Chapter 1
Historiography: Taking a Good Look at History
“How can we think objectively and historically about the events of the past?”
This roots the course in an anthropological and archaeological perspective.
This unit deals with the questions of perspective and point of view, bias, as
well as the scientific method.
1-2
History as Interpretation
3-4
Historiography
5- 6
Avoiding Bias
7-8
Criteria for Judging and Examples of Good Theories
9
Archaeology’s Role in Interpreting History
10-13
Sources
14
Video viewing guide
15
Sources Consulted
Essential Question: What is really real and how do we determine it
Introduction
Purposes
Historians try to explain connections between the past and the present. They study
how places looked in the past, how places and patterns of human activity have
changed over time, and how geographic forces have influenced these changes. As
you study history, you acquire an orientation to time; as you study archaeology, you
acquire an orientation to space. Archaeologists, then, organize their thoughts with
respect to spatial arrangements and distributions over the earth’s surface.
Historians, on the other hand, organize their ideas with respect to time. Historians
know well that events occur in places. Events, like people are distributed across the
earth. All definitions of history's utility, however, rely on two fundamental facts.
In the first place, history offers a storehouse of information about how people and
societies behave. Consequently, history must serve, however imperfectly, as our
laboratory, and data from the past must serve as our most vital evidence in the
unavoidable quest to figure out why our complex species behaves as it does in
societal settings. History offers the only extensive evidential base for the
contemplation and analysis of how societies function, and people need to have
some sense of how societies function simply to run their own lives. History tells the
life stories of people who lived long ago and helps us learn about our common
heritage as human beings. Studying past cultures helps us understand how our own
culture has developed, making us who we are today.
The second reason is history is inescapable; the past causes the present, and so the
future. Any time we try to know why something happened—whether a shift in
political party dominance in the American Congress, a major change in the teenage
suicide rate, or a war in the Middle East—we have to look for factors that took
shape earlier. Only through studying history can we grasp how things change; only
through history can we begin to comprehend the factors that cause change; and only
through history can we understand what elements of an institution or a society
persist despite change. History tells the life stories of people who lived long ago
and helps us learn about our common heritage as human beings. Studying past
cultures helps us understand how our own culture has developed, making us who
we are today.
Is History True?
History as
Interpretation
The earliest audience for history consisted
simply of people who liked a good story.
The appeal of history for many was that it
brought to life real people and events.
History was also considered important
because it could explain- without the moral
teachings- how or why things turned out as
they did.
It could show how a war
happened, why one side won, and what the
results were. By studying the past, people
could learn what mistakes to avoid and what
good examples to follow. According to
Edwin Fenton, this is not an easy task for
six basic reasons.
1
Knowledge of
the past is
incomplete
We probably know only a fraction of one percent of what has happened in the past.
Just think of all the things we do not know. We have few accurate statistics on
population or trade or government income. We know next to nothing about the
lives of individuals. Most of what happened was never recorded.
Records can
be lost or
destroyed
History cannot be a complete record of what happened; at best it can be a record only
of those events that were recorded in a form that has come down to us. The Great
Library of Alexandria was lost; writings of Aristotle are missing; weather, fire, water
and time itself have erased much of the past.
Bias is
We do not know whether or not the documents we do have contain information that
present
is accurately representative of the events that took place. Because most documents
because of the
were written by men who were better educated and more intelligent than the average,
authors
is it likely that the records we have reflect disproportionally the point of view of the
educated upper class.
Cannot learn
everything
about an
event or
period.
Must select
from available
material.
Presentation
2
Let us suppose that a scholar set out to read, in
the original language, all remaining source
material about the Pyramid of Giza and to
supplement this knowledge by examining
buildings and other artifacts from the period.
He would have to become an accomplished
linguist to read the inscriptions, then, he would
need to be a paleobotanist, architect, specialist
in ancient materials used for mummification
and more. No one person could read and see
everything in one lifetime. Even Dr. Zawi
Hawass, renowned Egyptologist, relies on
experts in various fields when working on an
excavation
It would be absurd if historians just listed in
chronological order all the facts they discovered.
