Supporting Information Appendix:
Table S1: List of species exploiting PAFS documented in the scientific literature
Table S2: List of taxonomic Orders of birds and mammals exploiting PAFS
Table S3: Table of studies used for meta-analysis and methodological details
Appendix S4: Technical considerations of Fig. 1
List of References of Table S1
Table S1 List of species exploiting PAFS documented in the scientific literature. Some of these examples are cited in the main text. NQ = effects
not quantified. The list is ordered as follows: type of PAFS, biome and taxonomic groups
Type of PAFS
Bird feeder
Species
Several bird
species
Black-capped
chickadee
Several bird
species
Biome
Terrestrial
Main effects of PAFS
increased survival
References
(Dunn & Tessaglia 1994)
Terrestrial
increased survival
(Brittingham & Temple 1992)
Terrestrial
(Jones 2011)
Black-capped
chickadee
Several bird spp
Terrestrial
In the USA during 2002, ~82million householders
distributed over 450million kilograms of seed. In the UK,
recent estimates suggest that British
feeders outlay £240–290million each year on seed,
dispensers and other peripherals
higher overwinter survival, higher body mass
(Fuller et al. 2008)
Bird feeder
(unintentional)
Bird feeder
Carcasses
Carcasses
Lesser short-toed
lark
Kakapo
Fox, Golden eagles
Golden eagles and
ravens
Terrestrial
Carcasses
from hunting
Carcasses
from hunting
Cattle
boneyards
Griffon vulture
Terrestrial
increased abundance of already common species; no
diversity increase
spatial aggregation; low body condition; high prevalence of
pox virus
increased breeding frequency; increased chick survival
NQ
Differences in the spatial and temporal patterns of resource
use may allow resource partitioning between species, thus
facilitating their coexistence in sympatric area
Hunting could feed 1800 vultures/6 months
Capercaillie
Terrestrial
(Fernández-Olalla et al. 2012)
Wolves
Terrestrial
Subsidized mesopredators may increase predation rates on
capercaillie
Represent an important food source during winter; attract
wolves to livestock
Bird feeder
Bird feeder
Bird feeder
Bird feeder
Terrestrial
Terrestrial
Terrestrial
Terrestrial
(Brittingham & Temple 1988)
(Carrete et al. 2009)
(Elliott et al. 2001)
(Hewson 1984)
(Blázquez et al. 2009)
(Mateo-Tomás & Olea 2009)
(Morehouse & Boyce 2011)
Type of PAFS
Crop leftovers
Species
Lesser Snow geese
Biome
Terrestrial
Dump
Polar bear
Terrestrial
Dump
Terrestrial
Dump
Rats and
mongooses
Bald Eagles
Dump
Egyptian vulture
Terrestrial
Dump
Silver Gulls
Terrestrial
Dump
Herring gulls
Terrestrial
Dump
Yellow-legged gull
Terrestrial
Dump
Yellow-legged gull
Terrestrial
Three marked population regimes: steady population
growth (average 7.4% annual growth rate) over two
decades (1970’s and 80’s) occurring with an increase in
the number of dumps, followed by a stable phase
(average 1.0% annual growth rate) and a dramatic
decrease following the closure of most dumps
(2006‐2011, 12.0% decline in annual growth rate)
Dump
Kelp gull
Terrestrial
54–69% of the birds of the colony were present at the
Terrestrial
Main effects of PAFS
Destruction of wetland habitats by increased population
size of subsidized birds
Nutritional benefit. No reproductive benefit. Probably no
increased survival. Some individuals poisoned at dump.
Increases predation rates on native taxa: rats and
mongoose preying respectively on seabirds and turtle nests
Dump was not a major energy source, in part because
interference competition
Human activities enable the maintenance of the densest
population, whereas vultures provide a key regulating
service by disposing ca. 22% of the organic waste annually
produced in towns
Males using dumps were heavier and of greater body
condition than non-subsidized gulls, but no differences
were detected between females
After dump closure, last-laid egg size decreased
significantly, more eggs were lost by predation and fertility
decreased, whereas body weight of hatchlings was not
reduced
Gulls disperse seeds from autochthonous as well as from
invasive plants
References
(Kerbes et al. 1990)
(Lunn & Stirling 1985).
(Jones et al. 2008; Leighton et al.
2011)
(ELLIOTT et al. 2006)
(Gangoso et al. 2013)
(Auman et al. 2008)
(Kilpi & Öst 1998)
(Calviño-Cancela 2002; Padrón et
al. 2011)
(Pérez et al. 2012)
(Bertellotti et al. 2001)
Type of PAFS
Species
Biome
Terrestrial
Dump
Kelp gull and
other species,
especially Rock
Dove and
Chimango
Kelp gull
Dump
White Ibis
Dump
Sacred Ibis
Dump
Ravens
Dump
Common ravens
Dump
Rooks
Dump
Dump
Dump
White Stork
White Stork
White Stork
Dump
White Stork
Dump/Fishing
discards
Yellow-legged gull
Dump
Terrestrial
Main effects of PAFS
dumps; birds preferred to forage at a fishery waste dump
than in a urban waste dump
Numbers present were significantly correlated with the size
of human settlements
Fish waste generated at three cities may support a
population of between 101 000 and 209 000 gulls
Terrestrial
Birds partially compensated for unavailable aquatic prey
with alternative urban foods
Terrestrial
58% of diet composed by prey from dumps; exploitation
can enhance invasive establishment of alien sacred ibis in
North America
Terrestrial
Anthropogenic resources for ravens could indirectly lead to
the suppression, decline, or even extinction of desert
tortoise populations
Terrestrial
Number of ravens declined during the study, coinciding
with a decrease in the local human population
Terrestrial
Between 1976 and 2003, the two population nuclei that
had access to tips increased 2.1 and 3.7 times more than
that without a tip nearby
Terrestrial
75% of storks were breeding close to dumps
Terrestrial
Increase of wintering population in breeding areas
Terrestrial
Dump availability would diminish the importance of an
early return from wintering areas
Terrestrial
Common use of dumps in migration routes and wintering
grounds in Africa and middle-East
Terrestrial/marine Increase of gull population densities increases predation
rates on syntopic Audouin’s gulls and European storm
References
(Yorio & Giaccardi 2002)
(Yorio & Caille 2004)
(Dorn et al. 2011)
(Calle & Gawlik 2011)
(Kristan & Boarman 2003)
(Restani et al. 2001)
(Olea & Baglione 2008)
(Tortosa et al. 2002)
(Archaux et al. 2004)
(Gordo et al. 2007)
(Ciach & Kruszyk 2010)
(Martínez-Abraín et al. 2003;
Sanz-Aguilar et al. 2009)
Type of PAFS
Species
Main effects of PAFS
petrels
Terrestrial/marine Large differences in dump use between populations (range
0-45% by biomass) depending on distance from the dump
and the availability of alternative prey
Terrestrial/marine Numbers declined as food from discards and municipal
dumps became scarcer
References
(Wilson et al. 2004)
Red deer
Terrestrial/marine Population growth experienced by many subsidized
seabirds has increased ammonia emissions
Terrestrial
Attempt to reduce damage by supplementary feeding. Only
hunting reduces damage.
Terrestrial
Control how many individuals use supp. feeding stations.
High individual variability. Not all individuals of a population
used the feeding stations.
Terrestrial
Omnivorous black bears altered prey behaviour by
increasing predation risk at feeding stations
Terrestrial
Detailed review of effect on body weight fecundity, antler
weights, survival
Terrestrial
Female aggregation and mean harem size can be affected
by PAFS with potential consequences at evolutionary level
Terrestrial
Increased body mass then increased pregnancy rate.
Red deer
Terrestrial
(Schmidt & Hoi 2002)
Dump/Fishing
discards
Yellow-legged gull
Dump/Fishing
discards
Ring-billed Gull
Larus
delawarensis,
Herring Gull L.
argentatus, Great
Black-backed Gull
L. marinus, and
Black-legged
Kittiwake Rissa
tridactyla
Seabirds
Dump/Fishing
discards
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
Feeding
Wild boar
Mountain hare
Voles
Wild red deer
Red Deer
Biome
In their first year of life suplementary fed deer are under
(Ramos et al. 2009)
(Cotter et al. 2012)
(Geisser & Reyer 2004)
(Newey et al. 2009)
(Morris 2005)
(Putman & Staines 2004)
(Pérez-González et al. 2010)
(Rodriguez-Hidalgo et al. 2010)
Type of PAFS
stations
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
Species
Biome
Deer
Terrestrial
White-tailed deer
Terrestrial
Feeding
stations
White-tailed deer
Terrestrial
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
White-tailed deer
Terrestrial
Elk
Terrestrial
Feeding
stations
Elk, reindeer,
mountain goats,
Dall's sheep,
Stone's sheep and
caribou
Elk-bird
community
Terrestrial
Moose
Terrestrial
Moose
Terrestrial
Moose
Terrestrial
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
Feeding
Terrestrial
Main effects of PAFS
reduced natural selection pressure.
