Fiscal Riskiness 1
Fiscal Riskiness as an Expression of Sexual Selection:
A Teaching Module
Bernardo J. Carducci
Indiana University Southeast
Bernardo J. Carducci, Shyness Research institute, Indiana University Southeast, New Albany, IN 47150.
Electronic correspondence: bcarducc@ius.edu.
An earlier version of this teaching activity was presented as a poster session at the meeting of the American
Psychological Association in Toronto in August 2009.
Fiscal Riskiness 2
Fiscal Riskiness as an Expression of Sexual Selection:
A Teaching Module
The influence of evolutionary psychology continues to increase in areas outside of the traditional sciences (cf. Saad,
2007; Saad & Gill, 2000). The purpose of this teaching activity is to provide instructors with a self -contained
teaching module, including lecture material, an in-class activity, suggestions for in-class discussion, and
supporting references, on the topic of gender differences in fiscal allocation based on the evolutionary
principle of sexual selection.
The Teaching Module
Lecture Material
A common topic when teaching the evolutionary viewpoint on personality is to discuss gender differences in
personality traits and mate section (cf. Carducci, 2009; Larsen & Buss, 2010). The following information can be
used to help instructors begin to develop some supplementary lecture material on the topic of gender differences in
fiscal allocation based on the evolutionary principle of sexual selection.
Fiscal Allocation as Influenced by Sexual Selection: A framework for applying evolutionary psychology to
fiscal behavior is the consideration of gender differences in the evolutionary principle of sexual selection (cf. Saad,
2005). More specifically, according to sexual selection, males tend to seek attractive, youthful-looking mates. In
their efforts to do, males tend to be more willing to allocate greater fiscal resources in an attempt to display material
resources (or the potential for providing them). Some examples of this display of material resources includes
spending money on gifts for potential mates (Saad & Gill, 2003) and engaging in risky leisure actives (e.g., hunting
& power boating) that involve expensive equipment (e.g., motorcycles & speed boats; Saad & Gill, 2000). Females,
meanwhile, seek mates who are able to provide and show a willingness to share material resources. In their efforts
to so, females attempt to achieve and maintain a healthy, youthful appearance by spending money on goods (e.g.,
cosmetics & dieting products) and services (tanning solons & cosmetic surgery) designed to enhance their physical
attractiveness (Burton, Netemeyer, & Lichtenstein, 1994; Saad & Gill, 2000).
Fiscal Risk Allocation as Influenced by Sexual Selection: Another manifestation of fiscal management is the
taking of financial risk (cf. Wong & Carducci, 1991). In their attempt to increase the degree of material resources
in accordance with the principle of sexual selection, males can be assumed to be more willing to take greater
financial risks than females to achieve such material resources. Consistent with this reasoning, researchers have
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found that males engage in more risky financial decision making than females (Powel & Ansic, 1997) and that
single females hold less of their wealth in risky assets (e.g., stocks) than single males (Jianakoplos & Bernasek,
1998). Finally, males are more willing than females to engage in unethical behaviors in their personal (e.g., buy
stock with inside information; make $100,000 from a marijuana deal) and professional (e.g., claim an extra $50
dollars on their travel expenses; transfer $20,000 by computer from their employer) life (Betz, O’Connell, &
Shepard, 1989). Thus, these results suggest that the tendency for males to be more concerned with material
resources is reflected in their increased willingness to take more risks to achieve financial success.
In-Class Activity: Assessing “Risking Business”
After defining and discussing the characteristic features associated with sexual-selection fiscal behavior, instructors
can introduce this in-class activity designed to provide students with an opportunity to examine and compare their
fiscal risk-allocation tendencies based on the evolutionary principle of sexual selection. This activity involves
students completing a modified version of fiscal risk survey employed by Betz, O’Connell, and Shepard, 1989.
Getting Started: Start this activity by distributing two copies of the “Risky Business” handout to each student.
Students should be instructed to complete each of the two forms with the same responses, fold one copy of the form
in half, and pass it to the instructor. After all of the forms are collected, they should be mixed up and redistributed
to the class for the purpose of comparing the results of the entire class.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
“Risky Business” Survey
Do not provide your name but do indicate your gender: Male _____ Female _____
Instructions: Indicate whether or not you would be willing to engage in each of the ten acts listed below by
responding “yes” or “no.”
_____ 1. Take a sick day to go on an interview for a better-paying job
_____ 2. Look for a better-paying job on your employer’s computer during company time
_____ 3. Falsify information during a job interview for a better-paying job
_____ 4. Save money by taking supplies home from work to use for your school assignments
_____ 5. Pad your expense account with an extra $50.00
_____ 6. Falsify information on your income tax form to save $500.00
_____ 7. Engage in the use of “insider trading” information in the purchase of stocks
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_____ 8. Falsify information on a loan application for a new car
_____ 9. Use electronic transfer procedures to take $20,000 from your employer
_____10. Make a profit of $100,000 from the sale of marijuana
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Assessing Risky Business: Depending on the amount of time the instructor wishes to devote to this activity, a
comparison of the results for each item can be made by asking the following questions and recording the responses:
1.
Estimates of Fiscal Risk: Before assessing the class’ responses to each item, ask the students to estimate what
percentage of the class they believe said “yes” or “no” to each item. Do the same before assessing the
percentage of males and females who said “yes” or “no” to each item.
2.
Assessing Actual Fiscal Risk of the Class: Ask the students to indicate by raising their hand if the person’s form
they received said “yes” or “no” to a particular item.
3.
Assessing Gender Differences in Fiscal Risk: Ask the students to indicate by raising their hand if the person’s
form they received was a male or female. Then ask them to keep their hand raised if the male’s or female’s
form they received said “yes” to a willingness to engage in the particular item.
Post-Activity Discussion: Instructors can supplement this lecture information and in-class activity by generating
some in-class discussion. Here are some possible points of discussion:

