Title: What is learnt within formal mentoring relationships and how does this learning
change over time?
Author: Jenni. Jones
Organisation: University of Wolverhampton Business School
Position: Senior Lecturer, HR & Leadership
Address:
University of Wolverhampton Business School
Faculty of Social Sciences
MN Building (Office MN220)
Nursery Street
Wolverhampton
WV1 1AD
Email: jenni.jones@wlv.ac.uk;
Stream: Scholarly Practitioner Research/Teaching and Learning Stream (Stream 8)
Practitioner-Researcher Sub-Track: Coaching and Mentoring
Submission type: Paper submission
Date: March 2015
1
What is learnt within formal mentoring relationships and how does this learning change
over time?
Abstract
The purpose of this single case study research is to investigate what mentors and mentees
perceived they are learning at regular intervals throughout a formal women’s mentoring
programme, within a large UK Police Force, and how this changes over time.
A longitudinal case study approach was taken using semi-structured interviews with both
members of the dyad. In total, 79 interviews were held with 42 mentees and 37 mentors,
across 4-5 separate meetings.
The results have been classified against the 4 categories of learning: cognitive, skill-based,
affective-related learning and social networks. This study demonstrates that both parties
discussed learning in all 4 domains and that some learning domains were discussed more at
the beginning and end phases of the mentoring relationship. Affective-related learning was
discussed throughout and was the most popular domain, but more so at the end of the
mentoring relationship. These findings suggest that the learning outcomes for both parties are
deeper and more personal the longer the formal mentoring relationship lasts.
Limitations are discussed in relation to generalisability into other Police Forces and other
organisational contexts, using alternative methods to collect mentee and mentor perceptions
and the impact of internal and external factors.
2
These findings make a valuable theoretical and practical contribution to the HRD field in
relation to understanding mentoring’s contribution to maximising workplace learning
outcomes over time.
Key words: formal mentoring, learning outcomes, Police Force
3
What is learnt within formal mentoring relationships and how does this learning change
over time?
Introduction
In order for mentoring to be taken seriously as a valuable personal development tool, it is
important to be able to demonstrate the learning benefits for both parties and ultimately, the
sponsoring organisation. There is limited research on learning outcomes in formal mentoring
relationships (Hale 2000; Hezlett 2005; Hezlett & Gibson 2005; Lankau & Scandura 2007;
Jones 2012). The purpose of this research is to contribute to our understanding of formal
mentoring; what learning happens and how this changes over time. As Ragins and Kram
(2007) state: ‘Scholars continue to struggle with understanding the complexity of this lifealtering relationship. In a nutshell, we know it works; we are grappling with why, when, and
how’ (p. 4).
The theoretical contribution of this article is start to address the learning and mentoring
research gap and create a better understanding of one aspect of formal mentoring; what
learning is achieved from the perspective of both sides of the dyad and how this may change
throughout the mentoring relationship. Practically, the contribution of this article is to provide
insights into how formal mentoring could be an effective learning and development tool, to
maximise learning within an organisation. If as HRD Professionals, we can be clearer about
the learning outcomes and benefits from mentoring, we will have a more robust business case
to recommend this as a learning and development intervention for the future.
4
Literature
‘Mentoring as a form of strategic human resource management is an interesting addition to
the HRD literature because it provides a mechanism of change for individual employees.’
(Thurston et al. 2012: 139.) For this study, the position taken is that formal mentoring is a
planned developmental process that supports and facilitates learning between 2 individuals
within an organizational context (Parsloe & Wray 2004). As with HRD, learning and
development and ultimately change for the individual is the ‘core purpose’ of mentoring
(Garvey 2014: 364.)
Learning can be defined as both a product and a process (Merriam et al. 2007). A product
concerns the outcome of that learning, i.e. a change in behaviour (Gagne, 1965). The process
of learning is concerned with how learning takes place (Kolb, 1984). This research is
concerned only with the product/outcomes of learning and so for this study, personal learning
is considered to be the acquisition of knowledge, skills or competencies that contribute to an
individual’s personal development (Kram 1996). Lankau & Scandura (2002) suggest that
there are 2 types of personal learning outcomes; relational job learning and personal skills
development (specifically interpersonal skills).
Based on the taxonomy of learning outcomes (Kraiger et al. 1993) and work by Podolny and
Baron (1997) in social networks, Wanberg et al. (2003) suggest that there are 4 potential
classifications of learning for the mentee; cognitive learning, skill-based learning, affectiverelated learning and social networks. These 4 learning domains have been used in this study
to categorise what both mentors and mentees perceived they were learning over time. In
short, learning involves personal development and change in behaviour (Rogers 1983;
5
Lankau & Scandura 2002) and mentoring relationships can serve as a valuable tool to enable
such personal learning in organisations (Lankau & Scandura 2007).
