Period 1: Technological and Environmental Transformations, to c. 600 BCE
Key Concept 1.1 - Big Geography and the Peopling of the Earth
What is the evidence that explains the earliest history of humans and the planet?
What are the theories that interpret this evidence?
Where did humans first appear on Earth, and what were their society, technology, and culture?
Describe earliest humans’ technology & tools
What were the earliest humans’ religious beliefs and practices?
How did the earliest humans’ society help them procure enough supplies to survive?
Key Concept 1.2 - Neolithic Revolution and Early Agricultural Societies
What were the long-term demographic, social, political, and economic effects of the Neolithic Revolution?
 The societies that were founded in the Neolithic Revolution were the foundation of the River Valley civilizations.
(more info – 3rd ?)
How did pastoral societies resemble or differ from early agricultural societies?

Where did pastoralism persist even after the Neolithic Revolution?
Differences:
● Pastoral societies were smaller and more mobile than early agricultural societies
● Pastoralism focused more on hunting and gathering, while early agricultural societies depended more on the
same soil
● Pastoral societies adapted far better to their environment as they could move
Similarities:
● Both developed animal husbandry
Pastoralism persisted in areas that could not sustain long-term agricultural pursuits, such as areas with unfavorable
climates and unreliable sources of pastures, food sources, and water.
How did the Neolithic Revolution affect human societies economically & socially?
The Neolithic Revolution began the era of permanent societies.
 Due to the closed nature of society, the demographic of farmers was less diverse than of the demographic of
herders as they mostly mated within their population
 Gender roles became more prevalent
 The reliance on the limited amount of land they had gave way to political organization
 Less variety in terms of food which affected the overall health of the farming society’s citizens
 Political organization caused social organization which was divided by amount of property and power.
Why did the Neolithic Revolution start (at all)?
There are many theories regarding the origin of Neolithic societies.
● need for a long-term reliable source of food to nourish a rapidly growing society
● rose because people experimented with plants out of their own free time
● the need for political and social organization
by accident
Where did the Neolithic Revolution first transform human populations? (Plural answer)
 Asia – east of the Zagros Mountains, Middle East regions
 Americas – high Andes to Amazon River Basin
 Africa - Egypt, the Nile River Valley
 Pacific Islands – New Guinea
 Europe - Northern Europe
●
What various crops & animals were developed or domesticated during the Neolithic Revolution?
● The trinity: maize, beans, and squash
● Rye, wheat, barley
● Potato
● Teff (African grain used to make flour – Ethiopia)
● Rice
● Quinoa
● Various marine animals, snails
● Sheep, goats, yaks, llamas
What labor adjustments did humans make in order to facilitate the Neolithic Revolution?
● Increased reliance on female labor
● Had to produce more crops to make up for the energy used for farming
What were the environmental effects of the Neolithic Revolution?
● Soil was overused.
● Deforestation occurred to make more land available for agriculture
● Overgrazing
● Animals became more suited to human needs due to animal husbandry
What effects did pastoralism & agriculture have on the food supply?
At first the food supply was unreliable due to a lot of energy devoted to crop production
● The food supply slowly became more reliable and created surplus
● In certain regions of the world, food options were limited
What were the social effects of the increased food supply caused by increase of agriculture?
● Created class distinctions, the people with more land and therefore more food were on the higher end of the
social hierarchy
● Increased population
● More leisure time
● Feasting increased loyalty to leadership
What technological innovations are associated with the growth of agriculture?
● Preservation of food surplus, created granaries and storehouses
● Irrigation
● City planning
●
Domestication/animal husbandry
Key Concept 1.3 - Development & Interactions of Early Agricultural, Pastoral, & Urban Societies
What is a ‘civilization’ and what are the defining characteristics of a civilization?
 A civilization is a group of people that share a common leadership, culture, or social structure.
How did civilizations develop and grow more complex before 600 BCE?
 They did this by obtaining a food surplus. This would allow for specialization, which means there are people in
society that are not involved in agriculture. Now it was possible to have soldiers, politicians, priests and artisans,
and as a result, have a more complex society.
What were the effects of this increasing complexity?
 This led to the formation of states, and specialization. This means there are people in charge of making sure
there is enough food, fight wars, and do things not involved in agriculture, such as artisans.
Where did the earliest civilizations develop, and why did they develop in those locations?
 They developed in Mesopotamia, Egypt, modern day Pakistan, and China. They were all located near rivers that
flooded somewhat regularly. This allowed for easier farming as people did not have to work as much for food,
and decided to settle down and lead sedentary lives.
What is a “state?” Who ruled the early states, and which segments of society usually supported the ruler?
 A state is a group of governing bodies that come together to regulate food production and distribution. Early
states were led by either military or religious leaders. Rulers were said to have connections to the spiritual world
and be able to control nature.
