I.
Effects of DDT on soil and water
A.
Persistence
1.
Has a half life of 15-20 years.
2.
After 15 years, residue levels of 18% and 24% DDT were found in soil after applications of 10 and 100 lbs per acre, respectively. (Lichtenstein et al., 1971)
3.
DDT lasts longer in cool, dry soils but evaporates more quickly in warm, wet ones.
B.
Vertical Distribution
1.
Rainfall washes DDT from surface layer of soil to lower levels.
(Mohapatra et al., 1995)
2.
Plowing mixes contaminated soil on the surface with deeper soil. (Perfect,
1980)
3.
Sandy soils allow for rapid vertical movement while clay-based soils limit vertical distribution.
C.
Reduced Rate of Decomposition
1.
DDT has been shown to reduce the rate of decomposition of both easily degradable materials and more resistant matter in soil.
2.
Reduced surface earthworm activity has also been linked to DDT.
(Perfect, 1980)
3.
This could have implications for the fertility of the soil.
D.
DDT Absorbed From Soil into Aerial Parts of Plants
1.
Plants exposed to DDT experienced translocation from the shoot system to the roots. (Perfect, 1980)
2.
Plants in soil contaminated by DDT were shown to have absorbed residues from the soil and transferred them to the aerial parts of plants. (Perfect,
1980)
E.
Decline of Yield in Areas Treated with DDT
1.
DDT has been linked to decline in yield.

2.
Treated plots had the most decline in yield, followed by contaminated
(plots where DDT had been applied in one or two growing seasons), plots that were untreated showed the least decline.
3.
This study did acknowledge that there could be underlying factors causing this relationship.
F.
Insoluble in Water
1.
DDT is very persistent due to its insolubility in water.
2.
DDT does not experience degradation by microorganisms but does experience photochemical degradation.
3.
Can be broken down to DDE, but is still toxic.
G.
Travels though Water
1.
DDT can travel through rivers and lakes to spread to and contaminate a wider area.
2.
DDT can travel through rainfall, runoff and spray drifts.
3.
DDT has been found as far away as the Arctic and Antarctica showing the long distance it can travel. (U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services)
4.
In rivers and lakes, DDT can be absorbed from water into silt at the bottom, contaminating and spreading to more area.
H.
Gets Washed into Ground Water
1.
After application of DDT, the water evaporates and a layer of DDT remains on the top of the soil. Rainfall then washes these layers down to deeper layers of soil and into groundwater. (Mohapatra et al., 1995)
2.
This causes most problems for those who rely on groundwater as their main source of water.
I.
DDT as Compared to Other Pesticides
1.
After 15 years, residues of 10.6%, 5.8% and.2% per acre were detected for
DDT, Aldrin and Lindane, respectively.
2.
In a study of ground water, DDT had the highest level of residues of all other insecticides studied, including HCH, Aldrin, Endosulfan, and
Heptachlor.

II.
The effects of DDT on wildlife
A.
Food web accumulation (Niering, 1968)
1.
“Accumulates in higher and higher concentrations as it travels through a food chain” (Williams, 1970)
2.
Stored in fat (Moore, 1967)
3.
Long persistence (Williams, 1970; Tiedeken and Ramdell, 2009)
4.
Effects high order carnivores most strongly (Williams, 1970; Sherburne and Dimond, 1969)
B.
Effects on Insects
1.
Lethal on contact (Surber, 1946)
2.
Accumulate insecticides from soil (Beyer and Gish, 1980; Sherburne and
Dimond, 1969)
3.
Effects nervous system (Surber, 1946) a.
Paralysis
4.
Develop resistance (Williams, 1970; Moats and Moats, 1970) a.
Need higher concentrations of DDT b.
Higher populations of insects
C.
Effects on animals
1.
Poison animals (Williams, 1970; Surber, 1946; Moats and Moats, 1970)
2.
Cancer and cysts (Heinrichs et al., 1971)
3.
Effects hormones (Williams, 1970; Heinrichs et al., 1971)
4.
Decrease reproduction (Williams, 1970)
5.
Decreased metabolism (Williams, 1970)
6.
Immunosuppression (Storelli et al., 2009)
7.
Enhanced susceptibility to effects from other chemicals (Tiedeken and
Ramsdell, 2009) a.
Domoic acid
8.
Strong selective pressures (Moore, 1967)
D.
Effects on fish
1.
Long food chains (Williams, 1970; Moats and Moats, 1970)
2.
Effects nervous system (Surber, 1946)

