Literary Theories: A Sampling of Lenses
Literary theory is an attempt to understand the various ways that different people read texts.
Yes, we all know that not everyone “interprets” a book, poem, or even a song the same way.
Theory gives readers a chance to view a text with a so-called different set of lenses.
This is merely an introduction to theory so I am just going to provide you with a few of the more common
schools of criticism. Remember most of these theories are quite detailed so this is just a very brief
overview of their main ideas and some theories have been combined to keep things simple.
Feminist/Gender Criticism (they are separate but I’m simplifying)
View society in a “patriarchal” and “heterosexual” way, which has hindered or prevented women and
homosexuals from realizing their true potential. Claim that both groups are viewed negatively, inferior,
or as “the other.”
 Consider the gender/orientation of the author, characters
 What role does gender or sexuality play in this work? (Examine power relations)
 Look for sexual stereotypes either reinforced or contradicted
 Imagine yourself as the opposite gender reading the text
Marxist Criticism
Views society based on the economic and cultural theory of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engles. Assumes
that each society is made up of a set of concepts, beliefs, values, and ways of thinking influenced by
economic and class structures.
 Consider who has the power/money and who doesn’t
 What role does power, money, or class play in this work?
 What happens as a result in differences in power/money?
 Relate context of work to social-class of author and/or time period
Psychoanalytic Criticism
Views text as an expression of the personality, state of mind, feelings, and desires of its author. Looks
for the distinction between conscious and unconscious motives of characters and author.
 Consider the author’s personality to explain and interpret a text
 What psychological theories are present in the characters (Oedipal complex, obsessive
compulsive, sexual repression, denial, guilt)?
 What repressed material is expressed in imagery or symbols?
New Criticism/Structuralism
Views text as existing independently. Meaning is discovered by doing a close reading and not by
examining outside sources.
 Focuses on the meanings and interactions of words, figures of speech, and symbols.
 Looks for complex interrelations and ambiguities within a text.
 Analyzes how parallels are established and create a unity within the text
Narratology/Archetypes: A form of Structuralism that focuses on the structure of stories. Identifies
31 actions that a story can contain and claims all stories pick from this list. Also focuses on the specific
character types that are repeated within all stories—hero, villain, trickster, orphan, mentor etc.
Deconstruction/Post-Structuralism (definitely the most confusing one)
Created by some very intelligent or very disturbed people who view literature as having no meaning
because language has no meaning. Basically, you can never really know what the “meaning” of a story is
because words are so abstract.
Historical Criticism/Post-Colonial
Views text as a closely related to the time during which an author wrote. Focused on the social, political,
economic, cultural, and/or intellectual climate of the time. Examines how other cultures are viewed in
terms of an overpowering Western literature base.
 Looks at issues of colonization and imperialism
 Rejects the idea of marginalized people as “others”
 Celebrates “hybridity” (existing in two cultures at once)
Modernism/Post-Modernism:
Modernism is a rejection of traditional forms of literature (chronological plots, continuous narratives,
closed endings etc.) in favor of experimental forms. They have a nostalgia for the past that they feel is
lost so Modernist texts often include multiple allusions. Post-Modernists follow the same principles but
celebrate the new forms of fragmentation rather than lamenting them.
 Look for ironies within a text
 Analyze fragmentation and a mixing of genres and forms
 Blurs the line between “high” literature (classics) and popular literature (NY Times Bestsellers)
Analysis of The Lion King with a few of these theories.
Feminist/Gender: Can be viewed as the helpless role females have in society. The female lions are used
to provide food and care for the young yet it is the males that have all the power. When Mufasa dies his
power transfers to either his son or his brother. His wife is never even considered. Nala is also clearly
“stronger” than Simba yet she is considered inferior.
Marxist: Can be viewed as the upper class (lions) trying to maintain power over an unhappy lower class
(hyenas). The lower class resents the privileges of better food and hunting grounds that the upper class
maintains. This conflict causes a rebellion, which disrupts the normal social order causing chaos and
destruction.
Psychoanalytic: Can be viewed as a classic case of sibling rivalry—Scar is savagely jealous of his much
stronger and might I say better looking older brother. Can also be viewed as the classic struggle to
overcome feelings of guilt or inadequacy—both of which Simba has after the death of his father.
Narratology: Simba represents the classic hero quest. Simba suffers from a loss of a father figure and
must go off on a journey to grow into his destiny. During his journey he meets tricksters (Timon/Pumba)
who also act as his helpers and finds a mentor (crazy monkey with a stick). Nala also acts as the herald
as she upsets the sleepy equilibrium in which the Simba has lived and starts his growth. He then has
enough strength (mental and physical) to overcome the villain and restore everything to order.
Critical Lens Essay
An essay in which you will analyze one or two works of literature in terms of how they do/do not illustrate
the ideas in a given statement.
Critical Lens Essay Outline
Essay must include references to TWO works
A) Begin by restating the critical lens quotation: According to…
B) Next, restate the critical lens quotation in your own words: This means that…
C) State whether you agree or disagree with the critical lens: The critical lens is valid/invalid because…
D) Next, write your TAG and thesis (make sure you reflect the meaning of the critical lens):
This is supported in the novel…
E) BODY PARAGRAPH # 1:
Topic sentence should reflect critical lens:
Supporting details/situations (minimum of 3 examples – use more for maximum grade)
NOTE: Use references to literary elements such as plot, characterization, setting, etc.