Why were some early states able to expand and conquer neighboring states?
 They had environment that were stable enough to support a food surplus. This allowed them to specialize and
make an army. This allowed them to conquer other states. Other early empires used trade and industry to
expand into other areas, but this was not conquering other societies as much as it was taking them in.
Give four examples of early empires in the Nile & Tigris/Euphrates River Valleys.
Egypt formed along the Nile River. Assyria and Babylon formed in Mesopotamia along the Tigris and Euphrates River
Valleys.
What role did pastoral civilizations play vis a vis empires?
Settling down into villages for farming and animal husbandry created permanent settlements that would unify into states.
States had leaders who expanded the reach of their power, creating empires.
What methods did rulers use to unify their populations?
Populations were unified by a ruler who often claimed to have divine powers controlling the seasons and agriculture or
be in communications with a set of gods. While times were good and people believed in this, they were unified. Other
leaders led their people on constant conquests and created a loyalty to their state. The populations were also unified by
the need for a ruler to distribute crops and make sure everyone was fed.
What architectural forms did early civilizations produce?
Early architectural forms included grain houses to distribute food and religious buildings used in ceremonies. Rulers
created lavish palaces for themselves.
Which social strata encouraged the development of art in ancient civilizations?
Once farmers were able to produce more than enough food to sustain their family, some members of society were able
to specialize in tasks other than agriculture, thus creating different social strata. These people became artisans and
made products like pots and other art forms.
What forms of writing developed in ancient civilizations?
Cuneiform developed in Mesopotamia, and it consisted of lines and dashes rather than an alphabet. Egypt had its
famous hieroglyphs, many of which still survive today. The Phoenician alphabet originated on the eastern shores of the
Mediterranean. This simplified the language down to a small set of letters and spread literacy to a somewhat larger
portion of the populace. Many other independent languages or dialects of widespread ones arose as well, though much
less remains given their limited usage.
What was the relationship between literature and culture?
Though literature was usually limited to a small, elite portion of the populace, it serves as a guide when understanding
ancient cultures. The stories and epics combine mythical exaggerations of the people’s environment, religious beliefs
and fears, and values of the society. Literature was no doubt a symbol of high culture and education in the ancient
civilizations.
What pre-600 BCE religions strongly influenced later eras?
Judaism, Buddhism, Jainism, Taoism, Confucianism, Legalism, and Guardianism.
How “big” were the pre-600 BCE trading regions?
Some notable trading regions included trade up and down the Nile, trade through Mesopotamia (a pivot point between
Mediterranean, Egypt and the Indus Valley), and trade throughout the Mediterranean via the Phoenicians.
How did social and gender identities develop pre-600 BCE?
Broadly speaking, women were inferior to men in society. This status extended to everyday freedom, hierarchical
opportunity, legal rights, and property ownership. Still, there were a fair amount of expectations. In early foraging and
farming groups, men and women did different tasks, but both were valued in the society for their contributions. As rulers
commanded civilizations, kings’ wives, advisers, and harem members could influence the decisions.
Key concept 2.1 - Development and Codification of Religious and Cultural Traditions
How did religions help strengthen political, economic, and cultural ties within societies?
Political:
 Leaders who adopted religions were able to use certain codes of that religion to advance their personal agendas
(i.e. justifying wars)
 Religion had a role in determining status in a society. A Pagan in a Christian civilization would be of lower status.
Economic:
 A person who adopted the civilizations main religion had economic benefits, such as not having religious taxes.
People who didn’t convert to the civilizations religion were discriminated against in the form of taxes
 Establishing places of worship in undeveloped territory increases the chance for colonization
Cultural:
 A strong religion resulted in the construction of places of worship, which had architectural value, for example: the
Hagia Sophia
 Adopting the same religion would unite cultures, for example the Roman empire and European barbarians
How did religions promote a sense of unity?
When outside lands, or barbarians, were brought into a civilization the adoption of the main religion unified the people.
Also, when leaders adopted a single religion a set of codes, which was based on religious principles, was enforced on
the people. Religion’s overall effect on a civilization’s political, cultural and economic aspects strengthened the
civilization’s sense of unity.
What are the characteristics and core teachings of Judaism?
 Secular religion that focused on worldly benefits, such as prosperity, material goods and successes.
 Through a covenant with God, followers of Judaism who abided by “the Law”, were promised deliverance
 There were two different types of Jews: the original Jews, who believed in the promise of deliverance from God
known as a covenant, and Jesus’s followers, who believe that God’s grace is not guaranteed and is based on
God’s will.
What are the characteristics and core teachings of Hinduism(s)?