We would be bored to death if we read such a
compilation. A historian could not even take down
notes on all the material researched. She would be forced to select information to note on
her cards, just as students doing research in the library note down some things and omit
others. But as soon as the historian makes a note of one event and decides not to make
note of another, she interprets. She says, in effect, “This fact is important, and the other
one is not.” But how does she know what is important, what is worth noting down? She
already has in mind an interpretation of history in order to make this decision. Whether the
historian is correct is beside the point. What is significant to us is that she has interpreted
in the very process of taking notes. If she selects, she does so with some principles in
mind. As soon as she has established principles of what is important, she interprets.
A historian interprets not only by selecting certain material, but also by presenting it in a
certain way. The type of print, photos, language of an article can deliver an impression that
may or may not be true.
Historiography
Historiography is writing of history based on a critical analysis, evaluation, and selection
of authentic source materials and composition of those materials into a narrative subject to
scholarly methods of criticism. When doing history, it helps to keep in mind that there are
many different ways of determining how history happens. The following list of selected
historians can give you some ideas of how the great historians "did" history.
Plutarch:
His thesis is that the very character of men changes history. All great men have an impact
on their time either for good or ill. Please note that great does not equal good. Hitler was
a “great” man, but not a good one. Great men move history.
Toynbee:
Toynbee's theory is that all civilizations are faced with crises, which are either of ideas or
of technology. How the civilization responds determines whether it will survive. If a new
idea enters a culture, then it must adapt to that idea or reject it. The same applies to new
technology.
Darwin:
While not a historian, Darwin’s biological application in
Origin of Species noted that complex creatures evolve from
more simplistic ancestors naturally over time. As random
genetic mutations occur within an organism's genetic code,
the beneficial mutations are preserved because they aid
survival -- a process known as "natural selection." The
"fittest" individuals could be considered those that are ideally
suited to a particular environment. This theory has been
applied to cultures, government and economics.
History
Malthus
Malthus’s Essay on the Principle of Population (1798) contains Malthus's observation that
in nature plants and animals produce far more offspring than can survive, and that Man too
is capable of overproducing if left unchecked. Malthus was a political economist who was
concerned about the decline of living conditions in nineteenth century England, which he
blamed on three elements: the overproduction of young; the inability of resources to keep
up with the rising human population; and the irresponsibility of the lower classes. To
combat this, Malthus suggested the family size of the lower class ought to be regulated
such that poor families do not produce more children than they can support. War and
disease could also help reduce the lower classes.
Marx--Material Dialectic.
Marx used Hegel's ideas of thesis, anti-thesis and
synthesis, and applied them to classes of people
throughout history. Any ruling class controlled the
"means of production" which gave them wealth and
power to rule. Whenever a new method of production
occurred, there was conflict between the older ruling
class and a newer class using the newer and superior
means of production. A new paradigm is the result of
the conflict. An example is how the Businessman and
his money destroyed the power of the old Aristocracy based on land and hereditary
ownership. This becomes the basis of communism.
3
Turner: Geography and the Frontier
Turner's thesis said that geography determines the character of a people and,
depending on the situation, gives them certain advantages and disadvantages. An
example is that England and Japan being island nations would naturally have an
advantage in sea trade or battle.
His thesis explicitly states how the Frontier shaped the American mind to be open
to new things and to strive for what was new. Any group who lives near the
"unexplored" will tend to have this characteristic.
Radicals: History is the Story of Who Won
This thesis says that history is little more than
myth making. "Winners write history" Those
who win write the history books. Those who
have lost are excluded or demonized. History is
determined by who has the political power to
write the books. The point of view and
prejudices of these dominate.
Boorstin: The Unexpected
Daniel J. Boorstin's books suggest a thesis that ideas and practices simply come
together in various places and time and can hardly be predicted. What has
mattered, is that the great Creators and Discoverers have been open to the
challenge and took previously unrelated ideas and put them together in a way that
was entirely new. Thus they change the world. Boorstin maintains that no one
can predict or manage change. You can only remain open to it. The convergence
of disparate elements creates history.