The author has previously explored the issue of mentoring and learning outcomes within a
West Midlands Healthcare Trust (Jones 2012) using the same 4 learning domains (Wanberg
et al. 2003). It was clear from this research that there were extrinsic and intrinsic learning
outcomes for both parties, covering all 4 domains. Cognitive and skill-based learning were
the dominant learning outcomes in the early stages of mentoring but affective related learning
outcomes increased over time. Increased confidence was a key theme for both mentors and
mentees throughout the various stages of the mentoring lifecycle.
Another recent study by St-Jean & Audet (2012), using the 3 Kraiger et al. (1993) taxonomy
of learning outcomes, revealed that mentoring helped novice entrepreneur mentees to develop
their cognitive and affective learning but not any skill-based learning. Cognitive learning
accounted for 62% of the mentees total learning outcomes. Affective-related learning
included an increased self-efficacy, validation of their self-image and resilience. The
researchers concluded that ‘only two of the three learning categories can be achieved in a
mentoring context: cognitive and affective learning.’ (p.132) Their data was gathered from
mentees in 2 group discussions (a total of 11 mentees) and a questionnaire (25 mentees) but
this was at one point in time and the mentors perspectives were not included in this study.
6
Methodology
Allen et al. (2008) after their comprehensive review of 200 published mentoring articles, state
that they could ‘characterize mentoring research as primarily adopting quantitative,
correlational, cross-sectional research designs in field settings where data are collected from a
single source (typically the protégé) using a single method of data collection.’ (p.355). StJean (2012) in another article related to maximising the learning within mentoring suggests
that further studies need to use a longitudinal perspective and consider the mentors
perspective too. This research addresses these methodological gaps by using a qualitative
method, involving both members of the dyad and using a longitudinal case study approach.
Following the Home Office Assessment of Women in the Police Service Report (2010), there
was a drive from within this UK Police force to develop a more inclusive workforce and to
increase focus on developing and promoting women. A formal mentoring programme was
created for women to share experiences, support and encourage other women who may aspire
to develop further within this Police Force. All mentors and mentees were volunteers. All
mentors were experienced women managers (in Police Officer or Police Staff roles), at least
2 ranks/positions higher than the mentees. The mentoring programme involved 23 trained
mentors, most with 2 or some with even 3 mentees; 45 dyads in total (i.e. 45 mentees).
79 semi-structured interviews were carried out, with a selection of mentors/mentees being
interviewed at regular intervals over the 22 month period of their mentoring relationship
(April 2010 to January 2012.) According to Kram (1988), formal mentoring relationships go
through a number of distinct phases: initiation, cultivation, separation and redefinition.
Information was collected at these 4 phases: initiation phase/meeting 1 (August 2010);
7
cultivation phase/meeting 2 (December 2010); separation phase/meeting 3 (March 2011); and
redefinition phase/meeting 4 (June 2011), plus 3 later interviews were added/meeting 5
(January 2012). Not all mentors/mentees were interviewed and not all were interviewed at
every phase.
Several steps were taken to ensure the dependability and credibility of the research design
and data collection (Lincoln and Guba, 1985; Eisenhardt, 1989). In addition to the interviews
being recorded, notes were taken and were later cross-checked against the transcribed
interviews to ensure accuracy of the recordings. Also, 3 monthly Open Forums were held
with the mentors and mentees separately and this information, together with the information
from the on-going evaluation reports prepared for senior managers, were shared with the
participants for feedback between the various meetings, and this helped to check the
researchers’ interpretation of the information gathered. Finally, as both sides of each dyad
were interviewed, some cross-checking could occur to ensure the credibility of the
information and efforts were made to question differing perspectives over time.
8
Findings
All mentors and mentees interviewed commented on what they perceived they had learnt,
with the mentees overall making 66 more comments than the mentors.
Table 1 showing the number of comments made by mentees/mentors in relation to the various
learning domains
Mentee/Mentor Sources/Refs Cognitive
Mentees
Mentors
Total mentees
and mentors
No. of
sources
No. of
responses
No. of
sources
No. of
responses
No. of
responses
Affectiverelated
31
Social
networks
14
Total
38
Skillbased
25
86
55
95
21
257
25
26
26
9
37
55
58
67
11
191
141
113
162
32
448
42
Each learning domain will be discussed in turn, starting with the most discussed.