The Nutritional, Ecological, and Ethical Arguments Against
Baiting and Feeding White-Tailed Deer
Food supplementation reduces the core area by 50%, but
does not change the total home range. Caution against
long-term supplemental feeding in fixed locations because
of the potential for localized range degradation around the
feeders
Conservation concerns that providing supplemental feed to
deer in semi-arid rangeland will disrupt the ecology of the
land through changes in rodent populations were not
supported.
White-tailed deer impact on the vegetation dynamics of a
northern hardwood forest
High Brucellosis levels on supplemented feeding grounds.
Supplementations started in 1910 to limit elk impacts on
agriculture
More neonate females probably due to supplementary
feeding
References
Changes in bird communities and willow habitats associated
with fed elk. Stands close to FS lowered richness and
abundances of all birds
Altered moose movement, distribution and behaviour, but
only at the end of migration.
Browsing impact greater (gradient) near stations of
supplementary feeding
Moose winter browsing affects the breeding success of
(Anderson 2007)
(Brown & Cooper 2006)
(Cooper et al. 2006)
(Moseley et al. 2011)
(Horsley et al. 2003)
(Cross et al. 2010)
(Hoefs & Nowlan 1994)
(Sahlsten et al. 2010)
(Gundersen et al. 2004)
(Pedersen et al. 2007)
Type of PAFS
stations
Feeding
stations
Species
Biome
Moose
Terrestrial
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
Moose
Terrestrial
Moose
Terrestrial
Moose
Terrestrial
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
Ungulates
Terrestrial
Ungulates
Terrestrial
Big-game and
small-game
species
European Bison
Terrestrial
Iberian lynx
Terrestrial
Northern
bobwhite
Northern
Bobwhite
Bobwhites and
bobcats
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
Main effects of PAFS
great tits.
Moose density and habitat productivity affects
reproduction, growth and species composition in field layer
vegetation
moose winter activity around feeding stations affect
reproduction in great tits and pied flycatchers
Both cervid activity and human management interventions
influenced bird communities.
Impact of simulated moose densities on abundance and
richness of vegetation, herbivorous and predatory
arthropods along a productivity gradient
There is a trade-off between high productivity of hunted
ungulate populations and retaining wild traits.
Affect animal movement and habitat selection patterns
within seasonal home ranges
Long-Term changes in game species over a long period of
transformation in the Iberian Mediterranean landscape.
Intensive agriculture depletes small game species
Supplementary feeding has negative effects on bison
ecology and health
Feeding stations allow the persistence of lynx populations
during long periods in areas where wild
rabbits are extremely scarce
References
Terrestrial
Collateral effects. Other animals visit feeding stations
(Morris et al. 2010)
Terrestrial
No effect on reproductive success. Increased winter survival
in locations when food was in low supply.
Supplementary feeding can result in a spatial response by
predators
(Doerr & Silvy 2002)
Terrestrial
Terrestrial
(Mathisen et al. 2010)
(Mathisen et al. 2012)
(Mathisen & Skarpe 2011)
(Suominen et al. 2008)
(Mysterud 2010)
(Van Beest et al. 2011)
(Delibes-Mateos et al. 2009)
(Kowalczyk et al. 2011)
(López-Bao et al. 2008)
(Godbois et al. 2004)
Type of PAFS
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
Species
Bears
Biome
Terrestrial
Main effects of PAFS
Gain body mass in fed areas
References
(Partridge et al. 2001)
Hen harriers
Terrestrial
(Thompson et al. 2009)
Feeding
stations
Hen harrier
Terrestrial
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
Feeding
stations
Pheasants
Terrestrial
Pheasant
Terrestrial
Florida scrub-jays
Terrestrial
Florida scrub-jays
Terrestrial
Fishing
discards
Amphipods,
isopods,
cephalopods,
ophiuroids, nine
species of fish,
and seven
decapods
Liocarcinus
holsatus, Pagurus
bernhardus,
Asterias rubens,
ophiurids, and
Marine
Provision of supplementary food to hen harriers greatly
reduced their predatory impact on young grouse, but did
not result in higher grouse densities
Intended to reduce mortality in natural prey (red grouse).
Larger clutches, not earlier. Females fed more than males.
Females that fed once, repeated. Decreased chick mortality
but not increased densities.
Increased density. Equal breeding success and timing. Renesting occurred more rapidly.
Supplementary feeding with grain improves pheasant body
condition in winter and early spring
Suburban birds fed ad libitum bred early and showed low
levels of corticosterone.
Weak support for unpredictability causing delay in onset of
reproduction. However the artificial lab environment may
limit the application to free-living organisms.
NQ
Marine
NQ
(Groenewold & Fonds 2000)
Fishing
discards
(Redpath et al. 2001)
(Hoodless et al. 1999)
(Stoate 2002)
(Schoech et al. 2008)
(Bridge et al. 2009)
(Bozzano & Sardà 2002)
Type of PAFS
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Species
small gadoids
Hermit crab,
starfish, whelk,
swimming crabs,
edible crab,
amphipods and
isopods
Trachinus draco,
Pagellus acarne,
Scyliorhinus
canicula, Raja
montagui and
Leucoraja naevus
Liocarcinus
depurator,
Asterias rubens,
Neptunea antiqua,
Pagurus
bernhardus,
Carcinus maenas,
Cancer pagurus
and Myxine
glutinosa
Conger eel
(Conger conger),
amphipod
Scopelocheirus
hopei and isopod
Natatolana
(Cirolana) borealis
Biome
Main effects of PAFS
References
Marine
NQ
(Ramsay et al. 1997)
Marine
NQ
(Olaso et al. 2007)
Marine
The energy available from discards could potentially
provide the identified marine discard scavengers on the
fishing grounds with 37 % of their energetic requirements
(Catchpole et al. 2006)
Marine
NQ
(Castro et al. 2010)
Type of PAFS
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Species
Hake Merluccius
hubbsi, southern
cod
Patagononotothen
ramsayi and
grenadier
Macrourus
holotrachys
Pacific cod Gadus
macrocephalus,
walleye pollock
Theragra
chalcogramma,
and oilfish
Ruvettus pretiosu
Northern fulmars
Fulmarus glacialis
Balearic
shearwater
Cory’s shearwater
Biome
Marine
Main effects of PAFS
Squid remains discarded by the fishery represented some
20–40% by volume of the diet
References
(Laptikhovsky & Fetisov 1999)
Marine
Discards made up between 25%-78% of the diets
(Yamamura 1997)
Marine
(Camphuysen & Garthe 1997)
Black-browed
Albatross
Black-browed
Albatross
Marine
14 species of
petrels,
shearwaters,
Marine
50% of their energy requirement was met by offal and
discards
41% of the energy obtained by the species’ world
population comes from PAFS during the breeding season
Bycatch in longlines dramatically increased in the absence
of trawling discards
The energy content of this waste is equivalent to 4.4% of
the estimated total annual energy requirements
The total quantity scavenged during the chick rearing
period amounts to 1000–2000 tonnes per year. This is
equivalent to 10–15% of the total food requirement of the
breeding Black-browed Albatross population
NQ
Marine
Marine
Marine
(Arcos & Oro 2002)
(Laneri et al. 2010)
(Thompson & Riddy 1995)
(Thompson 1992)
(Bugoni et al. 2010)
Type of PAFS
Species
albatrosses and
fulmar
At least 12 species
of albatrosses,
shearwaters and
petrels in New
Zealand waters
Cape gannets
Biome
Main effects of PAFS
References
Marine
NQ
(Petyt 1995)
Marine
(Gremillet et al. 2008)
Fishing
discards
Cape gannets
Marine
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Cape gannets
Marine
Audouin’s gull
Marine
Audouin’s gull
Marine
Audouin’s gull
Marine
Fishery wastes are beneficial to non-breeding birds: lower
dispersal and foraging times, number of dives and a 46%
reduction in the average time spent underwater when
exploiting discards. Not beneficial to breeding birds because
of being poor lipid-rich food
Cape gannets depend on fishery waste when their natural
prey is scarce, but revert to feeding on natural resources
whenever available
Birds from one declining colony foraged primarily on lowenergy fishery discards
Laying dates, clutch size, egg volume, hatching success,
breeding success
Reduced time devoted to forage; weekly cycle in foraging
activity
Large increase in foraging range in the absence of PAFS
Audouin’s gull
Marine
(Genovart et al. 2003)
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Lesser blackbacked gull
Herring and great
black-backed gulls
Marine
Birds breeding in a patch with higher PAFS availability had
significantly larger body size and weight than gulls living in a
distant patch from PAFS
Egg volume, breeding success
The intensity of gull predation on storm-petrels appears to
depend on the availability of discards of spawning capelin
(Stenhouse & Montevecchi 1999)
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Marine
(Tew Kai et al. 2013)
(Pichegru et al. 2007)
(Oro et al. 1996)
(Oro 1995; Mañosa et al. 2007)
(Arcos & Oro 1996)
(Oro 1996)
Type of PAFS
Species
Biome
Fishing
discards
Herring and great
black-backed gulls
Marine
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Yellow-legged gull
Marine
Yellow-legged gull
Marine
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Common tern
Fishing
discards
Main effects of PAFS
inshore.