Historical Forces
Historical Forces claims that certain ideas have a life independent of the person
who proposed that idea. The idea persists even after the person's death and
continues to influence history. Examples would be Christianity after the death of
Jesus, and Confucianism after the death of Confucius.
Geographic
Imagination
4
While these seem like hard and fast theories, our understanding of the world
comes from a combination of influences, especially culture, language, and
patterns of thought about the particular setting in which we are born and raised.
We interpret the world around us based on our own unique understandings,
perceptions, and knowledge. This particular world view or interpretation of the
world is geographic imagination and is reflected in our behavior towards others
and is manifested in the cultural landscape. Members of a particular social or
ethnic group have a shared understanding of landscapes, places, and peoples.
This common view of the world has been presented to the group over time by
earlier generations and is accepted as truth and reality, especially where it concerns
other groups. A problem arises when one’s particular world view shuts out
alternative views.
Ethnocentrism
Avoiding Bias
Four Rules
Ethnocentrism leads us to believe that our way of thinking is the only or the best
way of thinking about the world. All people, including archaeologist, tend to
structure their interpretations of phenomena to reinforce the way they feel about
the world. It is mainly how people feel about the world that determines how they
interpret events, symbols and artifacts.
To avoid bias, we should be concerned to provide as accurate information and
conclusions as is possible. Fortunately, there is a way of evaluating conflicting
claims about the past. We must evaluate the various claims and eliminate the least
likely and the least useful. This, in essence, is the scientific method. Even with its
imperfections, it is the best way we have for testing reality.
We need a vocabulary and a method of judging information. In other words, we
need some structure to organize reality. According to some schools of thought, an
explanation must conform to four essential rules.
1. It must explain the maximum number of observations with a minimum
number of assumptions. For example, the Law of Gravity covers
everything that falls all over the world. There are few preconditions for this
to happen.
2. An interpretation that is compatible with a well-established body of
principles is better than one that does not comply with those principles.
This approach is similar to the way we construct ideas about how the world
works in our daily life. We reject ideas if they do not
conform to
concepts that we already hold with a good degree of certainty.
3. An interpretation must be tested before
it can be accepted as useful and reasonably
certain. But this testing aspect is
commonplace in our daily lives. It is
essential to the work of every mechanic,
doctor, and do-it-yourselfer. They have
interpretations of how things should work,
what is wrong, and how to correct the
problem.
Then they test their
interpretations and retest varying elements until they find a solution.
4. No interpretation can ever explain all observations relevant to it. This is
the only law that has no exceptions! If you told a medieval monk about the
law of gravity, he might say, “Even as you talk now, I see birds fly away
from the earth, leaves tossed high in the air … Your so-called law is
ridiculous. Exceptions to it abound everywhere.”
5
Exceptions to
the rules
How Probable
is it?
There can be exceptions because:
 observations can be affected by more
than one principle, so that exceptions
are bound to appear. For example,
when hot air rises and contradicts the
force of gravity
 errors in measurements, either human
or mechanical, can occur.
 differences in perception; either honest or intentional exist. Different
expectations of what ought to occur; frames of reference and points of
view can make a difference.
There are many conflicting ideas and points of
view in history. Fortunately, there is a way of
evaluating conflicting claims about the past.
This, in essence, is the scientific method. In
other words, we need some structure to
organize reality. A way to rate explanations is
to use the “Funnel of Certainty”. As
explanations move up the funnel of certainty,
they become more likely to be accurate. As
they move down, they become much less
likely.
With little knowledge and scant information,
we have the level of uncertainty. This is the
“what is it? What does it do?” phase. At this point all explanations are equal. In the
absence of evidence, everything is possible.
History begins by asking questions to which there are no certain answers, this is the
speculative phase. At this level, the possibilities begin to be narrowed. As
investigations proceed, some solutions are weeded out by testing for example, using
uniformitarianism (page 7). The possible solutions are progressively reduced to the
level of probable, until relatively certain solutions are identified. Ultimately, laws
are identified. A law is a statement of an order or relation of phenomena that so far
as is known is invariable under the given conditions. For example, Malthus states
that population invariably will outstrip resources (page 3). Some gap always
remains between these explanations and reality, however. As new questions are
introduced, they proceed through the funnel at rates that depend on the ease or
difficulty with which they can be tested and answered.