Affective-related learning
Affective-related learning is concerned with deeper more personal learning, involving such
aspects as attitudes, values and motivation. It can be seen that most references (just over a
third of the comments) were made in relation to this domain. In this area, mentees comments
were related to increased self-confidence (approximately half of the mentees reported this),
becoming more positive about their own abilities, job and future prospects, having faith in
their own abilities and developing an increased motivation. For instance, these 2 mentees
discussed how reassurance from their mentor had increased their confidence to achieve more;
‘So she is really trying to push me for it. But that’s good; I said I wanted someone to be
9
behind me…you can really doubt yourself sometimes and I have been lately. She’s helped me
with that…I’ve emailed her that many times, I said “I’m sure you must be getting sick of me
by now”… a lot of the time she has just been reassuring me - saying ‘you can do it, you just
need to believe in yourself’ a lot…I’ve grown in confidence, definitely. I’m more likely to go
for something or speak up more now than I did.’ (Meeting 1)
‘She knew how I lacked confidence initially, and then through the mentoring she developed
my confidence… The key changes are within me - my confidence has grown. And that I know
I can achieve almost anything when I commit myself and put my all in to something. I'm not
afraid anymore…Mentoring has given me the confidence to achieve what I want.’ (Meeting
3)
This next mentee discussed how working with her mentor had helped her develop an
improved belief in herself which has increased her focus for the future;
‘She also instilled confidence in me...it was just the confidence to believe in myself; that I was
good at what I was doing and I can do something…I'd say it's given me the clarity and
confidence to put everything in perspective and look at some long-term goals and where I
want to be.’ (Meeting 4)
Interestingly, this mentee later reflected on how mentoring may help bridge the gap between
women and men and their differing confidence levels;
‘And I think for women, a lot about going for promotion, or going for specialism, is about
confidence. I think mentoring helps significantly in that area. You've got an unconditional
10
supporter that doesn't judge you, isn't involved in policing your day job, doesn't have any of
those hang-ups about you doing other stuff outside of your day job…I like learning, that's the
best thing I've got out of the mentoring. It's given me confidence... I've rediscovered my
passion for learning and self-development really…It's given me more confidence to assert
where I'm coming from with things… Women generally suffer from a lack of confidence, you
know, 'I can't do any of that, I can’t do those 3 skills', whereas a bloke will go 'I've got those
3 skills, I can do that.’ (Meeting 5)
Other comments in this domain were made in relation to mentoring helping the mentees to
feel more positive;
‘Yes, I think it has just given me a kick up the bum as well. I was starting to feel a bit
negative in the workplace... but I keep positive and just keep striving for what I want
really…I think I'd be getting there but I think, with my mentor being so positive, it has rubbed
off on me. I did need that, because I was starting to get a bit down. So it's just good knowing
that someone is there to support me really.’ (Meeting 1)
‘It just feels positive having her. It sounds a bit strange, but when I meet up with her, it's like
my mood gets better and better. I'm talking about my work and I get more and more happy
and she's like "Wow! You're really passionate about your work." I don't know what it is, but
having that relationship boosts my morale.’ (Meeting 3)
For mentors, their comments in this domain again tended to focus on increased confidence
(almost half of the mentors responses in this section were in this area too) in relation to their
11
mentoring skills and ability to do mentoring well but also an increased self-awareness and
increased positivity. This mentor worried about her ability to be a good mentor;
‘When I said I'd get involved in this I really regretted it and I thought why have I done this?
This is another thing I've said yes I'll do, and I don't really want to do, and I don't think I'll be
any good at it. But I don't feel like that anymore, I feel like actually, there's no reason why I
can't do it now…I feel like it's stretching, but I don't feel like it's hard work… I am committed
to mentoring and I'm sure that if it's done properly it can work, but I just didn't think that I
would be able to do it properly.’ (Meeting 1)
The same mentor later reflected in meeting 2 about the positive, supportive aspects of
mentoring;
‘I thought I’d be a bit crap at it to be honest, that’s why I wasn’t so sure… I thought I’m not
really going to enjoy this mentoring malarkey, with the confidence thing. I thought well I’m
not really going to be able to do it very well…It’s made me think more about the fact that,
you know, a lot of people are wrestling with the same issues as each other and if we only
supported each other a little bit more and thought about how each other were feeling, then
the workplace would be so much better.’ (Meeting 2)
A different mentor reflected at the end of the process;
‘So it's not being arrogant, it's not being complacent, but actually, sometimes it's about that
learning that I know more perhaps than I think I do sometimes…a little bit about trying to
then become a bit more self-valuing than you are and increasing my confidence again.’