When discards were available, ca. 85% of pellets contained
discard remains and ca. 70% of all pellets consisted
exclusively of these; birds had a significantly lower body
mass during periods of no fishing
Breeding success
References
(Cama et al. 2012)
Marine
Spatial density of trawlers at sea and the time of the day
are the best explanatory variables of gull distribution; gulls
concentrate in areas with vessels mainly during fish
discarding time, supporting the hypothesis that gulls
optimize time foraging to take advantage of fishery waste
predictability
Clutch size, egg volume
Sandwich tern
Marine
Clutch size
(Oro 1999)
Fulmar, Northern
gannet, great
skua, common
gull, lesser blackbacked gull,
herring gull, great
black-backed gull,
black-legged
kittiwake,
common and
arctic terns
Audouin’s, Lesser
black-backed,
Marine
NQ
(Furness et al. 1992; Garthe et al.
1996; Walter & Becker 1997)
Marine
In one area discards supply with almost double the energy
requirements of the local seabird community, whereas in
(Oro & Ruiz 1997; MartínezAbraín 2002)
(Hüppop & Wurm 2000)
(Oro et al. 1995)
(Oro 1999)
Type of PAFS
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Species
black-headed and
yellow-legged
gulls, common
and Sandwich
terns, Cory’s and
Balearic
shearwaters,
storm-petrel
and common
shags
Kelp Gulls, Blackbrowed Albatross,
White-chinned
Petrel, South
American Terns
Great skua
Biome
Main effects of PAFS
another area discards represent only ca. 20% of those
requirements. Trawling fishing fleet discards large amount
of non-commercial fish (up to 400% of landings)
References
Marine
The energy content of this waste is equivalent to 4.4% of
the estimated total annual energy requirements of the
study Black-browed Albatross population
(Thompson & Riddy 1995;
Gonzalez-Zevallos & Yorio 2006)
Marine
(Votier et al. 2008)
Sterna bergii, S.
dougallii, S.
Anaetheta,
Hydroprogne
caspia, Anous
stolidus, S.
bengalensis, Sula
leucogaster and
Fregata ariel,
Sterna sumatrana
Yellow-legged,
lesser blackbacked, black
Marine
% of occurrence of discards varied between years and
colonies (range: 0-65%)
9 from 12 species of tropical seabirds exploit discards to
different extent (range <5-70% of its diet)
NQ
(Valeiras 2003)
Marine
(Blaber et al. 1995)
Type of PAFS
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Fishing
discards
Fishing
Species
headed, Glaucous
and Sabine´s gulls;
little, great, sooty
Manx, Cory’s and
Balearic
shearwaters;
Arctic, Pomarine
and great skuas;
Leach´s and storm
petrels; Arctic,
Common,
Sandwich and
Black terns;
Kittiwake;
Northern gannet;
Guillemot and
Little auk
Sharks and
dolphins, common
and crested terns,
and lesser and
greater frigates
15-16 cetacean
species (including
1-2 mysticete)
Dolphins
Biome
Main effects of PAFS
References
Marine
NQ
(Hill & Wassenberg 1990, 2000)
Marine
NQ
(Fertl & Leatherwood 1997)
Marine
NQ
(Leatherwood 1975)
Bottlenose
dolphins
Bottlenose
Marine
NQ
(Broadhurst 1998)
Marine
NQ
(Chilvers & Corkeron 2001)
Type of PAFS
discards
Gutpiles from
hunting
Species
dolphins
Bears
Biome
Main effects of PAFS
References
Terrestrial
(Schwartz et al. 2010)
Gutpiles from
human
hunting
Golden eagles
Terrestrial
Gutpiles from
human
hunting and
from wolves
Gutpiles from
hunting
Restaurants
Bald eagles,
ravens, coyotes
and others
Terrestrial
Raven
Terrestrial
California condor
Terrestrial
The presence of armed humans during autumn increased
the risk of mortality by about 1.7% for a bear spending all
its time in areas open to elk hunting
Radiomarked golden eagles likely fed on gut piles left by
hunters, became food stressed after the gut piles became
unavailable (depleted or snow covered), and died when
extreme winter conditions prevailed.
Species diversity greater at wolf than at hunter kills but
greater total number of scavengers at hunter kills. Stronger
top–down effect of predation in the vicinity of highly
aggregated resource pulses.
Gutpiles form elk hunting influences raven population
dynamics.
increased productivity; avoid contaminants and junk food
Restaurant
Restaurant
Restaurant
Restaurant
Restaurant
Bearded vulture
Bearded vulture
Bearded vulture
Bearded vulture
Bearded vulture
Terrestrial
Terrestrial
Terrestrial
Terrestrial
Terrestrial
increased juvenile survival
mating strategies
unaltered pre-adult mortality
Modest decreases in extinction risk
Restaurant
Cape Griffon
vulture
Griffon vulture
Griffon vulture
Griffon vulture
Terrestrial
First-year survival increased by ca. 63% after the
introduction of supplementary feeding
reduced scavenging efficiency
increase in population growth rate
vultures are able to evaluate the predation risk depending
on PAFS availability, and to modify their behaviour
from“natural” caution (”shyness”) towards a more tolerant
Restaurant
Restaurants
Restaurants
Terrestrial
Terrestrial
PAFS reduce geographic expansion and foraging
movements
(McIntyre et al. 2006)
(Wilmers et al. 2003)
(White 2006)
(Wilbur et al. 1974; Mee et al.