a.
Hyperirritability b.
Muscular incoordination c.
Muscular spasms d.
Prostration
3.
High mortality of newly hatched fry (Moats and Moats, 1970)
E.
Effects on birds
1.
Thinner egg shells (Williams, 1970; Grier, 1982; Fry and Toone, 1981;
Ratcliffe, 1970; Moats and Moats, 1970) a.
Eggs crack when parents sit on them b.
Steroid hormones (Progesterone)
2.
Chicks die shortly after hatching or don’t hatch (Moats and Moats, 1970;
Niering, 1968)
3.
Feminization (Fry and Toone, 1981) a.
Inability to breed, reduced number of breeding males b.
Highly skewed sex ration
4.
Effects nervous system (Michigan DNR, 2002) a.
Hyperirritablility b.
Twitching and tremors c.
Incoordination d.
Convulsions
F.
Effects on ecosystems
1.
Destabilizes natural systems (Moore, 1967)
2.
Destabilizes food chains (Moore, 1967) a.
Food shortage
3.
Change predator/prey relationships (Moore, 1967)
4.
Change competitive relationships (Moore, 1967)
5.
Change habitat (Moore, 1967)
6.
Accumulation (Niering, 1968)
G.
Species effected by DDT (Williams, 1970; Beyer and Gish, 1980; Herman and
Bulger, 1979; Tiedeken and Ramsdell, 2009; Moore, 1967; Surber, 1946; Grier, 1982;

Fry and Toone, 1981; Ratcliffe, 1970; Sherburne and Dimond, 1969; Moats and
Moats, 1970; Storelli et al., 2009; Niering, 1968)
H.
Effects on fauna compared to other pesticides
1.
Dieldrin a.
Many of the same effects i.
Poisoning (Flickinger et al., 1986) ii.
Reproductive productivity (Grier, 1982; Moats and Moats,
1970) iii.
Nervous system (Frank and Lutz, 1999; Michigan DNR,
2002) b.
Doesn’t seem to effect eggs (Frank and Lutz, 1999) c.
Less persistent in tissue (Beyer and Gish, 1980)
2.
Endrin a.
Many of the same effects i.
Poisoning (Fleming et al., 1982)
1.~80 x more toxic than DDT
2.~8 x more toxic than Dieldrin ii.
Reproductive productivity (Fleming et al., 1982) b.
Doesn’t cause thin eggs (Fleming et al., 1982) c.
Some organisms develop resistance (Moats and Moats, 1970) i.
Insects ii.
Fish
3.
Methoxychlor a.
Used to control Dutch Elm disease (Niering, 1968; Moats and
Moats, 1970) b.
Much less hazards to wildlife (Niering, 1968; Moats and Moats,
1970)
III.
Effects of DDT on farm workers
A.
Discuss lack of data specifically related to question
B.
Effects on humans in general
1.
Utero exposure (Eskenazi et al., 2006)

a.
Neurodevelopment
2.
Possible carcinogenic (Eskenazi et al., 2009)
3.
Male reproductive health and fertility (Jager et al., 2006)
4.
Effects by route of exposure (ATSDR) a.
Inhalation b.
Oral c.
Dermal
C.
Effects of other pesticides (ATSDR)
1.
Limitations in data
2.
Aldrin/Dieldrin
3.
Limits in evaluation of pesticides and DDT
I.
Effects of DDT contamination in soil and drinking water in residential areas
A.
DDT exposure pathway to residential areas (Ramsay, 1991)
1.
Runoff and leaching primary modes
2.
Attaches to soil particles; minimizes volatilization
3.
Improper application
4.
Soil overloading
5.
Insufficient buffer zone from water source
6.
Poor storage methods
B.
Current DDT Concentrations in Residential Drinking Water and Soil (ATSDR)
1.
DDT sediments disperse into agricultural/ urban streams
2.
DDT in surface soils leach into ground water
3.
DDT in surface soils deposited long distances by wind onto top soil
4.
Since U.S. ban of DDT, concentrations decreasing
C.
DDT Use in South Africa and Negative Human Health Impacts (IPEN)
1.
Extensive DDT usage in disease vector control a.
Banned in 1996, Reintroduced in 2000 b.
Estimated 33 tons of DDT used each year
2.
Direct casual link seen between exposure to DDT and poorer semen parameters; adverse affects on testicular functions, and reproductive hormone regulation