(Meeting 5)
12
Another mentor reflected on how by helping others they had been helping themselves;
‘I feel like a different person now. I feel that personally I've got a lot more opportunities
open to me, because doing the mentoring has given me a different approach to life…One of
the mentees said it to me, she said "You ought to listen to what you're saying yourself." She
was right. What we've spoken about - about them doing what they feel and why aren't they
doing what they think they should be doing and what they want to do, looking at the reasons
behind that and thinking well actually, is this a barrier that you're putting up yourself? It's
all stuff that I should be thinking about as well, it's made me think about it. So in a way, I've
been mentoring myself.’ (Meeting 3)
Cognitive learning
Cognitive learning is concerned with the acquisition of knowledge about the organisation, the
politics and the culture of the workplace and this was the next most popular area discussed by
both parties. Mentees discussed increased knowledge about promotional opportunities (the
process of promotion, interview techniques, development opportunities/courses available
etc), differing perspectives in the workplace, practical advice and support to help them in
their job and increased self-awareness. 2 mentees early on stated;
‘My mentor was able to offer the advice for the interview, for me that really did help. And
she was able to guide me to various reading areas to consider for an interview. I think that
in itself gives you some confidence, when you feel that you're barking up the right tree, so to
speak… My mentor was able to say 'Well, consider looking at this ...' And rightly so, it was
13
looking at critical incidents, it was looking at the Taylor reforms and things like that and I
hadn't really thought about that. And it's true, you do need to know that.’ (Meeting 1)
‘I have used my mentors specialist field to my advantage in updating my CV, adapting my
interview technique, and answering interview questions effectively.’ (Meeting 2)
Another mentee mentioned how their mentors gave them practical advice to help them get
more ready for future interview opportunities;
‘Main issues we have discussed are around how I can get more development within my
current role, in order to enable me to progress further in future, as opposed to progressing
further at the current time with limited opportunities and potential for redundancy…A big
benefit is learning from my mentors experience and how she has progressed in her own
career. Through her experience, she has had some interesting ideas which I had not thought
of myself.’ (Meeting 2)
This mentee discussed how mentoring had given them an increased thirst for knowledge both
within and beyond the workplace too;
‘It's given me a huge ... it's not a kick, it's a pull…I've started reading around personal
development stuff, positive management stuff, learning organisations, strength based
performance, positive psychology and all that stuff, it's switched me back on to all of that, so
it's been like a trigger for that, I've turned into a 24/7 learning junkie…I've become more
mindful to recognise growth, and opportunities for growth, which I use in the workplace and
outside.’ (Meeting 5)
14
Gaining knowledge through differing perspectives was a key theme in this section too.
Mentees early on expressed how they had gained increased knowledge about different parts
and different areas of the Force.
‘My mentor works in Counter Terrorism and that’s very much kind of ‘they do their thing, not
quite sure what they do and where it fits in with everyday policing’…It was a really good
conversation about how what she does link in, really without realising it and having a
conversation about it, quite closely to what I do in Offender Management. So then we started
talking about ‘Oh wow, there’s opportunity there for some development work” and things
like that.’ (Meeting 1)
‘And also for me it's quite interesting because my mentor has never worked over the western
side and I've never worked over their side, so there's that kind of perspective as well really,
because of the different roles that we've done and things like that.’ (Meeting 1)
Mentor comments in this domain were mostly made in relation to increasing their knowledge
about different perspectives within the workplace and difference among individuals,
developing their knowledge of mentoring and their own knowledge about themselves.
This mentor mentioned how they now have a wider knowledge of another part of the Force;
‘I'm getting to know a different side to the organisation as well, because I don't really know
much about promotion and stuff like that…I don't know the frontline policing side - what they
actually do, what it involves. She's telling me a lot about that and she's explaining things to
me.’ (Meeting 2)
15
This mentor is learning about different working practices;
‘My department is quite a positive, pro-active department and it has given me an insight into
other working practices with other departments, which perhaps haven't got the positivity and
the support.’ (Meeting 3)
And this mentor discussed the challenges and learning from working with different people;
‘Because of their own circumstances, they've been educating me in their particular area, so
as a result it's almost become a mutual benefit then as well. So my learning I think for me will
never stop, because there are so many different people, the engagement, what they're looking
for…It’s learning not to worry if I don't have the same level of rapport with everybody,
because everybody is different and people express themselves in a different way…it's allowed
me to compare, but I have to make sure I challenge myself a bit more around actually, you
don't expect all 3 of them to be the same.’ (Meeting 4)
This mentor discussed how mentoring has increased their insights into others too, which had
in turn increased their understanding and patience with others too;
‘I'm learning that people deal with things in different ways, because I can tell ... she's not the
type of person that says "Oh, I can't do that" but I can tell by her face if there's something I
suggest that I think no, she won't do that. So I'm learning that maybe we have to think of
different ways…It's just giving her some more options and accepting myself, that if she
doesn't take it, it's just purely because it's not for her. So being more accepting of that, which
does come quite difficult to me... I have become, sometimes, quite exasperated by it, but now I
16
just think well, you know, she's asked me, but she hasn't got to do it.’ (Meeting 3)
Skill-based learning
Skill-based learning is concerned with developing and acquiring new technical and motor
skills and this was also mentioned by both mentors and mentees. As promotional aspects
were mentioned as key learning within the cognitive domain, it followed that mentors had
helped mentees develop related skills, for instance; communication, influencing and
interviewing skills. Other skills discussed by mentees included skills to cope with stress/work
life balance, presentation/training related skills, goal setting and reflection skills. They also
mentioned that they have developed some skills towards better managing/leading people
within the workplace.