2007)
(Oro et al. 2008)
(Carrete et al. 2006b)
(Carrete et al. 2006a)
(Bretagnolle et al. 2004)
(Margalida et al. 2008, 2013)
(Piper et al. 1999)
(Deygout et al. 2010)
(Parra & Tellería 2004)
(Zuberogoitia et al. 2010)
Type of PAFS
Species
Biome
Restaurant
Restaurant
Egyptian vulture
Vulture species
Terrestrial
Terrestrial
Restaurant
Restaurant
Restaurant
Vulture species
Vultures
Vultures
Terrestrial
Terrestrial
Terrestrial
Restaurant
Griffon and
Egyptian vultures
Terrestrial
Restaurant
Endangered
raptor species
(California Condor
and Spanish
Imperial eagle)
Coot; redknobbed coot
Common raven,
jays
Corvid species
Ravens, jays, red
foxes
Terrestrial
Restaurants
Restaurants
Restaurant
Ungulate
Carcasses
Main effects of PAFS
(”fearless”) behaviour
Changed search strategy of food resources
reduced nest survival in ground-nesting birds close to
restaurants
NQ
reduced dispersal
Can be used to avoid the effects of veterinary drugs
and improve demographic parameters
Diet overlap was conditioned by interspecific
competition and the progressive exploitation of
unpredictable carcasses after cessation of PAFS
Food is voluntarily provided to improve individual
survival and increase population densities
References
(López-López et al. 2013)
(Cortés-Avizanda et al. 2009)
(Margalida et al. 2010)
(Monsarrat et al. 2013)
(Gilbert et al. 2007)
(Donázar et al. 2010)
(Meretsky et al. 2000; González et
al. 2006)
Terrestrial
changed behaviour; increased mortality risk
(Martínez-Abraín et al. 2007)
Terrestrial
spatial aggregation; increased chances of predation;
decreased abundance of other species
higher survival, reduced home ranges, increased density
In temperate forests, ungulate carcasses are a prime
resource for many species of birds and mammals. Some
species do not feed on carcasses or are killed. Effects on
community structure
(Cortés-Avizanda et al. 2009)
Terrestrial
Terrestrial
(Marzluff & Neatherlin 2006)
(Cortés-Avizanda et al. 2009)
Table S2 List of taxonomic Orders of birds and mammals exploiting PAFS
Order
Birds
Struthioniformes—ostriches, emus, kiwis, and allies
Tinamiformes—tinamous
Anseriformes—waterfowl
Galliformes—fowl
Charadriiformes—gulls, button-quails, plovers and allies
Gaviiformes—loons
Podicipediformes—grebes
Procellariiformes—albatrosses, petrels, and allies
Sphenisciformes—penguins
Pelecaniformes—pelicans and allies
Phaethontiformes—tropicbirds
Ciconiiformes—storks and allies
Cathartiformes—New World vultures
Phoenicopteriformes—flamingos
Accipitriformes—falcons, eagles, vultures, hawks and allies
Gruiformes—cranes and allies
Pteroclidiformes—sandgrouse
Columbiformes—doves and pigeons
Psittaciformes—parrots and allies
Cuculiformes—cuckoos and turacos
Opisthocomiformes—hoatzin
Dumps
Fishing
discards
Middens
and
Crop
restaurants residuals
yes
yes
Bird
feeders
Feeding Gutpiles and
stations
carcasses
for game
from
species
hunting
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
Order
Strigiformes—owls
Caprimulgiformes—nightjars and allies
Apodiformes—swifts and hummingbirds
Coraciiformes—kingfishers and allies
Piciformes—woodpeckers and allies
Trogoniformes—trogons
Coliiformes—mousebirds
Passeriformes—passerines
Mammals
Macroscelidea— elephant shrews
Afrosoricida— tenrecs and golden moles
Tubulidentata— aardvark
Hyracoidea— hyraxes or dassies
Proboscidea— elephants
Sirenia— dugong and manatees
Pilosa— sloths and anteaters
Cingulata— armadillos
Scandentia— treeshrews
Dermoptera— flying lemurs or colugos
Primates— lemurs, bushbabies, monkeys, apes (excluding
humans)
Lagomorpha— pikas, rabbits, hares
Rodentia— rodents
Erinaceomorpha— hedgehogs
Dumps
yes
Fishing
discards
Middens
and
Crop
restaurants residuals
yes
yes
Bird
feeders
yes
Feeding Gutpiles and
stations
carcasses
for game
from
species
hunting
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
Order
Soricomorpha— moles, shrews, solenodons
Cetacea— whales, dolphins and porpoises
Artiodactyla— even-toed ungulates
Chiroptera— bats
Perissodactyla— odd-toed ungulates
Pholidota— pangolins or scaly anteaters
Carnivora— carnivores
Dumps
Fishing
discards
Middens
and
Crop
restaurants residuals
Bird
feeders
Feeding Gutpiles and
stations
carcasses
for game
from
species
hunting
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
Table S3 Association between different detrended indexes of population size (density,
population growth rate, abundance) and availability of PAFS available in the literature
and from our own unpublished data. These association were used for the metaanalysis (see below).
Name
Scientific
name
Audouin’s gull Larus
audouinii
Yellow-legged L. michahellis
gull
Golden eagle Aquila
chrysaetos
Griffon
Gyps fulvus
Vulture
Yellow-legged L. michahellis
gull
White stork
Ciconia
ciconia
Lesser Black- L. fuscus
backed gull
Griffon
Gyps fulvus
Vulture
Common
Corvus corax
Raven
Griffon
Gyps fulvus
Vulture
2
r
0.6224
No
years/sites PAFS
21
discards
Ref
own data
0.3526
19
discards
own data
0.7296
9
0.697
17
0.212
22
carcasses from (Watson et al. 1992)
hunting
middens and (Parra & Tellería 2004)
restaurants
dumps
(Duhem et al. 2008)
0.11
23
dumps
own data
0.2005
10
discards
own data
0.1713
13
restaurants
own data
0.56
29
gutpiles
(White 2006)
0.6233
26
carcasses from (Mateo-Tomás & Olea
hunting
2010)
We performed a random-effects meta-analysis on 10 studies reporting coefficients of
determination (r2) on the relationship between population size and some estimate of
annual food availability. Between studies variance was small T2=0.045; H=1.3 (95% CI
1.0, 1.9) and the test of the homogeneity of variance between studies was not found
to be statistically significant (Q=15.33; df=9; p=0.082). We first transformed the
extracted r2 into correlation coefficients (r) simply by taking the square root. The
sample correlation coefficients were transformed to Fisher’s z scores by means of the
expression z = 0.5×ln([1+r]/[1-r]) after (Borenstein 2009). We obtained overall values
and 95% confidence intervals for the effect size on Fisher’s z scale by means of the R
package “psychometric”.
(http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/psychometric/psychometric.pdf).
The overall values for z (and its 95% confidence limits) were then back-transformed by
means of the expression r = e2z–1/e2z+1 (op. cit). As reflected by the attached funnel plot
there is evidence of publication bias since studies were not distributed symmetrically
about the mean effect size. Typically larger effect sizes are more likely to be
statistically significant (because they can be detected with smaller sample sizes), and
hence are more likely to be published (Martínez-Abraín 2013). This publication bias
suggests that the overall effect size can be somewhat overestimated.
Figure A1: Evidence of publication bias in our meta-analysis, illustrated by the lack of
symmetry of the studies about the mean effect size (0.67)
Appendix S4
‘food losses and waste’ is an averaged value by country offered at
http://faostat3.fao.org/, whereas human population density is at a spatial resolution of
30’’ longbow grid. The layer of human population density is adjusted for fitting the
data to the one recorded by the United Nations for 2000.
Considerations about symbols
For a proper visualization a stretched has been applied:
The Stretched renderer displays continuous raster cell values across a gradual ramp of
colors. Use the Stretched renderer to draw a single band of continuous data.
Standard Deviation or Percent Clip
In many cases, you can assume that the majority of the pixel values fall within an
upper and lower limit. Therefore, it's reasonable to trim off the extreme values. You
can do this statistically by defining either a standard deviation or clipping percent. The
Standard Deviation stretch type applies a linear stretch between the values defined by
the standard deviation (n) value. The Percent Clip stretch type applies a linear stretch
between the percent clip minimum and percent clip maximum pixel values defined.
When you use either of these stretch types, all the values in the histogram falling
outside the values defined will be pushed to the ends. In our case, we have used a
standard deviation of value = 1.
Gamma
Gamma refers to the degree of contrast between the midlevel gray values of a raster
dataset. Gamma does not affect the black or white values in a raster dataset, only the
middle values. By applying a gamma correction, you can control the overall brightness
of a raster dataset. Additionally, gamma changes not only the brightness but also the
ratios of red to green to blue.
Gamma values lower than one decrease the contrast in the darker areas and increase
the contrast in the lighter areas. This darkens the image without saturating the dark or
light areas of the image. This helps bring out details in lighter features, such as building
tops. Conversely, gamma values greater than one increase the contrast in darker areas,
such as shadows from buildings. Gamma values greater than one can also help bring
out details in lower elevation areas when working with elevation data. In our case we
have used a gamma value of 5.
References used on population density
Center for International Earth Science Information Network (CIESIN),
Columbia University; International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI);
the World Bank; and Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). 2011.
Global Rural-Urban Mapping Project, Version 1 (GRUMPv1): Population Count Grid.
Palisades, NY: Socioeconomic Data and Applications Center (SEDAC), Columbia
University.
Available at http://sedac.ciesin.columbia.edu/data/dataset/grump-v1-populationcount.
List of references
Anderson, E.M. (2007). Changes in bird communities and willow habitats associated
with fed elk. Wilson. J. Ornithol., 119, 400–409.