 Believed in a caste system, which states that people’s place in society is predetermined and unmovable
 Brahmans, or priests of the highest caste, were considered to garner the most respect
 Enforced traditions, such as the sanctity of cows and the belief that a widow should be burned on her husbands
funeral pyre (sati)
What is a “universal religion?” Where did universal religions exist by 600 CE?
A universal religion is a religion that is not restricted to a certain area (such as Manicheanism in the Uighur society) but is
prevalent (enough to be considered a prominent religion amongst the population) in many different areas and
environments. By 600 CE, the most prominent religions would be Buddhism (China, Southeast Asia, Japan, Korea)
Christianity (Eurasia, Turkey, Ethiopia), Islam (Middle East, Northern Africa, Spain/Italy), and, to a lesser extent,
Hinduism (India, Southeast Asia, Middle East). Note that there were communities of religious activity in various ports.
What are the characteristics and core teachings of Buddhism?
 Humans are inherently evil, through meditation, prayer, and unselfish behavior they can reach nirvana (true
happiness)
o Nirvana: ultimate extinction of all sense of self in a mystical state
o If nirvana is not achieved, the soul is reborn (reincarnation)
o A persons reincarnation is based upon their past actions. For example a person who is evil would be
born as a lesser being, a person who is good would be born with higher status in society

Two offshoots of Buddhism:
o Theravada Buddhism: Buddhism influenced by Indian moral disciplines where the soul can advance to
nirvana through tiny increments, which can transcend lifetimes
o Mahayana Buddhism: Buddhism influenced by Chinese principles, where the soul could reach nirvana in
one single lifetime
How and where did Buddhism spread by 600 CE?
 Silk Road activity (ex. Traders and missionaries)
 Buddhist rulers, such as Asoka, through conquests of other civilizations, forcibly converted conquered peoples to
Buddhism
 Buddhism trickled down from higher levels of societies, for example Empress Wu used Buddhist clergy to gain
popularity, which caused her people to convert to Buddhism
 Buddhism spread to areas along the Silk Road, i.e. China, India, Tibet, Middle East, Turkey
 Buddhism also spread through naval trade routes in places such as Korea, Malaysia and Japan
What are the characteristics and core teachings of Confucianism?
 Man is born good.
 World is morally neutral – i.e. the world does not decide on the consequences of man’s actions.
 Human nature is inherently good, therefore people should have political rights, such as the right to protest –
however, Confucians still advocate a single ruler
What are the characteristics and core teachings of Daoism?
 Similar to Buddhism in the belief of detachment from the world in order to reach immortality
 Human ritual has the ability to change nature. If one can control it, there is power to be had in nature, however if
one does not know enough, there can be detrimental effects
 Led to the beginning of scientific methods such as observation, experimentation, description and classification
 Daoist rulers should enforce morals and virtues upon his/her people
What are the characteristics and core teachings of Christianity?
 Divine love
 Importance of faith
 Important figure = Jesus
 Christianity is monotheistic
 God is all-knowing
 All people are sinners, which separates us from God
How and where did Christianity spread by 600 CE?
·
Rulers, such as Charlemagne, converted the conquered peoples
·
Christianity trickled down from rulers to civilians
·
Christianity was spread along the silk road through the use of monasteries; however, compared to Buddhism, it
was less successful
·
Roman Empire (especially the Holy Roman Empire), Ethiopia, Armenia, Kiev, the Franks
What are the main characteristics of Greco-Roman philosophy and science?
·
Used logic and objective questioning to solve problems, as opposed to the use of gods and religion
·
The scientific method developed from Greco-Roman philosophy as a way to investigate the workings of nature
·
Attempted to view the universe as parts of a whole; philosophers developed the concept of atoms as building
blocks of matter
How did religions affect gender roles in their respective societies?
·
Women became the teachers of religion inside the home
·
In Buddhist cultures, nunneries were used as places of education for women as well as nurseries
·
In Islamic cultures, men practiced polygamy, and women’s rights were often limited.
What other religious and cultural traditions were common by 600 CE?
Christianity:
·
Christian societies were regulated by having houses of work, study, and prayer.
Hinduism:
·
Enforced traditions, such as the sanctity of cows and the belief that a widow should be burned on her husband’s
funeral pyre (sati)
Muslim:
·
Women’s rights included initiating divorce, owning property, and conducting their own business
·
Fasting and meditation
·
Once Muhammad died, a split occurred between the Islamic communities regarding the successor of his throne.
The Sunni believed that any member of his tribe could take office, while the Shia believed it should by Ali or a decendant
Buddhism:
·
Fasting and meditation
·
Respect towards all living creatures
How did humans’ reliance on the natural world influence religion?