This mentee had help towards developing their interview preparation skills;
‘I'm still applying for jobs and my mentor helped me with the preparation. I hated
preparation and left it to the last minute and I'm sure most people are like that, but then when
it did come to the day I would dither, I wouldn't be able to put sentences together, which
really came across and she really helped me with that. And it was down to laziness and she
helped me pinpoint why I was lazy, why I couldn't ... and it was this 'couldn't be bothered'
syndrome which was labelled to everything that I would do.’ (Meeting 4)
This mentee reflected on their improved communication/influencing skills;
‘She did pick up on the fact that I'm quite an honest and open person and sometimes when I'm
17
talking to senior officers and my colleagues, I perhaps shouldn't be so honest. It's not so
much about being deceitful, but some things I don't necessarily need to have said, or have
said it in that way… Obviously I took that on board and I thought perhaps you're right,
because no one has ever said that to me before. So in that respect I was able to selfreflect…so I am very mindful now of how I approach ... whether it's ranked officers or my
peers, in relation to thinking about what I'm going to say first, instead of just being so blunt
sometimes.’ (Meeting 1)
This mentee discussed improved awareness of how better to cope with workplace stress;
‘I've learned to try and avoid stress ... I've learned the value of avoiding stress. I've
basically been overloaded with it for probably the past year-and-a-half, so it's being able to
say 'no' and pace myself…My mentor has kind of been saying it for a while and it's gradually
sunk in.’ (Meeting 3)
Other comments were made about developing management/leadership skills, which made a
difference in the workplace;
‘We talk about some tactics to sort of manage up, so to speak.’ (Meeting 2)
‘Mentoring gave me the skills to manage/work with others better.’ (Meeting 4)
Mentors comments in this section were mostly made in relation to the key mentoring skills of
listening, questioning, rapport building and action planning together with comments made
about learning to be better prepared, and managing the support and challenge in the
18
relationship. Developing skills of empathy and empowering others, were mentioned in the
later phases too.
These 2 mentors discussed their improved listening skills;
‘I think I've learned to listen better and to try and think wider than I probably did before. So
when she's asked me a question, instead of going straight to my first instinct, I've thought how
we can explore that a bit wider. And I feel as though I've learned more about myself, in as
much as I've learned how much I actually do know and not what I didn't know…When you
start off you think I don't know how I'm going to help this person, but actually you help them
more than you realise.’ (Meeting 2)
‘My perseverance, I think I've learned, is quite good. I know when to stop as well. And I
think my listening skills have got better. I think it still shows that when we first meet each
other I'm not that comfortable on that first meeting. I'm not outwardly loud ... I need
conversation really and if that's not there I find it hard to keep going.’ (Meeting 2)
2 other mentors discussed the importance of empowering others, even if sometimes the
mentor feels that they may know the answers;
‘It is very easy isn’t it? - To tell people ‘oh well this is what you should do’ but I’m trying
really hard not to… it’s just this sitting back and saying ‘Well, what do you think? How do
you think you should deal with that?’…I am trying to be a bit more tolerant. Tolerant sounds
as if they’re doing something wrong, and they’re not, it’s just that they’re different to me.
They assimilate stuff differently to me and I am starting to work around that.’ (Meeting 2)
19
‘The one thing I always remember…"You never give them the answers, you guide them to the
place" and I think that's something that I've learned - to ask people how they would deal with
it or what they want to get out of it, rather than me saying "I would blah, blah ...". If you ask
them to try and decide for themselves, you can help them get there, but you lead them along
the way, but you don't pull them.’ (Meeting 4)
Other mentors discussed working on their empathy skills;
‘I think probably trying to display more empathy and perhaps more feeling, because I do tend
to have a very professional head on a lot of the time, so ... Sometimes just sitting back and
maybe giving a little bit more of myself with them rather than the professional role,
professional orientation.’ (Meeting 4)
Social networks
Social networks are concerned with work and personal connections inside and outside the
workplace. This was the least discussed area of learning for both mentees and mentors.