Archaux, F., Balança, G., Henry, P.-Y. & Zapata, G. (2004). Wintering of White Storks
in Mediterranean France. Waterbirds, 27, 441–445.
Arcos, J.M. & Oro, D. (1996). Changes in foraging range of Audouin’s Gull Larus
audouinii in relation to a trawler moratorium in the western Mediterranean. Col.
Waterbirds, 19, 128–131.
Arcos, J.M. & Oro, D. (2002). Significance of fisheries discards for a threatened
Mediterranean seabird, the Balearic shearwater Puffinus mauretanicus. Mar.
Ecol. Prog. Ser., 239, 209–220.
Auman, H.J., Meathrel, C.E. & Richardson, A. (2008). Supersize Me: Does
Anthropogenic Food Change the Body Condition of Silver Gulls? A
Comparison Between Urbanized and Remote, Non-urbanized Areas.
Waterbirds, 31, 122–126.
Van Beest, F.M., Rivrud, I.M., Loe, L.E., Milner, J.M. & Mysterud, A. (2011). What
determines variation in home range size across spatiotemporal scales in a large
browsing herbivore? J. Anim. Ecol., 80, 771–785.
Bertellotti, M., Yorio, P., Blanco, G. & Giaccardi, M. (2001). USE OF TIPS BY
NESTING KELP GULLS AT A GROWING COLONY IN PATAGONIA.
Journal of Field Ornithology, 72, 338–348.
Blaber, S., Milton, D., Smith, G. & Farmer, M. (1995). Trawl discards in the diets of
tropical seabirds of the northern Great Barrier Reef, Australia. Marine Ecology
Progress Series, 127, 1–13.
Blázquez, M., Sánchez-Zapata, J.A., Botella, F., Carrete, M. & Eguía, S. (2009). Spatiotemporal segregation of facultative avian scavengers at ungulate carcasses. Acta
Oecologica, 35, 645–650.
Borenstein, M. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester
U.K.
Bozzano, A. & Sardà, F. (2002). Fishery discard consumption rate and scavenging
activity in the northwestern Mediterranean Sea. ICES J. Mar. Sci., 59, 15–28.
Bretagnolle, V., Inchausti, P., Seguin, J.-F. & Thibault, J.-C. (2004). Evaluation of the
extinction risk and of conservation alternatives for a very small insular
population: the bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus in Corsica. Biol. Conserv.,
120, 19–30.
Bridge, E.S., Schoech, S.J., Bowman, R. & Wingfield, J.C. (2009). Temporal
predictability in food availability: effects upon the reproductive axis in ScrubJays. J. Exp. Zool., . Part A, Ecological genetics and physiology, 311, 35–44.
Brittingham, M.C. & Temple, S.A. (1988). Impacts of supplemental feeding on survival
rates of Black-capped Chickadees. Ecology, 581–589.
Brittingham, M.C. & Temple, S.A. (1992). Does Winter Bird Feeding Promote
Dependency?(?` Promueve Dependencia la Alimentación de aves Durante el
Invierno?). J. Field Ornithol., 190–194.
Broadhurst, M.K. (1998). Bottlenose Dolphins, Tursiops truncatus, Removing By-catch
from Prawn-trawl Codends During Fishing in New South Wales, Australia. Mar.
Fish. Rev., 60, 9–14.
Brown, R.D. & Cooper, S.M. (2006). The Nutritional, Ecological, and Ethical
Arguments Against Baiting and Feeding White-Tailed Deer. Wildlife So. Bull.,
34, 519–524.
Bugoni, L., McGill, R.A.R. & Furness, R.W. (2010). The importance of pelagic
longline fishery discards for a seabird community determined through stable
isotope analysis. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 391,
190–200.
Calle, L. & Gawlik, D.E. (2011). Anthropogenic food in the diet of the Sacred Ibis
(Threskiornis aethiopicus), a non-native wading bird in Southeastern Florida,
USA. Flor. Field Nat., 39, 1–15.
Calviño-Cancela, M. (2002). Spatial patterns of seed dispersal and seedling recruitment
in Corema album (Empetraceae): the importance of unspecialized dispersers for
regeneration. J. Ecol., 90, 775–784.
Cama, A., Abellana, R., Christel, I., Ferrer, X. & Vieites, D.R. (2012). Living on
predictability: modelling the density distribution of efficient foraging seabirds.
Ecography, 35, 912–921.
Camphuysen, K. & Garthe, S. (1997). An evaluation of the distribution and scavenging
habits of northern fulmars (Fulmarus glacialis) in the North Sea. ICES J. Mar.
Sci., 54, 654–683.
Carrete, M., Donázar, J.A. & Margalida, A. (2006a). Density-dependent productivity
depression in Pyrenean bearded vultures: implications for conservation. Ecol.
Appl., 16, 1674–1682.
Carrete, M., Donázar, J.A., Margalida, A. & Bertran, J. (2006b). Linking ecology,
behaviour and conservation: does habitat saturation change the mating system of
bearded vultures? Biol. Lett., 2, 624–627.
Carrete, M., Serrano, D., Illera, J.C., López, G., Vögeli, M., Delgado, A., et al. (2009).
Goats, birds, and emergent diseases: apparent and hidden effects of exotic
species in an island environment. Ecol. Appl., 19, 840–853.
Castro, M., Araújo, A. & Monteiro, P. (2010). Fate of discards from deep water
crustacean trawl fishery off the south coast of Portugal [WWW Document].
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00288330.2005.9517323. URL
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00288330.2005.9517323
Catchpole, T.L., Frid, C.L.J. & Gray, T.S. (2006). Importance of discards from the
English Nephrops norvegicus fishery in the North Sea to marine scavengers.
Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 313, 215–226.
Chilvers, B.L. & Corkeron, P.J. (2001). Trawling and bottlenose dolphins’ social
structure. Proc. R. Soc. B-Biol. Sci., 268, 1901–1905.
Ciach, M. & Kruszyk, R. (2010). Foraging of White Storks Ciconia ciconia on Rubbish
Dumps on Non-Breeding Grounds. Waterbirds, 33, 101–104.
Cooper, S.M., Owens, M.K., Cooper, R.M. & Ginnett, T.F. (2006). Effect of
supplemental feeding on spatial distribution and browse utilization by whitetailed deer in semi-arid rangeland. J. Arid Environ., 66, 716–726.
Cortés-Avizanda, A., Carrete, M., Serrano, D. & Donázar, J.A. (2009). Carcasses
increase the probability of predation of ground-nesting birds: a caveat regarding
the conservation value of vulture restaurants. Anim. Conserv., 12, 85–88.
Cotter, R.C., Rail, J.-F., Boyne, A.W., Robertson, G.J., Weseloh, D.V. & Chaulk, K.G.
(2012). Population status, distribution, and trends of gulls and kittiwakes
breeding in eastern Canada, 1998–2007. Canadian Wildlife Service.
Cross, P.C., Cole, E.K., Dobson, A.P., Edwards, W.H., Hamlin, K.L., Luikart, G., et al.
(2010). Probable causes of increasing brucellosis in free-ranging elk of the
Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Ecol. Appl., 20, 278–288.
Delibes-Mateos, M., Farfán, M.A., Olivero, J., Márquez, A.L. & Vargas, J.M. (2009).
Long-term changes in game species over a long period of transformation in the
Iberian Mediterranean landscape. J. Environ. Manage., 43, 1256–1268.
Deygout, C., Gault, A., Duriez, O., Sarrazin, F. & Bessa-Gomes, C. (2010). Impact of
food predictability on social facilitation by foraging scavengers. Behav. Ecol.,
21, 1131–1139.
Doerr, T.B. & Silvy, N.J. (2002). Effects of supplemental feeding on northern bobwhite
populations in south Texas. In: Proceedings of the National Quail Symposium.
pp. 233–240.
Donázar, J.A., Cortés-Avizanda, A. & Carrete, M. (2010). Dietary shifts in two vultures
after the demise of supplementary feeding stations: consequences of the EU
sanitary legislation. European Journal of Wildlife Research, 56, 613–621.
Dorn, N.J., Cook, M.I., Herring, G., Boyle, R.A., Nelson, J. & Gawlik, D.E. (2011).
Aquatic prey switching and urban foraging by the White Ibis Eudocimus albus
are determined by wetland hydrological conditions. Ibis, 153, 323–335.
Duhem, C., Roche, P., Vidal, E. & Tatoni, T. (2008). Effects of anthropogenic food
resources on yellow-legged gull colony size on Mediterranean islands. Popul.