Interpretations
6
Scientists record and evaluate the most useful and broad interpretations of their
observations and tests. These interpretations form a developed body of thought, which
provides principles that guide further interpretations. This body of thought is generally
referred to as theory. Theories give meaning to what we see in archaeology. It is
interesting to note that philosophers of science generally agree that theories can never by
totally proved or disproved since they are statements about abstract relationships. Only
the hypotheses they generate can be proved or disproved. This moves the theory up or
down the funnel of certainty. So a working definition of a theory is a framework by which
we organize and understand the world around us today as well as the past.
Criteria for
judging theory
Predictive
Parsimonious
This leads to the necessity for having a means by which to judge the validity and usefulness
of a theory, A good theory or explanation has three characteristics: it is predictive,
parsimonious, and powerful.
Explanations that generate hypotheses that accurately predict what will be observed are
obviously desirable. Thus if hypotheses derived from the theory of evolution predicts that
transitional forms of fossils between apes and humans should be found, and subsequent
excavation confirms that such transitional fossils really do exist, then the theory of
evolution has better predictive qualities than any theory that does not predict the existence
of such fossils. On the other hand, a theory that predicts the existence of such fossils and
none are found is not predictive.
An explanation is also considered to be good
if it is relatively simple (parsimonious). The
more complex the explanation the greater the
likelihood that some part of it will be wrong.
Ockham’s Razor, an idea that says the
simpler of two competing ideas is the one to
favor, applies here.
This rule covers
exceptions to rules as well.
Powerful
A good explanation is relatively powerful if it has scope and generality. Explanations that
cover a broad range of phenomena are much more powerful than those that deal with a very
narrow range of phenomena. Thus the theories of gravity and relativity are very powerful
theories in the natural sciences. They apply to everything in the realm of science today. In
contrast, a theory that explains a taboo on eating cows by reference to one particular
country’s value system is less powerful because it accounts for only a limited range of
phenomena in a single culture.
These three characteristics need to be applied to every explanation and theory presented in
this manual. Questions: Do your results match what was predicted? Is your
explanation simple? Does your explanation cover a wide range of phenomena?
Other
Theories
Catastrophism
In the nineteenth century, there were three theoretical breakthroughs in explaining
the past. Two of these were originally in the context of geology. The third was
entirely the product of archaeological research. But first, let’s look at the prevailing
theory of the time.
Catastrophism is the argument that Earth's features—including mountains, valleys,
and lakes—primarily formed and shaped as a result of the periodic but sudden
forces as opposed to gradual change that takes place over a long period of time. For
example, according to strict catastrophe theory, one might interpret the origins of
the Rocky Mountains or the Alps, as resulting from a huge earthquake that uplifted
them quickly. When viewing the Yosemite Valley in California a catastrophist
might not assert they were carved by glaciers, but rather the floor of the valley
collapsed over 1,000 ft (305m) to its present position in one giant plunge.
7
Creationism
Catastrophism developed in the
seventeenth
and
eighteenth
centuries when, by tradition and
even by law, scientists used the
Bible
and
other
religious
documents as scientific documents.
It is from the Bible we get the
theory of Creationism. Creationism
is a doctrine or theory holding that
matter, the various forms of life,
and the world were created by God
out of nothing. Young Earth
Creationists (YEC) claim a literal
interpretation of the Bible as a
basis for their beliefs. They believe that the earth is 6000 to 10,000 years
old, that all life was created in six literal days, that death and decay came as
a result of Adam & Eve's Fall, and that geology must be interpreted in
terms of Noah's Flood. However, they accept a spherical earth and
heliocentric solar system. Bishop James Ussher, a prominent theologian
and Irish biblical scholar in the mid-1600's work, Annals of the World,
counted the ages of people in the Bible and proclaimed that Earth was
created in 4004 B.C. (In fact, Ussher even pronounced an actual date of
creation as the evening of October 22), geologists tried to work within a
time frame that encompassed only around six thousand years.