3.
Evidence of incomplete DNA condensation
4.
Indications of increased stillbirths, neonatal deaths, congenital defects in children, and post-generational impacts on female
5.
Increase in incidents of pre-term birth and underweight babies
6.
High prevalence of urogenital birth defects
7.
Contaminated breast milk in lactating mothers a.
Intake by breast-fed babies in DDT sprayed areas exceeds allowable daily intake levels
8.
Potential increases in infant mortality
9.
Lack of extensive research into long-term health effects in regions where
DDT is still used
D.
Major Sources of Pesticidal Contamination in Drinking Water and Soil (Gilliom,
2009)
1.
Agricultural areas a.
Herbicides: Atrazine, Metalochlor, Cyanozine, Alachlor,
Acetochlor
2.
Urban areas a.
Herbicides: Simazine, Prometon, Tebuthiuron, 2,4-D, Diuron b.
Insecticides: Diazinon, Chlorpyrifos, Carbaryl
E.
Potential Health Impacts of Residential DDT Contamination
1.
Low concentrations in soil and water, no serious risk of cancer a.
Inhalation has a higher risk of carcinogen intake
2.
Lack of research into long-term effects
3.
Current DDT concentrations pose no serious health risks (WHO, 2004)
F.
Potential Health Impacts of Other Pesticidal Contaminants (USEPA, 2007)
1.
Acute health effects a.
Irritation of the nose, throat, and skin b.
Nausea, dizziness, and diarrhea c.
Symptoms that mimic the flu
2.
Chronic health effects a.
Cancer and tumors

b.
Brain and nervous system damage c.
Reproductive problems; infertility d.
Damage to liver, kidney, lungs, and other organs e.
Endocrine disruption
G.
Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) (NJDEP)
1.
Limits that public water systems are required to meet by law
2.
Set well below levels known to have negative health impacts
3.
Regulations have been set for all known contaminants with adverse health effects
H.
Current Pesticide Use (Gilliom, 2009)
1.
Agricultural a.
Herbicides i.
Atrazine ii.
Metolachlor iii.
Cyanazine iv.
Alachlor v.
Acetochlor
2.
Urban a.
Herbicides i.
Simazine ii.
Prometon iii.
Tebuthiuron iv.
2,4-D v.
Diuron b.
Insecticides i.
Diazinon ii.
Chlorpyrifos iii.
Carbaryl
I.
Current Contamination Risks (Gilliom, 2009)
1.
Occurrence of pesticide compounds (streams) a.
Urban: 97%, Agricultural: 97%, Mixed: 94%

2.
One half of the wells surveyed contained one or more pesticide compounds
3.
One third of deeper wells (used to tap aquifers) contained one or more pesticides
4.
Annual mean concentrations of one or more pesticides exceeding benchmarks in streams a.
Agricultural: 8 of 83, Urban: 2 of 30
5.
Ground water sources exceeding benchmarks is about 1% of 2,356 domestic and 364 public supply wells a.
Occurring mostly in shallow ground water sources
"Assessing Health Risks from Pesticides." U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, http://www.epa.gov/opp00001/factsheets/riskassess.htm.
"Ddt and Other Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides." In Michigan Wildlife Disease Manual :
Michigan Department of Natural Resources, 2002.
"Ddt Contamination in South Africa." International POP's Elimination Network (IPEN), http://www.ipen.org/ipepweb1/library/ipep_pdf_reports/5saf%20ddt%20contamination%
20in%20south%20africa.pdf.
"Facts: Pesticides in Drinking Water." New Jersey Department of Environmental and
Occupational Health, http://www.state.nj.us/health/eoh/hhazweb/pest.pdf.
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. "Public Health Statement for
Aldrin/Dieldrin." http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/phs1.html#bookmark03.
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. "Toxicological Profile for Ddt, Dde, and
Ddd." http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp35.html.
Beyer, W. Nelson, and Charles D. Gish. "Persistence in Earthworms and Potential Hazards to
Birds of Soil Applied Ddt, Dieldrin and Heptachlor." Journal of Applied Ecology 17, no.
2 (1980): 295-307.
De Jager, Christiaan, Paulina Farias, Albino Barraza-Villarreal, Mauricio Hernandez Avila,
Pierre Ayotte, Eric Dewailly, Christian Dombrowski, Franc Ois Rousseau, Vicente Diaz
Sanchez, and Janice L. Bailey. "Reduced Seminal Parameters Associated with