Ecol., 50, 91–100.
Dunn, E.H. & Tessaglia, D.L. (1994). Predation of Birds at Feeders in Winter
(Depredación de Aves en Comederos Durante el Invierno). J. Field Ornithol., 8–
16.
Elliott, G.P., Merton, D.V. & Jansen, P.W. (2001). Intensive management of a critically
endangered species: the kakapo. Biol. Conserv., 99, 121–133.
ELLIOTT, K.H., DUFFE, J., LEE, S.L., MINEAU, P. & ELLIOTT, J.E. (2006).
FORAGING ECOLOGY OF BALD EAGLES AT AN URBAN LANDFILL.
The Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 118, 380–390.
Fernández-Olalla, M., Martínez-Abraín, A., Canut, J., García-Ferré, D., Afonso, I. &
González, L.M. (2012). Assessing different management scenarios to reverse the
declining trend of a relict capercaillie population: A modelling approach within
an adaptive management framework. Biol. Cons., 148, 79–87.
Fertl, D. & Leatherwood, S. (1997). Cetacean Interactions with Trawls: A Preliminary
Review. J. Northw. Atl. Fish. Sci., 22, 219–248.
Fuller, R.A., Warren, P.H., Armsworth, P.R., Barbosa, O. & Gaston, K.J. (2008).
Garden bird feeding predicts the structure of urban avian assemblages. Divers.
Distrib., 14, 131–137.
Furness, R.W., Ensor, K. & Hudson, A.V. (1992). The use of Fishery Waste by Gull
Populations around the British Isles. Ardea, 80, 105–113.
Gangoso, L., Agudo, R., Anadón, J.D., De la Riva, M., Suleyman, A.S., Porter, R., et al.
(2013). Reinventing mutualism between humans and wild fauna: insights from
vultures as ecosystem services providers. Conservation Letters, 6, 172–179.
Garthe, S., Camphuysen, C.J. & Furness, R.W. (1996). Amounts of discards by
commercial fisheries and their significance as food for seabirds in the North Sea.
Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 136, 1–11.
Geisser, H. & Reyer, H.U. (2004). Efficacy of hunting, feeding, and fencing to reduce
crop damage by wild boars. J. Wildl. Manage., 68, 939–946.
Genovart, M., Oro, D. & Bonhomme, F. (2003). Genetic and morphological
differentiation between the two largest breeding colonies of Audouin’s Gull
Larus audouinii. Ibis, 145, 448–456.
Gilbert, M., Watson, R.T., Ahmed, S., Asim, M. & Johnson, J.A. (2007). Vulture
restaurants and their role in reducing diclofenac exposure in Asian vultures. Bird
Conserv. Int., 17, 63–77.
Godbois, I.A., Conner, L.M. & Warren, R.J. (2004). Space-use patterns of bobcats
relative to supplemental feeding of northern bobwhites. Journal of Wildlife
Management, 68, 514–518.
González, L.M., Margalida, A., Sánchez, R. & Oria, J. (2006). Supplementary feeding
as an effective tool for improving breeding success in the Spanish imperial eagle
(< i> Aquila adalberti</i>). Biol. Conserv., 129, 477–486.
Gonzalez-Zevallos, D. & Yorio, P. (2006). Seabird use of discards and incidental
captures at the Argentine hake trawl fishery in the Golfo San Jorge, Argentina.
Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 316, 175–183.
Gordo, O., Sanz, J.J. & Lobo, J.M. (2007). Spatial patterns of white stork (Ciconia
ciconia) migratory phenology in the Iberian Peninsula. J. Ornithol., 148, 293–
308.
Gremillet, D., Pichegru, L., Kuntz, G., Woakes, A.G., Wilkinson, S., Crawford, R.J.., et
al. (2008). A junk-food hypothesis for gannets feeding on fishery waste. Proc. R.
Soc. B-Biol. Sci., 275, 1149–1156.
Groenewold, S. & Fonds, M. (2000). Effects on benthic scavengers of discards and
damaged benthos produced by the beam-trawl fishery in the southern North Sea.
ICES J. Mar. Sci., 57, 1395–1406.
Gundersen, H., Andreassen, H.P. & Storaas, T. (2004). Supplemental feeding of
migratory moose Alces alces: forest damage at two spatial scales. Wildl. Biol.,
10, 213–223.
Hewson, R. (1984). Scavenging and Predation Upon Sheep and Lambs in West
Scotland. J. Appl. Ecol., 21, 843–868.
Hill, B. & Wassenberg, T. (1990). Fate of discards from Prawn Trawlers in Torres
Strait. Mar. Freshwater Res., 41, 53–64.
Hill, B.. & Wassenberg, T.. (2000). The probable fate of discards from prawn trawlers
fishing near coral reefs: A study in the northern Great Barrier Reef, Australia.
Fish. Res., 48, 277–286.
Hoefs, M. & Nowlan, U. (1994). Distorted Sex Ratios in Young Ungulates: The Role of
Nutrition. Journal of Mammalogy, 75, 631.
Hoodless, A.N., Draycott, R. a. H., Ludiman, M.N. & Robertson, P.A. (1999). Effects
of supplementary feeding on territoriality, breeding success and survival of
pheasants. J. Appl. Ecol., 36, 147–156.
Horsley, S.B., Stout, S.L. & deCalesta, D.S. (2003). White-tailed deer impact on the
vegetation dynamics of a northern hardwood forest. Ecol. Appl., 13, 98–118.
Hüppop, O. & Wurm, S. (2000). Effects of winter fishery activities on resting numbers,
food and body condition of large gulls Larus argentatus and L. marinus in the
south-eastern North Sea. Mar Ecol Prog Ser, 194, 241–247.
Jones, D. (2011). An appetite for connection: why we need to understand the effect and
value of feeding wild birds. Emu, 111, i–vii.
Jones, H.P., Tershy, B.R., Zavaleta, E.S., Croll, D.A., Keitt, B.S., Finkelstein, M.E., et
al. (2008). Severity of the Effects of Invasive Rats on Seabirds: A Global
Review. Cons. Biol., 22, 16–26.
Kerbes, R.H., Kotanen, P.M. & Jefferies, R.L. (1990). Destruction of Wetland Habitats
by Lesser Snow Geese: A Keystone Species on the West Coast of Hudson Bay.
J. Appl. Ecol., 27, 242–258.
Kilpi, M. & Öst, M. (1998). Reduced availability of refuse and breeding output in a
herring gull (Larus argentatus) colony. Ann. Zool. Fenn., 35, 37–42.
Kowalczyk, R., Taberlet, P., Coissac, E., Valentini, A., Miquel, C., Kamiński, T., et al.
(2011). Influence of management practices on large herbivore diet—Case of
European bison in Białowieża Primeval Forest (Poland). For. Ecol. Manage.,
261, 821–828.
Kristan, W.B. & Boarman, W.I. (2003). Spatial pattern of risk of common raven
predation on desert tortoises. Ecology, 84, 2432–2443.
Laneri, K., Louzao, M., Martínez-Abraín, A., Arcos, J.M., Belda, E.J., Guallart, J., et al.
(2010). Trawling regime influences longline seabird bycatch in the
Mediterranean: new insights from a small-scale fishery. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser.,
420, 241–252.
Laptikhovsky, V. & Fetisov, A. (1999). Scavenging by fish of discards from the
Patagonian squid fishery. Fish. Res., 41, 93–97.
Leatherwood, S. (1975). Some Observations of Feeding Behavior of Bottle-Nosed
Dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in the Northern Gulf of Mexico and (Tursiops cf
T. gilli) off Southern California, Baja California, and Nayarit, Mexico. Mar.
Fish. Rev., 37, 10–16.
Leighton, P.A., Horrocks, J.A. & Kramer, D.L. (2011). Predicting nest survival in sea
turtles: when and where are eggs most vulnerable to predation? Anim. Cons., 14,
186–195.
López-Bao, J.V., Rodríguez, A. & Palomares, F. (2008). Behavioural response of a
trophic specialist, the Iberian lynx, to supplementary food: Patterns of food use
and implications for conservation. Biol. Conserv., 141, 1857–1867.
López-López, P., Benavent-Corai, J., García-Ripollés, C. & Urios, V. (2013).
Scavengers on the Move: Behavioural Changes in Foraging Search Patterns
during the Annual Cycle. PLoS ONE, 8, e54352.