Modern
Interpretation
Modern catastrophism argues evidence that catastrophic forces can have a
profound influence on shaping Earth. For example, modern catastrophic
theory argues that large objects from space (Asteroids, Comets, etc.)
periodically collide with Earth and that these collisions can have profound
effects on both the geology and biology of Earth. One hypothesis advances
that a large asteroid impact lead to the extinction of dinosaurs roughly 65
million years ago.
Three Good Theories
The three good theories developed at this time were uniformitarianism,
superposition and the three age theory.
Uniformitarianism
8
James Hutton sought principles which would enable
them to make sense of observations and unravel the
geological history of the world. The theory he
formulated, Uniformitarianism, states that events of
the past must be explainable by processes that can be
observed operating in the world today. For example,
rivers today can be observed eroding riverbanks and
shorelines As Hutton said, “The present is the key to
the past.” This principle forms the foundation of contemporary geological
and archaeological interpretation.
In hindsight, many of the most important theories and laws seem almost
embarrassingly obvious. The theory of Uniformitarianism is a very simple,
powerful and predictive statement of relationships.
Superposition
What is the theory of superposition? Charles
Lyell, the Father of modern geology, sensed that
rocks formed layers like those of a cake.
Perhaps he had helped his mother make cakes in
the kitchen, putting down the bottom layer, then
icing in the middle, then another layer, more
icing, another layer and then the top icing. In
any event, Lyell formulated and tested the theory
of superposition which states simply that a layer
of rock at the earth’s surface was deposited later than the layer under it, just
as the top layer of cake is put in place after the other layers are in position.
Lower is older. It unifies vastly different geological and archaeological
phenomena and makes possible historical synthesis. The theory of
superposition is everything a good theory should be: it is simple
(parsimonious), it is powerful, and it is predictive.
Three Age Theory
To appreciate the three-age theory, we have to return to a
time when it was believed that the earth was only a few
thousand years old. It was 1816, and Christian Thomsen
had just been appointed curator of the new Danish
National Museum of Antiquities. Like many museums of
the time, objects were chaotic and often arranged
according to their donors. Christian Thomsen, confronted
with just such a situation, began by sorting the museum’s
oldest holdings into groups according to materials.
Objects of stone were grouped together, and then those made of bronze, then
iron. As he was handling these old objects, intuition must have dawned
because Thomsen set forth the first scientifically based theory of cultural
evolution. He argued that the human race had a stone technology (the Stone
Age), gradually developed bronze tools (the Bronze Age), and finally
developed iron tools (the Iron Age).
When combined with the theory of superposition, this theory was quite easy
to test. If both theories were correct, it would be possible to predict that
when a site contained both stone and metal objects, the layers containing the
stone would be lower than bronze or iron objects, and the layers containing
bronze tools would always be found beneath deposits containing iron tools.
These were the hypotheses derived from the theories, and they engendered
tests in the form of excavations, the first scientific archaeological
experiments and observations. For the first time, excavators began paying
attention to layers or strata, in archaeological deposits.
9
The study of the sequences of these deposits became known as stratigraphy.
Thomsen set archaeologists the task of determining whether this evolutionary
sequence occurred everywhere in the world at the same time. This approach to the
study of the past became known as the study of culture history.
Archaeology’s role
in history.
Archaeology is the scientific study of past cultures and the way people lived
based on the things they left behind. Archaeology is a branch of
anthropology that seeks to document and explain continuity and change and
similarities and differences among human cultures. Archaeologists work
with the material remains of cultures, past and present, providing the only
source of information available for past non-literate societies and
supplementing written sources for historical and contemporary groups.
Things are not just the solid material objects; they are also the basic symbols
that confront archaeology.
For example, a pot is a pot, but it is also a symbol of the way clay was
shaped and treated by a particular people at a particular time. It is a symbol
of the way they solved problems of food preparation. It is a symbol of the
way labor and society were structured, a symbol of trade, a symbol of status,
and many other things. Archaeologists study past cultures by examining
artifacts, objects made, used, or changed by humans. Things that have been
modified by human beings are referred to as artifacts. They can be made of
stone, bone, clay, metal, wood or any other natural material. In modern times
we can add synthetic materials to this list. Modification can consist of major
or minimal alterations to the naturally occurring shape.