* Clincher: Therefore – In essence – Thus – In effect ___________________________________
E) BODY PARAGRAPH # 2: Topic sentence should reflect critical lens and a transition:
(Transition: connecting ideas that clearly and smoothly point out a logical order of your ideas)
Supporting details/situations (minimum of 3 examples – use more for maximum grade)
NOTE: Use references to literary elements such as plot, characterization, setting, etc.
* Clincher: Therefore – In essence – Thus – In effect ___________________________________
CONCLUSION: The conclusion should include the following:
1) Restate your position in regard to the critical lens:
2) Summarize your main points:
3) Effectively close the essay with a clincher that refers to the authors, works, and main ideas
The following is an example of a critical lens essay, which gained a high score on the NYS Regents Exam
Note: This is an actual essay, which contains flaws.
Critical Lens: “Literature opens a dark window on the soul, revealing more about what is bad in human
nature than what is good.” (NOTE: no author is mentioned)
A) “Literature opens a dark window on the soul, revealing more about what is bad in human nature than
what is good.” B) This statement suggests that literature shows more about the bad aspects of people than the
good. C) This critical lens is invalid because literature shows good and bad sides of human nature about
equally, both in terms of people’s personal qualities and in terms of their actions. D) To Kill a Mockingbird,
by Harper Lee, and Of Mice and Men, by John Steinbeck, are two books that illustrate this balance of good
and bad.
E) The characters of To Kill a Mockingbird represent a wide range of human nature. 1) For Example,
Atticus Finch is a character with very positive qualities. He is a model of courage and integrity, someone
willing to a take a stand for what he believes in. 2) By contrast, Bob Ewell is evil and violent. He has many of
the worst qualities of human nature. * Furthermore, most of the other people of Maycomb, Alabama, where
the story takes place, show attitudes of bigotry, prejudice, and racism.
(Transition) The plot of To Kill a Mockingbird similarly shows both good and bad through people’s
actions. 3) On the negative side, people cruelly and unjustly accuse Tom Robinson of rape because he is black.
4) Bob Ewell curses Atticus and spits in his face. However, many positive events occur, too. 5) For instance,
Atticus risks his own safety to confront a lynch mob outside the jail. And the neighbor, Boo Radley, comes out
of hiding to save Atticus’s children when Bob Ewell attacks them. * Such heroic actions suggest the basic
decency of human nature.
(Transition) The characters of Of Mice and Men also show people’s good traits as well as their bad. In the
relationship between George and Lennie, there are positive qualities of human nature, such as friendship,
loyalty, and trust. But Curley, a mean troublemaker, shows just how unpleasant people can be.
The plot of Of Mice and Men shows how good or bad people can be in their actions. George protects
Lennie and takes care of him. At the end, George has to shoot his friend to save him from a worst fate.
Meanwhile, Curley is a bully. It’s he who wants to shoot Lennie down after Lennie accidentally kills Curley’s
wife. It’s interesting that George shoots Lennie out of friendship, while Curley wanted to shoot him for
revenge. These two motives in themselves suggest the range of human nature.
Books such as To Kill a Mockingbird and Of Mice and Men show the interaction between positive and
negative aspects of human nature. Rather than emphasize the bad, they present a more or less balanced view
of people’s good and bad qualities and actions.
Common Transitions
For Comparison And Contrast Order:
although, another difference, both, but, however, in contrast, instead, likewise, in the same way, similarly,
nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, whereas, yet
Chronological Order:
after, afterward, before, earlier, eventually, finally, first, formerly, last, meanwhile, next, now, previously,
soon, then, ultimately, until, while
Spatial Order:
above, across, ahead, away, behind, below, beneath, beyond, in front of, in the center, in the distance, near,
next to, on the right, outside, to the left
Order of Importance:
also, finally, first, for one reason, furthermore, more, moreover, one, perhaps the greatest reason, second, first
of all, for example, most important, next, third
Other Logical Orders:
accordingly, additionally, along with, and, as a result, consequently, for example, for instance, in addition,
indeed, in fact, mainly, namely, therefore, thus
In the following paragraph, you can see how transitions (in bold) help to link ideas smoothly and logically.
Only hardy nature lovers should attempt stream fishing, because what makes the streams wild and beautiful
makes the fishing difficult. First of all, fishers usually have to tramp through woods and dense thickets,
humming with mosquitoes, to reach isolated streams. Then, to find quiet holes where fish are, they must wade
across slick stones and logs, where it is easy to fall. Moreover, when they cast, overhanging trees along the
stream can snag their lines. Or if the bait happens plop into a deep pool, submerged logs and underwater
ledges may grab the hooks. Consequently, fishers may spend hours wrestling with the surrounding branches
and rocks. Finally, after all their efforts, their lines may jerk and a sparkling fish may thrash around and get
away, as the equipment had become damaged by the underwater debris.