Lunn, N.J. & Stirling, I. (1985). The significance of supplemental food to polar bears
during the ice-free period of Hudson Bay. Canadian Journal of Zoology, Can. J.
Zool., 63, 2291–2297.
Mañosa, S., Oro, D. & Ruiz, X. (2007). Activity patterns and foraging behaviour of
Audouin’ s gulls in the Ebro Delta, NW Mediterranean. Sci. Mar., 68.
Margalida, A., Carrete, M., Hegglin, D., Serrano, D., Arenas, R. & Donázar, J.A.
(2013). Uneven Large-Scale Movement Patterns in Wild and Reintroduced PreAdult Bearded Vultures: Conservation Implications. PLoS ONE, 8, e65857.
Margalida, A., Donázar, J.A., Bustamante, J., Hernández, F.J. & Romero-Pujante, M.
(2008). Application of a predictive model to detect long-term changes in nestsite selection in the Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus: conservation in relation
to territory shrinkage. Ibis, 150, 242–249.
Margalida, A., Donázar, J.A., Carrete, M. & Sánchez-Zapata, J.A. (2010). Sanitary
versus environmental policies: fitting together two pieces of the puzzle of
European vulture conservation. J.Appl.Ecol., 47, 931–935.
Martínez-Abraín, A. (2002). Demersal trawling waste as a food source for Western
Mediterranean seabirds during the summer. ICES J. Mar. Sci., 59, 529–537.
Martínez-Abraín, A. (2013). Why do ecologists aim to get positive results? Once again,
negative results are necessary for better knowledge accumulation. Animal
Biodiversity and Conservation, 36, 33–36.
Martínez-Abraín, A., Genovart, M., Oro, D., González-Solís, J., Pedrocchi, V., Abella,
J.C., et al. (2003). Kleptoparasitism, disturbance and predation of yellow-legged
gulls on Audouin’s gulls in three colonies of the Western Mediterranean. Sci.
Mar., t. 67(2) p. 89-94.
Martínez-Abraín, A., Viedma, C., Bartolom, M.A., Gmez, J.A. & Oro, D. (2007).
Hunting sites as ecological traps for coots in southern Europe: implications for
the conservation of a threatened species. Endang Species Res, 3, 69–76.
Marzluff, J.M. & Neatherlin, E. (2006). Corvid response to human settlements and
campgrounds: Causes, consequences, and challenges for conservation. Biol.
Conserv., 130, 301–314.
Mateo-Tomás, P. & Olea, P.P. (2009). When hunting benefits raptors: a case study of
game species and vultures. Eur. J. Wildl. Res., 56, 519–528.
Mateo-Tomás, P. & Olea, P.P. (2010). When hunting benefits raptors: a case study of
game species and vultures. Eur J Wildl Res, 56, 519–528.
Mathisen, K.M., Buhtz, F., Danell, K., Bergström, R., Skarpe, C., Suominen, O., et al.
(2010). Moose density and habitat productivity affects reproduction, growth and
species composition in field layer vegetation. J. Veg. Sci.
Mathisen, K.M., Pedersen, S., Nilsen, E.B. & Skarpe, C. (2012). Contrasting responses
of two passerine bird species to moose browsing. Eur. J. Wildl. Res., 58, 535–
547.
Mathisen, K.M. & Skarpe, C. (2011). Cascading effects of moose (Alces alces)
management on birds. Ecol. Res., 26, 563–574.
McIntyre, C.L., COLLOPY, M.W. & LINDBERG, M.S. (2006). Survival Probability
and Mortality of Migratory Juvenile Golden Eagles from Interior Alaska.
Journal of Wildlife Management, 70, 717–722.
Mee, A., Rideout, B.A., Hamber, J.A., Todd, J.N., Austin, G., Clark, M., et al. (2007).
Junk ingestion and nestling mortality in a reintroduced population of California
Condors Gymnogyps californianus. Bird Conservation International, 17, 119–
130.
Meretsky, V.J., Snyder, N.F.R., Beissinger, S.R., Clendenen, D.A. & Wiley, J.W.
(2000). Demography of the California Condor: Implications for
Reestablishment. Conservation Biology, 14, 957–967.
Monsarrat, S., Benhamou, S., Sarrazin, F., Bessa-Gomes, C., Bouten, W. & Duriez, O.
(2013). How Predictability of Feeding Patches Affects Home Range and
Foraging Habitat Selection in Avian Social Scavengers? PLoS ONE, 8, e53077.
Morehouse, A.T. & Boyce, M.S. (2011). From venison to beef: seasonal changes in
wolf diet composition in a livestock grazing landscape. Front. Ecol. Environ., 9,
440–445.
Morris, D.W. (2005). Paradoxical avoidance of enriched habitats: have we failed to
appreciate omnivores? Ecology, 86, 2568–2577.
Morris, G., Conner, L.M. & Oli, M.K. (2010). Use of supplemental northern bobwhite
(Colinus virginianus) food by non-target species. Fla. Field. Natural., 38, 99–
105.
Moseley, W.A., Cooper, S.M., Hewitt, D.G., Fulbright, T.E. & Deyoung, C.A. (2011).
Effects of supplemental feeding and density of white-tailed deer on rodents. J.
Wild. Man., 75, 675–681.
Mysterud, A. (2010). Still walking on the wild side? Management actions as steps
towards “semi-domestication” of hunted ungulates. J. Appl. Ecol., 47, 920–925.
Newey, S., Allison, P., Thirgood, S.J., Smith, A.A. & Graham, I.M. (2009). Using PITTag Technology to Target Supplementary Feeding Studies. Wildl. Biol., 15,
405–411.
Olaso, I., Sánchez, F., Rodríguez-Cabello, C. & Velasco, F. (2007). The feeding
behaviour of some demersal fish species in response to artificial discarding. Sci.
Mar., 66.
Olea, P.P. & Baglione, V. (2008). Population trends of Rooks Corvus frugilegus in
Spain and the importance of refuse tips. Ibis, 150, 98–109.
Oro, D. (1995). The influence of commercial fisheries in daily activity of Audouin’s
Gull in the Ebro Delta, NE Spain. Orn. Fenn., 72, 154–158.
Oro, D. (1996). Effects of trawler discard availability on egg laying and breeding
success in the lesser black-backed gull Larus fuscus in the western
Mediterranean. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser., 132, 43–46.
Oro, D. (1999). Trawler discards: a threat or a resource for opportunistic seabirds?
Proc.22 Int. Ornithol. Congr., Durban. Johannesburg: Birdlife South Africa.
Oro, D., Bosch, M. & Ruiz, X. (1995). Effects of a trawling moratorium on the breeding
success of the Yellow-legged Gull Larus cachinnans. Ibis, 137, 547–549.
Oro, D., Jover, L. & Ruiz, X. (1996). Influence of trawling activity on the breeding
ecology of a threatened seabird, Audouin’s gull Larus audouinii. Mar. Ecol.
Prog. Ser., 139, 19–29.
Oro, D., Margalida, A., Carrete, M., Heredia, R. & Donázar, J.A. (2008). Testing the
Goodness of Supplementary Feeding to Enhance Population Viability in an
Endangered Vulture. PLoS ONE, 3, e4084.
Oro, D. & Ruiz, X. (1997). Seabirds and trawler fisheries in the northwestern
Mediterranean: differences between the Ebro Delta and the Balearic Is. areas.
ICES J. Mar. Sci., 54, 695–707.
Padrón, B., Nogales, M., Traveset, A., Vilà, M., Martínez-Abraín, A., Padilla, D.P., et
al. (2011). Integration of invasive Opuntia spp. by native and alien seed
dispersers in the Mediterranean area and the Canary Islands. Biol. Inv., 13, 831–
844.
Parra, J. & Tellería, J.L. (2004). The increase in the Spanish population of Griffon
Vulture Gyps fulvus during 1989–1999: effects of food and nest site availability.
Bird Conserv. Int., 14, 33–41.
Partridge, S.T., Nolte, D.L., Ziegltrum, G.J. & Robbins, C.T. (2001). Impacts of
supplemental feeding on the nutritional ecology of black bears. J. Wild.
Manage., 65, 191–199.
Pedersen, S., Nilsen, E.B. & Andreassen, H.P. (2007). Moose winter browsing affects
the breeding success of great tits. Ecoscience, 14, 499–506.