How well were the students able to estimate the behavioral risk of their classmates?

To what extent did the results for the class replicate the results obtained by Betz, O’Connell, and Shepard,
1989? Did the gender difference increase as the behavioral risk increased?

In general, by a show of hands, ask the students to indicate if they were, in general, more, less, or similar in
their degree of risk taking to the other students in the class. Now, repeat this question separately for the males
and females in the class.
Discussion
This teaching activity is designed to provide a self-contained teaching module on the application
evolutionary psychology to the study of fiscal allocation based on the evolutionary principle of sexual
selection. The supporting lecture information and in-class activity are designed to be used in a personality
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psychology course to supplement the discussion of such topics related to sexual selection as mate-selection,
mate-retention, and mate-poaching strategies, to name just a few. For those instructors whose teaching
responsibilities go beyond personality psychology, this teaching module can be utilized as supplemental
lecture material when discussing evolutionary psychological in such courses as socia l psychology,
psychology of adjustment, consumer psychology, the psychology of gender, and introductory psychology
(e.g., included in a lecture on perspectives in psychology).
Estimated time for the lecture material, in-class activity, and post-activity discussion: 20 to 30 minutes
Supporting References
Betz, M., & O’Connell, L. & Shepard, J. M. (1989). Gender differences in proclivity for unethical behavior.
Journal of Business Ethics, 8, 321-324.
Burton, S., Netemeyer, R. G., & Lichenstein, D. R. (1994). Gender differences for appearance- related attitudes
and behaviors: Implications for consumer welfare. Journal of Public Policy and Marketing, 13, 60-75.
Carducci, B. J. (2009). The psychology of personality: Viewpoints, research, and applications (2nd ed.).
Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.
Jianakopolos, N. A., & Bernasek, A. (1998). Are women more risk averse? Economic Enquiry, 36, 620-630.
Larsen, R. J., & Buss, D. M. (2010). Personality psychology: Domains of knowledge about human nature (4th ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
Powell, M., & Ansic, D. (1997). Gender differences in risk behavior in financial decision-making: An experimental
analysis. Journal of Economic Psychology, 18, 605-628.
Saad, G. (2007). The evolutionary bases of consumption. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Saad, G, & Gill, T. (2000). Applications of evolutionary psychology in marketing. Psychology and Marketing, 17,
1005-10034.
Saad, G., & Gill, T. (2003). An evolutionary psychology perspective on gift giving among young adults. Marketing
and Psychology, 20, 765-784.
Wong, A., & Carducci, B. J. (1991). Sensation seeking and financial risk taking in everyday money matters.
Journal of Business and Psychology, 5, 525-530.