This mentee reflected on the mentor signposting them towards certain contacts;
‘She's given me the link for the Women In Policing and how to get involved - sort of in terms
of networking and helping out…So she's sort of guiding me in the sense…I believe that
somehow she's able to signpost me... I mean obviously, I'll have to do the rest myself and
work hard.’ (Meeting 1)
20
This mentee hoped to use their mentor’s connections;
‘I think where she is and what she’s doing, because she’s working with XXX as well on the
restructuring for all the admin and finance, she’s got a good insight into what’s going on in
quite a big area of the force really…She’s got a lot of connections.’ (Meeting 2)
This mentee shared how her mentor had helped her become part of a different workplace
project, through their involvement and networks;
‘She's involved in the Casualty Bureau - which is like an emergency response thing when
there's a national disaster - and I said to her that I was looking for a project or something
that I could really get my teeth into and I've really enjoyed working on specific Incident
Room type things, so she suggested that and I eventually got the training for it and I'm part of
that now… I wouldn't have come across that if it wasn't for her involvement in it and
suggesting it to me.’ (Meeting 4)
These 2 mentors reflected on how they had passed some of their contacts onto their mentees
and also how mentoring had helped them become more aware of the contacts that they have;
‘It amazes me how much ... or how many people I know…I said "I know so-and-so, I'll ring
them up or you ring this person and they'll be able to tell you." And I suppose what it's
brought home to me is actually the amount of contacts I've got…I've only ever worked for 2
organisations. I've had different roles within them, but I wouldn't have said that I was a
person that did a lot of things. But when I actually think about it, I have and I do and I've
made quite a few contacts - and I think enduring contacts… Even if they've moved to other
21
roles and I've moved to other roles, I can still contact them and find stuff out.’ (Meeting 3)
‘Mentoring has helped me to look at different strategies for different people. Knowing that
my different resources/contacts that I have (re people/websites/courses) have been helpful to
others. About being open and sharing these with others. Realised how useful these can be to
other people. I am resourceful.’ (Meeting 5)
Finally, this mentor reflected on how mentoring had meant she can add her mentees and the
other mentors to her network too;
‘I've met 3 great people, well, more than 3 because obviously there's the mentoring forums,
but my 3 mentees are fab and now I've come into contact with a couple of people like XXX
(the Coordinators of the mentoring programme), who are great, with all the support that
they've given... And it's just fab to know that there are other mentors out there spreading the
word and supporting colleagues.’ (Meeting 4)
22
How has this learning changed over time?
It is interesting to see how the emphasis on learning had changed over time for both parties
too.
Table 2 showing how the learning had changed over time for the mentees/mentors
Mentee/Mento
r
Learning
domains
Meetin
g1
Meetin
g2
Meetin
g 3
Meetin
g 4&5
Mentees
Cognitive
Skill-based
Affectiverelated
Social networks
Total responses
Cognitive
Skill-based
Affectiverelated
Social networks
Total responses
Mentees/mentor
s together
31
20
25
19
6
12
9
9
20
27
20
38
Total
response
s
86
55
95
11
87
22
11
20
6
43
10
16
13
0
38
8
12
11
4
89
15
19
23
21
257
55
58
67
0
53
140
2
41
84
2
33
71
7
64
153
11
191
448
Mentors
Overall total
Mentees perceived that they had gained more learning overall than mentors, particularly in
phase 1 and phase 4/5 of the relationship and within the areas of cognitive and affectiverelated learning.
Affective-related learning is the most popular learning for both parties (36% of all comments)
and is discussed throughout, but more so at the beginning and end of the mentoring
relationship. Mentees mentioned almost twice as much affective related learning than
mentors at the end phase. Building self-confidence is the key theme within this domain for
both parties but for mentees specifically in relation to their ability to do their job and for
mentors in relation to being able to do mentoring well.
23
Cognitive learning for both parties seemed to have been greater at the beginning and end
phases of the relationship too, but more so at the beginning. Knowledge of promotional
opportunities and practical interview/job preparation advice were the key themes early on for
mentees but later comments were made more about learning from the different perspectives
within the workplace. Mentors tended to focus on their increased knowledge about different
workplace perspectives early on but later on, their increased knowledge about working with
different people.
Skill-based learning seemed to be greater nearing the end of the relationship for mentors but
higher for mentees at the beginning and end phases. For mentees, there were an increased
number of comments on their improved leadership/management skills in the later phases and
for mentors an increased awareness of their ability to challenge others and develop empathy
for others later on too. Interestingly, mentees comments in relation to coping with stress and
creating a better work/life balance were only discussed in phase 3 and 4 meetings.
Social networks, although limited, were mentioned more for mentees in the early phases but
for mentors, very few comments were made at all until the final phase.
It seems clear from Table 2 that learning is greatest at both the start and the end phases of the
mentoring relationship. Cognitive learning is perceived to be greater (by a small margin) at
the start of mentoring and affective-related learning more likely to be discussed at the end.
Skills-based is more likely to be discussed at both the beginning and the end for mentees and
the final phase for mentors.
