Lovorka Zergollern-Miletić
Učiteljski fakultet u Zagrebu l.zergollern-miletic@ufzg.hr
Analiza usvojenosti oznaka za izražavanje određenosti i neodređenosti u ranom učenju engleskoga kao stranog jezika
U radu se iznose rezultati analize provedene u sklopu projekta Usvajanje engleskoga jezika od rane dobi: analiza učenikova međujezika (130-1301001-0988).
Analizira se usvojenost oznaka za izražavanje semantičko-pragmatičko-logičke kategorije određenosti i neodređenosti u engleskom jeziku (članova, pokaznih zamjenica i pridjeva, neodređenih zamjenica, posvojnih pridjeva te kvantifikatora) kod učenika osnovnih škola.
Istraživanje je provedeno na uzorku od 24 učenika iz triju hrvatskih škola, koji su engleski počeli učiti u četvrtom razredu.
Na kraju svake školske godine, počevši od petog, a završivši s osmim razredom, provedeno je kod učenika uključenih u projekt ispitivanje stupnja usvojenosti engleskoga jezika. U svakoj je školi provedeno i dodatno ispitivanje u grupi od šest odabranih učenika (tzv. focal learners ). U ovom nas radu zanima usvojenost oznaka za izražavanje određenosti i neodređenosti u engleskom jeziku kod tih učenika. Analizirali smo transkribirane snimke učeničke jezične proizvodnje na kraju petog, šestog i sedmog razreda kako bismo vidjeli je li tijekom tih triju godina došlo do bolje usvojenosti spomenutih jezičnih elemenata. Kao instrument za ovo istraživanje poslužile su pomno odabrane slike koje su učenici trebali opisati.
Ključne riječi: određenost, neodređenost, rano učenje engleskoga jezika
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Markers of definiteness/indefiniteness in English – an analysis of their acquisition in early EFL
The paper presents the results of an analysis conducted within the project Early a cquisition of English as a foreign language: the analysis of the learner's interlanguage (project no. 130-
1301001-0988).
The analysis focuses on the acquisition of the markers of definiteness and indefiniteness in
English (articles, demonstratives, indefinite pronouns, possessives and quantifiers) by young
Croatian learners. 24 primary school children from three Croatian primary schools were the participants in this research. They started learning English in their fourth grade.
At the end of each schoolyear, starting with the fifth grade and ending with the eighth, the acquisition of English by the pupils included in the project was assessed. Additional assessment was conducted in four groups of six focal learners. The article focuses on the focal learners' acquisition of the markers of definiteness/indefiniteness in English.
Transcribed recordings of the focal learners' oral production at the end of three schoolyears
(fifth, sixth, and seventh grades) have been analysed in order to establish whether differences in the level of the acquisition of the said linguistic elements occured over the four years.
The pictures that the focal learners were asked to describe at the end of each schoolyear served as instruments for this research.
Key words: definiteness, indefiniteness, early EFL
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Definiteness and indefiniteness are semantic, pragmatic and logical categories (Ch. Lyons
1999). According to some linguists, they are considered to be language universals (Guillaume
1919, Christophersen 1939, Krámsky 1972, Silić 2000). Nevertheless, we are more inclined to believe that definiteness and indefiniteness are universals in human thinking, or universal tendencies (Langacker 1987), rather than language universals.
Definiteness and indefiniteness are not explicitly expressed in all languages. Furthermore, they are grammaticalized in a limited number of languages . In English, definiteness and indefiniteness are expressed by, and grammaticalized in the articles, indefinite pronouns, personal pronouns, demonstratives, quantifiers and possessives. Articles are considered to be the prototypical markers of definiteness and indefiniteness. Definiteness and indefiniteness may include the concepts of identifiability, familiarity, inclusiveness/exclusiveness, and countability/uncountability (Ch. Lyons 1999, Chesterman 1991, J. Hawkins 1978) .
Definiteness and indefiniteness are also closely linked with linguistic and extralinguistic contexts, and with the participants in the discourse. In connection with the context and the participants in the discourse, definiteness and definiteness are further closely connected to the pragmatic /grammatical concept of deixis. Also: uniqueness
For learners of English whose mother tongues do not possess articles (such as
Croatian),the acquisition of the articles represents a major problem. Numerous researchers have addressed this problem: Grannis 1972, Huebner 1983, Master 1990, Tarone and
Parrish 1989
,Trenkić 2000, Humphrey 2007, Zergollern-Miletić 2008, to name only a few
.
Kaluza (1963) was among the first who pointed out the problem of teaching the English article to speakers of Slavic in general. According to a study by Zergollern-Miletić
(2008), most speakers of Croatian, a Slavic language, seem not to be aware of the
existence of definiteness and indefiniteness in their language. Consequently, they do not recognize markers of these categories in Croatian. This, according to the author, increases the problem of acquiring the system of the English articles by Croatian learners of English.
We believe that this view is in line with the notion of the importance of language awareness
(C. James 1996, E.W. Hawkins 1999, Bagarić 2001, 2003, 2005) .
The present study is a continuation of our research work concerning the categories of definiteness and indefiniteness in English and Croatian that has been in progress for about ten years. Until the present study our research was based on university students' language production tested through grammatical exercises, essays and translations (Zergollern- Miletić
2008, 2009). It was also based on questionnaires eliciting students' answers concerning the understanding of the use of articles (2010 a, 2010 b). In our work to date we haven't noticed any significant problems in the acquisition of the other markers of definiteness and indefiniteness.