Artifacts
Artifacts can convey information beyond their
function. Those which are strictly useful are
labeled technic or technomic. Artifacts which
show a social class are labeled socio-technic.
They are still useful but their materials or
decoration set them apart from the ordinary.
The cup on the right is an example of a sociotechnic artifact since it is made of jade and gold
with an intricate design. Finally, artifacts which show a relationship are
labeled ideotechnic. Things such as a crown or scepter, a cross or a star of
David are ideotechnic.
10
.
Historic vs.
Prehistoric
Any place where human activity occurred and where artifacts are found is
called an archaeological site. There are two types of archaeological sites,
prehistoric and historic.
Prehistoric sites are those which occurred before the culture began writing
records. Prehistory is more of a puzzle because most of what we know about
prehistoric people is from the artifacts they left behind. That means
archaeologists must try to understand how the artifacts were used. Due to
this, archaeologists sometimes make incorrect inferences or guesses. Historic
sites are sometimes easier for archaeologists to interpret because documents
and drawings are available, aiding an archaeologist's understanding of the
site.
Sources
A source is anything that survives from the past or tells us about the past.
Sources are
 ecofacts: those things left behind that are natural such as seeds,
bones;
 features: items too large or permanent to be taken to a lab, a city
wall;
 relics: artifacts; any material thing made or modified by humans
 records: written or printed documents, paintings.
Ecofacts
Ecological items that become associated with a site through natural
processes, such as pollen deposition or natural preservation of insect remains,
are called ecofacts. They include seeds, wood remains,
pollen, small burrowing snails, owl pellets, and the
remains of small pests, anything that provides
information on the ecological setting of the sites.
These items are clues to the past climate and ecology
of the site. The picture on the right is an insect encased
in amber.
Things that cannot be taken back to the laboratory for
analysis because they are actually part of the earth or because
moving will alter or destroy them are called features.
Postholes, pits, house floors (see picture on the left), mounds,
cairns, middens are all features. Because features are
sometimes indicated by very subtle changes in the color or
texture of the earth, their proper excavation and recording is
Features
very important.
Relics
Many people are interested in the past. Artifacts like pottery, arrowheads,
cave paintings, etc. are relics These relics tell us of the past before written
sources. Remember, an archaeological site is like a book. The layers of dirt
and artifacts that are left in the ground can be read like the pages of a book.
When someone digs holes in an archaeological site, it is like ripping pages
out of the life stories of past peoples. The application of the Three Age
Theory and Superposition help to interpret and date the relics found in a site.
11
Written Sources
Records
It is not until the invention of writing that we have records. Although some
records seem easy to understand, it is more difficult to make sense of others.
You can often make better sense of historical records if you recognize and
understand specialist or archaic words and languages. Individual word
meanings might have changed over time and the meanings and values of the
period are different from those of today.
Primary Sources
A primary source is a document or physical object which was written or
created during the time under study. These sources were present during an
experience or time period and offer an inside view of a particular event and
provide historians with the facts with which to work. Some types of primary
sources include:



Secondary Sources
original documents (excerpts or translations acceptable): Diaries,
speeches, manuscripts, letters, interviews, news film footage,
autobiographies, official records
creative works: Poetry, drama, novels, music, art
relics or artifacts: Pottery, furniture, clothing, tools, buildings, etc.
A secondary source interprets and analyzes primary sources. These sources
are one or more steps removed from the event. They are



reports about the primary source or
collections of information about the subject.
may have pictures, quotes or graphics of primary sources in them.
Some types of secondary sources include textbooks, magazine articles,
histories, criticisms, commentaries, encyclopedias.
How to find Validity
of a secondary
source
To determine accuracy in Secondary sources, ask analytic questions:

WHO recorded this information? A witness? A close friend? A monk nine
hundred years after the fact? A respected scholar who has studied all
available sources?

WHAT does the source say about the events, persons or trends?