24
Discussion
Mentoring has clearly been a forum for personal development and change between mentors
and mentees (Liu et al. 2009) as learning has been achieved across all 4 domains (Wanberg et
al. 2003) for both parties. The learning perceived by both mentors and mentees has shown
clear intrinsic outcomes (personal skills development) i.e. increased self-confidence,
positivity and motivation and clear extrinsic outcomes too i.e. communication/influencing
skills, management/leadership skills etc which have had a direct impact within their job
(relational job learning) for both parties (Lankau & Scandura 2002). This helps to emphasise
that mentors can gain a huge amount of similar learning to their mentees and that mentoring
is a ‘two-way street.’ (McCullum 2010:19).
Not every mentor or mentee commented on their learning within all 4 domains but the
majority of them discussed how they had developed some affective-related learning over time
(Jones 2012). Increased confidence is the overwhelmingly key theme from this domain,
mentioned by both mentors and mentees throughout the various phases. If mentees or
mentors are learning how to increase their confidence in their own abilities, this should have
a positive effect on their ability/competence to do their job and ultimately increase their
effectiveness in the workplace. Improved and shared cognitive and skill-based learning too
will have a positive impact on their understanding, motivation and commitment to their
current and future job roles.
Mentees and mentors mentioned their affective-related learning more so at the end of the
mentoring relationship, suggesting that this learning takes time to develop and/or these
deeper reflections take longer to surface for both parties. It is somewhat expected that
25
cognitive learning would be greater at the start, as this is an early input that mentors can
provide; imparting their wider experience and work knowledge to their mentees. This is the
same for mentees to mentors in terms of sharing their different knowledge and perspectives
of the workplace. Mentor contacts and networks are more likely to be shared with mentees
early on too, as mentors would offer early information and support before they start to
increase the challenge and encourage the mentees to find out and do more for themselves,
over time.
Skills-based learning is mentioned mostly early and later for mentees; early on in relation to
specific promotion/job related skills, which were likely to be the initial expectations of the
mentees for this mentoring programme but later on in relation to more interpersonal skills in
relation to stress/coping skills. Mentors perceive early on that they are developing their
mentoring skills but later on, mention more interpersonal skills too in relation to empathising
with others and empowering others more. Again, this suggests that it takes time to develop
and realise some of the other deeper, wider skills necessary to cope within the job (for
mentees) and within mentoring (for mentors). This is contrary to the St-Jean & Audet study
(2012) which reported no skill based learning for their mentees in an entrepreneurial context
and the author’s similar study in a healthcare context which primarily showed skill based
learning mostly in the early stages of mentoring relationship (Jones 2012.)
In short, these findings suggest that the learning outcomes for both parties are deeper and
more personal the longer the formal mentoring relationship lasts. Traditional training
programmes and other short term workplace learning interventions may be able to increase
knowledge and specific job related skills for the individuals involved but not necessarily
achieve the longer term affective-related intrinsic, personal development type learning
26
outcomes, in respect of increased self-confidence and self-belief that formal mentoring can,
for both parties involved (Hale 2000).
Practical and theoretical implications
These findings make valuable practical and theoretical contributions to the HRD field.
Practical insights involve showing how formal mentoring relationships can be an extremely
effective learning and development tool for both parties involved and clearly shows how the
learning outcomes can transfer beyond the usual expectations of workplace learning. With
the literature reporting, that training investments often fail to deliver the planned outcomes,
with only about 10% of learning actually being transferred back into the workplace, ‘learning
and transfer of learning are critical outcomes in HRD’ (Holton et al. 2000:334).
Theoretically, this study has given some further clarity to the field of HRD beyond the
established theory in terms of what is learnt by both sides of the dyad within formal
mentoring relationships, over time. It is hoped this will encourage further longitudinal, case
study research towards understanding the complexity of learning within formal mentoring,
particularly in relation to the deeper learning outcomes and the connectivity between aspects
of affective-related learning, for instance confidence, and mentoring.
Limitations of the research
Much information has been gathered from 79 interviews over time, which gives confidence in
the results that the information collected represents the characteristics of this particular
27
population. However, it would not be possible to make assumptions from these results to
generalise about formal mentoring programmes in other UK Police Forces or beyond this
context. Alternative methods could have been used for gathering the information, for instance
observations and personal development diaries to help avoid issues with common method
bias. Also, it is not always possible to clearly say that all of this learning can be attributed
directly to mentoring alone (Kram 1988) as an individual’s learning may also be influenced
by a wider learning network at work (Garvey et al. 2014) and other internal and external
factors (Wanberg et al. 2003; Stok-Koch et al. 2007; Parise & Forret 2008).
Notwithstanding the limitations, this study is important as it is clear that these formal
mentoring relationships have helped to increase personal learning for both parties, beyond the
usual training expectations of cognitive and skill-based learning.
28
References
Allen, T. D., Eby. L. T., O’Brien., K. E & Lentz. E. (2008). The state of mentoring research:
A qualitative review of current research methods and future research implications. Journal of
Vocational Behavior. 73, 343-357.
Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Building Theories from Case Study Research. Academy of
Management Review. 14(4), 532–550.