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THE STUDY
In the study we are about to present we looked into the acquisition of the English markers of definiteness and indefiniteness by primary school pupils who started learning English in their fourth grade, the age of onset being approximately 10. The study was conducted within the project Early a cquisition of English as a foreign language: the analysis of the learner's interlanguage (project no. 130-1301001-0988, head researcher: Prof. Jelena Mihaljević-
Djigunović, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences in Zagreb). The project includes pupils from several Croatian primary schools. In the study we are presently describing four classes were included – two in Zagreb, and two in Pula. At the end of each school year, starting with the fifth grade and ending with the eighth, the acquisition of English by the pupils included in the project was assessed. Additional assessment was conducted in four groups of six focal learners (i.e. 24 pupils). Our present analysis is based on these focal learners' acquisition of the markers of definiteness/indefiniteness in English.
At the end of each school year the focal learners were interviewed, and those interviews were recorded. Since the recordings made at the end of the eighth grade haven't been transcribed yet, we focused on the pupils' language production at the end of the fifth, sixth and seventh grades.
At the end of the fifth and sixth grades the pupils were asked to describe two pictures . For the description of each picture they needed approximately 20 nouns. After each description the interviewer led a conversation with the pupil. The conversation was thematically linked to the respective pictures, and was likely to involve the same type of vocabulary.
At the end of the seventh grade the pupils were asked to describe only one picture. That picture was more detailed, and the pupils were encouraged to describe it in a detailed way. To accomplish that task they needed approximately 40 nouns. After the description the pupils were engaged in a conversation thematically linked to the depicted picture.
THE RESULTS
I) On the whole, pupils tend not to use indefinite pronouns (anyone, someone, no one).
There might be three TWO !!! explanations for that:
1)
They haven’t mastered their use in English (although indefinite pronouns are not known to pose any problems to Croatian learners of English, at any stages);
2) They simply did not feel any need to use indefinite pronouns in their discourse.
II) The quantifiers some and any are found in a limited number of cases, and are used correctly. No other quantifiers are used.
III) The demonstrative this is used. It is interesting to note that the demonstrative that never occurred in the interviews . Our supposition is that, since the picture was near to them, they did not consider the demonstrative that appropriate .
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What can also be noticed in the interviews is that most of the pupils, referring to a group of people, use this instead of these . We suggest that this might be a matter of wrong pronunciation.
IV) Pupils tend to use possessives with nouns denoting parts of the body and those denoting family members, which is typical of English, and is not typical of Croatian.
In this respect we can talk about native-like production.
V) The use of the articles:
It has been suggested by a number of researchers that the early stage in learning English is strongly marked by the omission of articles, and later followed by substitution, usually in favour of the definite article (Trenkić 2002). Some authors suggest (Trenkić 2002, for example), that using ‘the’ is a ‘safe or safer bet’ than using the indefinite article.
Our expectations in this research were that at this early stage of learning English as a foreign language the results would show general omission of articles. These expectations were further strengthened by the problems demonstrated and stated by university students of
English, even by teachers of English and translators (Zergollern-Miletić 2008, 2010 a,
2010b).
Surprisingly enough, the results of our focal learners show that the omission of the articles with countable singular nouns was around 15% , which cannot be depicted as problematic.
Uncountable nouns such as sport and music were used correctly. What can also be noted is the correct use of indefinite countable nouns in plural (i.e. without any articles).
We might suspect conclude that the substitution of the definite article for the indefinite did occur at this early stage of language acquisition, since the interviewed focal learners tended to use the definite article after the empty subject there introducing the existence of something.
Examples:
There is the man on the sofa.
There is the child near the bed.
On the other hand, we might suggest that the focal learners used the definite article because they were pointing at a particular picture, considering the objects or persons they pointed at as familiar.
We suggest that in future similar studies this problem should be further researched by interviewing pupils and asking them about their decision concerning the use of the articles.
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CONCLUSIONS
We can make a general conclusion that there are no differences in the use of markers of definiteness and indefiniteness across the grades.
Pupils tend not to use indefinite pronouns, and the use of quantifiers is very limited.
They tend to use the demonstrative THIS rather than THAT, and the plural of THIS is problematic.
The use of the possessives seems to come naturally and accurately in their discourse.
As to the use of the articles, there are fewer problems than expected. Our focal learners disproved the theory that omission floods the discourse at an early stage of learning English.
What is greatly encouraging is the fact that they do use articles, both the indefinite and definite in the majority of cases where they are required, and do not use articles where they are not required.
Our research has shown that there are no considerable problems in the usage of the English articles by young learners of English. The question that imposes itself is this: Why do
Croatian learners who may be at a very advanced level of the acquisition of English encounter problems, have serious doubts, and make mistakes concerning the use of the English articles?
One of the possible answers may be that when learners leave the critical (maturational, sensitive) period ( Ellis 1985, 1997, Medved Krajnović 2010), they leave the period when learning a foreign language can be compared to learning one’s mother tongue. In addition, they are faced with constant input of new information (concerning both grammar and vocabulary). They enter a phase where, unlike during the critical period, they need explanation, which is not always adequately provided. Further on, we mustn’t neglect pupils’ cognitive abilities and the level of acquisition of their mother tongue. There are various extrinsic and intrinsic factors that may either encourage or hinder the acquisition of a foreign language, out of which language anxiety is not the least (Mihaljević Djigunović 2002, 2006).
In order for us to gain a more detailed picture of the process of acquiring the English markers of definiteness and indefiniteness, we should conduct more extensive research at the level of primary education, and also at the level of secondary education. We believe that these types of research might bear results that will be enlightening and helpful for future teaching of
English as a foreign language.
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