WHERE were they during the time period or event he/she discusses in the
record? Front row? Two continents away? In the same house but out of
earshot?

WHEN did they record the events? The same day? Twenty years later?
Two hundred years later?
WHY did the author make this particular record? Scholarly interest?
Personal journal? As propaganda for a particular organization or ruler?

Armed with these tools, we can now begin our exploration of Origins in
History
12
WHAT IS MEANT BY ANALYZING BIAS/POINT OF VIEW IN HISTORICAL SOURCES?
Pennsbury School
Simply put, your task is to act as an historian sifting through sources. Part of this job involves
you reviewing the source of the document and understanding why the sources said or wrote what
is in the document. In other words, you are analyzing what it is about the source that made them
say or write what is in the document.
In the end, you are measuring the credibility, legitimacy, reliability, and pertinence of the
source. The crucial skill a DBQ demands of students is the awareness that documents are not
statements of facts, but descriptions, interpretations, or opinions of events and developments
made by particular people at particular places and times, and often for specific reasons. Students
should be applying critical thinking skills to documents, evaluating whether they are likely to be
accurate and complete, and how the author of the document may be revealing bias.
WHERE DO YOU FIND BIAS/POINT OF VIEW IN THE DOCUMENTS?
One will find bias/point of view in the documents by looking at the source of the
document. Look for sources that, by their nature, may be of interest. Remember, what is in the
document will verify whether the source’s point of view is of interest.
 Authorial point of view: Show awareness that the gender, occupation, class, religion,
nationality, political position, or ethnic identity of the author may well have influenced
the views that are expressed. For example: George Marshall, the American Secretary of
State, was naturally concerned with the chaos and poverty in Western Europe in 1947, as
it was his duty to protect American interests abroad. The potential spread of Communism
into Western Europe would have threatened these interests.
 Reliability and accuracy of the source: Critically analyze a source for its reliability and
accuracy by questioning whether the author of the document would be in a position to be
accurate and/or would be likely be telling the truth. You can also evaluate the type of
source, such as a letter or official report, showing an understanding that different types of
sources vary in their probable reality.
1. For example: George Kennan’s telegram reporting on the nature of the post-war
Soviet Union is probably accurate because, as an American ambassador living in
Moscow, Kennan would have first-hand insight into the Soviet government.
2. OR: George Kennan’s telegram reporting on the nature of the post-war Soviet
Union is probably inaccurate because, as an American, Kennan would have only a
limited understanding of the inner workings of the Soviet government, despite his
presence in Moscow.
 Tone or intent of the author: In this case, you examine a document to determine its tone
(satire, irony, indirect political commentary) or the intent of the author. This may be
particularly useful for visual documents. o
1. For example: Dr. Seuss drew his World War II era cartoons to mock Americans
who still supported isolationism for their ignorance and to warn Americans of the
dire consequences of not becoming involved in European affairs.
13
Viewing Guide
“Changing Knowledge, Changing Reality.” The Day the Universe Changed. By James Burke. SVE &
Churchill Media. 2004. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4LzZATr-c8Y
Visual Clues
Concepts
Witch Trial
What is knowledge?
What is the role of
knowledge?
How could actions be
justified?
“hollow face”
Function of structure
How do we structure reality?
Role of interpretation
Hill Town
Frame of reference What does it
do?
Purpose of structure of reality.
Why structures change
14
Notes
Sources Consulted
Burke, James. Changing Knowledge, Changing Reality. 1985. PBS. DVD.
Fenton, Edward. “History as Interpretation.” Out of Print.
Hayden, Brian. Archaeology: The Science of Once and Future Things. New York: W. H.
Freeman and Co., 1993.
Silva, Brett. “Historiography.” 14 March 2006. Chico Unified School District, Chicago, Illinois.
http://ibatpv.org/ib/histo.html
Stearns, Peter. "Why Study History." American Historical Association. N.p., 11
July 2008. Web. 23 Feb. 2012.
"What Is Archaeology?" Alabama Archaeology. U of Alabama, 24 June 2005. Web. 5
Dec. 2011. <http://bama.ua.edu/~alaarch/Whatisarchaeology/>.
15