Gagne, R. M. (1965). The Conditions of Learning. New York: Holt. Rinehart & Winston.
Garvey, B. (2014). Mentoring in a Coaching World. In E. Cox, T Bachkirova and D.
Clutterbuck (Eds.) The Complete Handbook of Coaching (pp.361-374). London: Sage.
Garvey, B., Stokes, P & Megginson, D. (2014). Coaching and Mentoring – theory and
practice. 2nd ed. London: Sage.
Hale, R. (2000). To match or mis-match? The dynamics of mentoring as a route to personal
and organizational learning. Career Development International. 5(4/5), 223-234.
Hezlett, S. A. (2005). Protégés’ learning in mentoring relationships: A review of the literature
and an exploratory case study. Advances in Developing Human Resources. 7(4), 505-526.
Hezlett, S. A & Gibson. S. K. (2005). Mentoring and human resources development: Where
we are and where we need to go. Advances in Developing Human Resources. 4(4), 446-469.
Holton III, E. F., Bates, R. A & Ruona, W. E. A. (2000). Development of a Generalized
Learning Transfer System Inventory. Human Resource Development Quarterly. 11(4), 333359.
Home Office. (2010). Assessment of women in the police service. London: Home Office.
Jones, J. (2012). An Analysis of Learning Outcomes Within Formal Mentoring Relationships.
The International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring. 10(1), 57–73.
Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experimental learning: Experience as the source of Learning and
Development. Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice Hall.
Kraiger, K., Ford, J. K., & Salas, E. (1993). Application of cognitive, skill-based, and
affective theories of learning outcomes to new methods of training evaluation. Journal of
Applied Psychology. 78, 311-328.
Kram, K. E. (1988). Mentoring at Work: Developmental Relationships In Organizational
Life. London: University Press of America.
Kram, K. E .(1996). A relational approach to career development in D. Hall & Associates
(eds) The career is dead – long live the career; a relational approach to careers. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 132-157.
29
Lankau, M. J. & Scandura, T. A. (2002). An Investigation of Personal Learning in Mentoring
Relationships: Content, Antecedents, and Consequences, The Academy of Management
Journal. 45(4), 779-790.
Lankau, M. J. & Scandura, T. A. (2007). Mentoring as a Forum for Personal Learning in
Organizations in Ragins, B. R. & Kram, K. E. (eds) The Handbook of Mentoring at Work –
Theory, Research and Practice. (pp.95-122) London: Sage
Lincoln, Y. S & Guba. E. G (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
Liu, D., Liu. J., Kwan., H. K & Mao, Y (2009). What can I gain as a mentor? The effect of
mentoring on the job performance and social status of mentors in China. Journal of
Occupational and Organizational Psychology. 82, 871-895.
McCullum, K (2010). Passing the Baton. OfficePRO. 16-19.
Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S. & Baumgartner, L. M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood – a
comprehensive guide. 3rd ed. San Fransisco: Jossey-Bass.
Parise. M. R and Forret, M. L. (2008). Formal mentoring programs: The relationship of
program design and support to mentors’ perceptions of benefits and costs. Journal of
Vocational Behavior. 72, 225-240.
Parsloe, E., and M. Wray. (2004). Coaching and Mentoring: Practical Methods for
Improving Learning. London: Kogan Page.
Podolny, J. M & Baron, J. N. (1997). Resources and relationships: Social networks and
mobility in the workplace. American Sociological Review. 62, 673-693.
Ragins, B. R. & Kram, K. E. (eds.) (2007). The Handbook of Mentoring at Work – Theory,
Research and Practice. London: Sage.
Rogers, C. R. (1983). Freedom to Learn for the 80's. Columbus: Merrill.
St-Jean, E (2012). Mentoring as professional development for novice entrepreneurs:
maximizing the learning. International Journal of Training & Development. 16(3), pp.200216.
St-Jean, E & Audet, J (2012). The role of mentoring in the learning development of the
novice entrepreneur. International Entrepreneurship & Management. 8(1), pp.119-140.
Stok-Koch, L., Bolhuis, S. and Koopmans, R. (2007). Identifying Factors that Influence
Workplace Learning in Postgraduate Medical Education. Education for Health. 20(1), 1-9.
Thurston, P.W., D’Abate, C.P. and Eddy, E. R. (2012). Mentoring as an HRD Approach:
Effects on Employee Attitudes and Contributions Independent of Core Self-Evaluation.
Human Resource Development Quarterly. 23(2), 139-165.
Wanberg, C. R., Welsh, E. T. & Hezlett. S. A. (2003). Mentoring Research: A Review and
dynamic process model in Martocchio, J. & Ferris, J. (eds) Research in Personnel and
Human Resource Management 22, Oxford: Elsevier Science. 39-124.
30