-solving related to a
scientific or technological issue
Communication (sharing information; using numeracy; persuading
effectively)
Initiative and enterprise (being creative; generating a range of options;
initiating innovative solutions)
Learning (managing own learning; being open to new ideas and
techniques)
Planning and organising (planning the use of resources including time
management; collecting, analysing and organising information)
Problem solving (developing creative, innovative solutions; developing
practical solutions; showing independence and initiative in identifying
problems and solving them; applying a range of strategies to problem
solving; using mathematics to solve problems; testing assumptions taking
the context of data and circumstances into account)
Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and
visions; articulating own ideas and visions)
Report
(oral/written/visual/multimodal)
Communication (sharing information; speaking clearly and directly; writing
to the needs of the audience; using numeracy; persuading effectively)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising
information)
Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and
visions; articulating own ideas and visions)
Technology (having a range of basic information technology skills; using
information technology to organise data; being willing to learn new
information technology skills)
Scientific modelling
Communication (sharing information; speaking clearly and directly; writing
to the needs of the audience; using numeracy; persuading effectively)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising
information)
Self-management (having knowledge and confidence in own ideas and
visions; articulating own ideas and visions)
Technology (having a range of basic information technology skills; using
information technology to organise data; being willing to learn new
information technology skills)
Scientific poster
Communication (writing to the needs of the audience; persuading
effectively; sharing information; using numeracy)
Planning and organising (planning the use of resources including time
management; collecting, analysing and organising information)
Problem solving (using mathematics to solve problems; testing
assumptions taking the context of data and circumstances into account)
Self-management (articulating own ideas and visions)
Technology (using information technology to organise data; being willing
to learn new information technology skills)
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VCE Physics Units 1 and 2: 2016–2020
ADVICE FOR TEACHERS
Updated November 2015
Assessment task
Employability skills selected facets
Student-designed practical
investigation
Initiative and enterprise (being creative; generating a range of options;
initiating innovative solutions)
Planning and organising (managing time and priorities – setting
timelines, coordinating tasks for self and with others; planning the use of
resources including time management; collecting, analysing and organising
information))
Problem solving (developing practical solutions; showing independence
and initiative in identifying problems and solving them)
Self-management (evaluating and monitoring own performance; taking
responsibility)
Teamwork (working as an individual and as a member of a team; knowing
how to define a role as part of the team; sharing information)
Technology (having the Occupational Health and Safety knowledge to
apply technology; using information technology to organise data)
Summary report of activities and/or
investigations
Communication (writing to the needs of the audience; persuading
effectively)
Planning and organising (collecting, analysing and organising
information)
The employability skills are derived from the Employability Skills Framework (Employability Skills for the Future, 2002),
developed by the Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the Business Council of Australia, and published
by the (former) Commonwealth Department of Education, Science and Training.
©VCAA 2015
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