Pérez, C., Barros, Á., Velando, A. & Munilla, I. (2012). Seguimento das poboacións
reprodutoras de corvo mariño e gaivota patimarela do Parque Nacional das
illas Atlánticas de Galicia: Bioindicadores do estado de conservación do
Parque Nacional das illas Atlánticas de Galicia. Parques Nacionales.
Pérez-González, J., Barbosa, A.M., Carranza, J. & Torres-Porras, J. (2010). Relative
Effect of Food Supplementation and Natural Resources on Female Red Deer
Distribution in a Mediterranean Ecosystem. J. Wild. Man., 74, 1701–1708.
Petyt, C. (1995). Behaviour of seabirds around fishing trawlers in New Zealand
subantarctic waters. Notornis, 42, 99–115.
Pichegru, L., Ryan, P.G., Lingen, C.D. van der, Coetzee, J., RopertCoudert, Y. &
Grmillet, D. (2007). Foraging behaviour and energetics of Cape gannets Morus
capensis feeding on live prey and fishery discards in the Benguela upwelling
system. Mar Ecol Prog Ser, 350, 127–136.
Piper, S.E., Boshoff, A.F. & Scott, H.A. (1999). Modelling survival rates in the Cape
Griffon Gyps coprotheres, with emphasis on the effects of supplementary
feeding. Bird Study, 46, S230–S238.
Putman, R.J. & Staines, B.W. (2004). Supplementary winter feeding of wild red deer
Cervus elaphus in Europe and North America: justifications, feeding practice
and effectiveness. Mammal Rev., 34, 285–306.
Ramos, R., Ramírez, F., Sanpera, C., Jover, L. & Ruiz, X. (2009). Diet of Yellowlegged Gull (Larus michahellis) chicks along the Spanish Western
Mediterranean coast: the relevance of refuse dumps. J Ornithol, 150, 265–272.
Ramsay, K., Kaiser, M.J., Moore, P.G. & Hughes, R.N. (1997). Consumption of
Fisheries Discards by Benthic Scavengers: Utilization of Energy Subsidies in
Different Marine Habitats. J. Anim. Ecol., 66, 884–896.
Redpath, S.M., Thirgood, S.J. & Leckie, F.M. (2001). Does supplementary feeding
reduce predation of red grouse by hen harriers? J. Appl. Ecol., 38, 1157–1168.
Restani, M., Marzluff, J.M. & Yates, R.E. (2001). Effects of anthropogenic food
sources on movements, survivorship, and sociality of common ravens in the
arctic. Condor, 103, 399–404.
Rodriguez-Hidalgo, P., Gortazar, C., Tortosa, F.S., Rodriguez-Vigal, C., Fierro, Y. &
Vicente, J. (2010). Effects of density, climate, and supplementary forage on
body mass and pregnancy rates of female red deer in Spain. Oecologia, 164,
389–398.
Sahlsten, J., Bunnefeld, N., Månsson, J., Ericsson, G., Bergström, R. & Dettki, H.
(2010). Can supplementary feeding be used to redistribute moose Alces alces?
Wildl. Biol., 16, 85–92.
Sanz-Aguilar, A., Martínez-Abraín, A., Tavecchia, G., Mínguez, E. & Oro, D. (2009).
Evidence-based culling of a facultative predator: Efficacy and efficiency
components. Biol. Cons., 142, 424–431.
Schmidt, K.T. & Hoi, H. (2002). Supplemental feeding reduces natural selection in
juvenile red deer. Ecography, 25, 265–272.
Schoech, S.J., Bridge, E.S., Boughton, R.K., Reynolds, S.J., Atwell, J.W. & Bowman,
R. (2008). Food supplementation: A tool to increase reproductive output? A case
study in the threatened Florida Scrub-Jay. Biol. Conserv., 141, 162–173.
Schwartz, C.C., Haroldson, M.A. & White, G.C. (2010). Hazards Affecting Grizzly
Bear Survival in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. J. Wild. Manage., 74,
654–667.
Stenhouse, I.J. & Montevecchi, W.A. (1999). Indirect effects of the availability of
capelin and fishery discards: gull predation on breeding storm-petrels. Mar.
Ecol. Prog. Ser., 184, 303–307.
Stoate, C. (2002). Multifunctional use of a natural resource on farmland: wild pheasant
(Phasianus colchicus) management and the conservation of farmland passerines.
Biodiversity and Conservation, 11, 561–573.
Suominen, O., Persson, I.-L., Danell, K., Bergström, R. & Pastor, J. (2008). Impact of
simulated moose densities on abundance and richness of vegetation, herbivorous
and predatory arthropods along a productivity gradient. Ecography, 31, 636–
645.
Tew Kai, E., Benhamou, S., Van der Lingen, C.D., Coetzee, J.C., Pichegru, L., Ryan,
P.G., et al. (2013). Are Cape gannets dependent upon fishery waste? A multiscale analysis using seabird GPS-tracking, hydro-acoustic surveys of pelagic
fish and vessel monitoring systems. Journal of Applied Ecology, 50, 659–670.
Thompson, K.R. (1992). Qunatitative analysis of the use of discards from squid trawlers
by Black-browed Albatrosses ⬚Diomedea melanophris⬚ in the vicinity of the
Falkland Islands. Ibis, 134, 11–21.
Thompson, K.R. & Riddy, M.D. (1995). Utilization of offal and discards from “finfish”
trawlers around the Falkland Islands by the Black-browed Albatross Diomedea
melanophris. Ibis, 137, 198–206.
Thompson, P.S., Amar, A., Hoccom, D.G., Knott, J. & Wilson, J.D. (2009). Resolving
the conflict between driven-grouse shooting and conservation of hen harriers. J.
Appl. Ecol., 46, 950–954.
Tortosa, F.S., Caballero, J.M. & Reyes-López, J. (2002). Effect of Rubbish Dumps on
Breeding Success in the White Stork in Southern Spain. Waterbirds, 25, 39–43.
Valeiras, J. (2003). Attendance of scavenging seabirds at trawler discards off Galicia,
Spain. Sci. Mar., 67, 77–82.
Votier, S., Bearhop, S., Fyfe, R. & Furness, R. (2008). Temporal and spatial variation in
the diet of a marine top predator—links with commercial fisheries. Mar. Ecol.
Prog. Ser., 367, 223–232.
Walter, U. & Becker, P.H. (1997). Occurrence and consumption of seabirds scavenging
on shrimp trawler discards in the Wadden Sea. ICES J. Mar. Sci., 54, 684–694.
Watson, J., Rae, S.R. & Stillman, R. (1992). Nesting Density and Breeding Success of
Golden Eagles in Relation to Food Supply in Scotland. J. Anim. Ecol., 61, 543.
White. (2006). Indirect Effects of Elk Harvesting on Ravens in Jackson Hole,
Wyoming. J. Wild. Manage., 70, 539–545.
Wilbur, S.R., Carrier, W.D. & Borneman, J.C. (1974). Supplemental Feeding Program
for California Condors. J.Wildlife .Manage., 38, 343.
Wilmers, C.C., Stahler, D.R., Crabtree, R.L., Smith, D.W. & Getz, W.M. (2003).
Resource dispersion and consumer dominance: scavenging at wolf- and hunterkilled carcasses in Greater Yellowstone, USA. Ecol. Let., 6, 996–1003.
Wilson, L.J., Bacon, P.J., Bull, J., Dragosits, U., Blackall, T.D., Dunn, T.E., et al.
(2004). Modelling the spatial distribution of ammonia emissions from seabirds
in the UK. Environ. Poll., 131, 173–185.
Yamamura, O. (1997). Scavenging on discarded saury by demersal fishes off Sendai
Bay, northern Japan. J. Fish. Biol., 50, 919–925.
Yorio, P. & Caille, G. (2004). Fish waste as an alternative resource for gulls along the
Patagonian coast: availability, use, and potential consequences. Marine
Pollution Bulletin, 48, 778–783.
Yorio, P. & Giaccardi, M. (2002). Urban and fishery waste tips as food sources for birds
in northern coastal Patagonia, Argentina. Orn. Neotrop., 13, 283–292.
Zuberogoitia, I., Martínez, J.E., Margalida, A., Gómez, I., Azkona, A. & Martínez, J.A.
(2010). Reduced food availability induces behavioural changes in Griffon
Vulture Gyps fulvus. Orn. Fenn., 87, 52–60.