Environmental Ddt Exposure and P,P'-Dde Concentrations in Men in Chiapas, Mexico: A
Cross-Sectional Study." Journal of Andrology 27 (2006): 16-27.
Eskenazi, Brenda, Amy R. Marks, Asa Bradman, Laura Fenster, Caroline Johnson, Dana B. Barr, and Nicholas P. Jewell. "In Utero Exposure to Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (Ddt) and
Dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (Dde) and Neurodevelopment among Young Mexican
American Children." Pediatrics 118, no. 1 (2006): 233-41.
Eskenazi, Brenda, Jonathan Chevrier, Lisa Goldman Rosas, Henry A. Anderson, Maria S.
Bornman, Henk Bouwman, Aimin Chen, Barbara A. Cohn, Christiaan de Jager, Diane S.
Henshel, Felicia Leipzig, John S. Leipzig, Edward C. Lorenz, Suzanne M. Snedeker, and
Darwin Stapleton. "The Pine River Statement: Human Health Consequences of Ddt Use."
Environmental Health Perspectives 117 (2009): 1359-67.
Fleming, W. James, M. Anne Ross McLane, and Eugene Cromartie. "Endrin Decreases Screech
Owl Productivity." The Journal of Wildlife Management 46, no. 2 (1982): 462-68.
Flickinger, Edward L., Christine A. Mitchell, and Alexander J. Krynitsky. "Dieldrin and Endrin
Residues in Fulvous Whistling-Ducks in Texas in 1983." Journal of Field Ornithology
57, no. 2 (1986): 85-90.
Frank, Rosemary A., and R. Scott Lutz. "Productivity and Survival of Great Horned Owls
Exposed to Dieldrin." The Condor 101, no. 2 (1999): 331-39.
Fry, D. Michael, and C. Kuehler Toone. "Ddt-Induced Feminization of Gull Embryos." Science
213, no. 4510 (1981): 922-24.
Gilliom, Robert J. "Pesticides in the Nation's Streams and Ground Water, 1992-2001: A
Summary." Department of Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, http://pubs.water.usgs.gov/fs20063028.
Grier, James W. "Ban of Ddt and Subsequent Recovery of Reproduction in Bald Eagles."
Science 218, no. 4578 (1982): 1232-35.
Heinrichs, W. L., R. J. Gellert, J. L. Bakke, and N. L. Lawrence. "Ddt Administered to Neonatal
Rats Induces Persistent Estrus Syndrome." Science 173, no. 3997 (1971): 642-43.
Herman, Steven G., and John B. Bulger. "Effects of a Forest Application of Ddt on Nontarget
Organisms." Wildlife Monographs , no. 69 (1979): 3-62.
Lee, David Epel, and L. Welton. "Persistent Chemicals in the Marine Ecosystem." The American
Biology Teacher 32, no. 4 (1970): 207-12.
Lichtenstein, E. Paul, Thomas W. Fuhremann, and Kenneth R. Shulz. "Persistence and Vertical
Distribution of Ddt, Lindane, and Aldrin Residues, 10 to 15 Years after a Single Soil
Application." Journal of Agriculture and Food CHemistry 19, no. 4 (1971): 718-21.
Martijn, A., H. Bakker, and R.H. Shreuder. "Soil Persistence of Ddt, Dieldrin, and Lindane over a Long Period." Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 51, no. 2
(1993): 178-84.Moats, Sheila A., and William A. Moats. "Toward Safer Use of
Pesticides." BioScience 20, no. 8 (1970): 459-64.
Mohapatra, Satya P., Mukesh Kumar, Vijay T. Gajbhiye, and Narendra P. Agnihotri. "Ground
Water Contamination by Organochlorine Insecticide Residues in a Rural Area in the

Indo-Gangetic Plain." Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 35, no. 2 (1995): 155-
64.
Moore, N. W. "Effects of Pesticides on Wildlife." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.
Series B, Biological Sciences 167, no. 1007 (1967): 128-33.
Niering, William A. "The Effects of Pesticides." BioScience 18, no. 9 (1968): 869-75.
Perfect, John. "The Environmental Impact of Ddt in a Tropical Agro-Ecosystem." Ambio 9, no. 1
(1980): 16-21.
Ramsay, Carol A., Craig G. Cogger, and Craig B. MacConnell. "Protecting Groundwater from
Pesticide Contamination." College of Agriculture and Home Economics.
Ratcliffe, D. A. "Changes Attributable to Pesticides in Egg Breakage Frequency and Eggshell
Thickness in Some British Birds." Journal of Applied Ecology 7, no. 1 (1970): 67-115.
Sherburne, J. A., and J. B. Dimond. "Ddt Persistence in Wild Hares and Mink." The Journal of
Wildlife Management 33, no. 4 (1969): 944-48.
Storelli, Maria Maddalena, Arianna Storelli, Grazia Barone, and Delia Franchini. "Accumulation of Polychlorinated Biphenyls and Organochlorine Pesticide in Pet Cats and Dogs:
Assessment of Toxicological Status." Science of the Total Environment 408, no. 1 (2009):
64-68.
Surber, Eugene W. "Effects of Ddt on Fish." The Journal of Wildlife Management 10, no. 3
(1946): 183-91.
Tiedeken, Jessica A., and John S. Ramsdell. "Ddt Exposure of Zebrafish Embryos Enhances
Seizure Susceptibility: Relationship to Fetal P,P'-Dde Burden and Domoic Acid Exposure of California Sea Lions." Environmental Health Perspectives 117, no. 1 (2009): 68-73.
Williams, Ray E. "Ddt: Hero or Villain?" The American Biology Teacher 32, no. 1
(1970): 11-13.
WHO. "Ddt and Its Derivatives in Drinking Water." World Health Organization.