Communities questioned the cause of natural disasters and natural phenomenon. People looked towards
religion to provide the answers to these questions. In Ancient Greece, mythology was developed as a means of
explaining such things as the origin of the world and seasons. These people offered meals to these gods as worship and
partook in religious ceremonies and rituals involving the twelve deities. In Christianity (and other religions), rulers bent
the principles of their religion for their own agendas which can include justifying wars and conquering territories. In
Judaism, religion was based off of worldly needs such as prosperity and successes.
How did humans relate to their deceased ancestors?
-reincarnation/nirvana: ancestors were with either among them or were in the state of nirvana
-decorated tombs
-passed oral traditions from generation to generation
How did art and culture develop to 600 CE?
-Religion (ex. Sculptures of gods…)
-based on worldly needs and events (ex. Paintings of travel along the Silk Road)
What literary works influenced later eras?
·
Marcus Aurelius – Meditations: Influenced Stoic philosophy
·
Ban Gu – Book of Han: History of China during 206 BC to 25 AD
·
Books of the New Testament
How did different societies’ architectural styles develop?
-environment factors
-natural resources available for building
-wealth
-religion
What examples of syncretism reflect the Classical Era to 600 CE?
-the integration of barbarians in the Western Roman Empire
-the adoption of Christianity by barbarian rulers (ex. Franks, Kiev)
-Arabian conquests caused conquered people to adopt Islam
Key Concept 2.2 - Development of States and Empires
What is an “empire,” and what were empires’ common characteristics during the Classical Era?
An empire is a large collection of peoples across a broad geographic range that lives under a common rule. Common characteristics included
long trade routes across land and coastline, levied taxes on subjected peoples, enforced religion, threats from attacking barbarians, a system of
central and local governments to maintain order, and armies to defend borders and maintain peace.
How did the number & size of Classical empires compare to the Ancient Era?
The most influential Classical empires were fewer in number than those of the Ancient Era. The states in nearby areas gradually consolidated, by
their own choice or by force, to form these large empires. Thus, the Classical empires were also much greater in size. The populations could
easily reach tens of millions, compared to a few hundred thousand in smaller states. The empires also stretched across huge tracts of land while
civilizations such as the River Valley civilization were constrained to areas surrounding rivers and riverbanks. Rome went across Europe to the
Middle East. China spanned most of present day China.
What were the most influential of the Classical Era empires?
The Roman, Persian, and Chinese empires were the most influential. Other smaller empires included the Gupta empire of India and the Mayan
empire of South America.
What techniques did Classical empires create to administer their territories?
China developed the best communication lines throughout the kingdom – messages could be easily sent and received. Rome built the greatest
infrastructure, consisting of roads, aqueducts, and cities. All three empires relied on violence and military threat to maintain order to some
degree, Persia most notably. Standardized taxes were levied on citizens to raise revenue.
What new political methods were created in order to rule the larger empires in the Classical Era?
Many times, a central ruler would command from a capital city, leaving localized rulers to direct smaller regions or towns. This sometimes led to
insubordination and small rebellions. Dynasties were set up to create successive lines of imperial rule, as seen in Chinese families, the Roman
emperors, and Persian kings. In Rome, there was also an influential senate and imperial advisory counsel.
How did imperial governments let their population know that the government was “in charge?”
Imperial governments asserted
their power by claiming to have divine connections. In most empires,one common religion was enforced. While governments allowed citizens to
keep their respective religion, they were often taxed and vulnerable to religious persecution. They also taxed citizens and their conquered
territories reminding them that they were the subjects of the government.
What role did trade play in creating and maintaining empires?
Trade enabled states to gather wealth and increase in size and influence. States that produced high demand products like silk could trade them
and become wealthy. Empires like Persia which controlled major trade routes could also profit by taxing goods that passed through their territory.
Amassing money was important for empires to stay in control. Wealth was needed to build armies.
What unique social and economic characteristics existed in empires?
Empires contained a wide variation in social and economic levels. In Rome, members of the senate had a higher social position than average
citizens and there were varied levels of citizenship. There were also slaves. In China, classes ranged from upperclass nobles and scholars to
farmers and artisans to the less respected merchants. Persian classes included kings and nobles of various regions, high class military leaders
and clergy, then artisans, tradesmen, and peasants .
What function did imperial cities perform?
Imperial cities were centers of trade and government. In cities, especially those placed on key trading routes, many merchants could come
together and exchange goods. Rulers also positioned themselves in cities, where they could display their power.
What social classes and occupations were common in empires?
Empires had a single ruler called an emperor. Since empires were spread over so much area, they also needed governors for each region. There
was also a large number of people employed in keeping the empire going including local and military officials. Other occupations included
farmers and artisans. Social class was often determined by which area of the empire you were from, especially where empires spanned multiple
cultures.
What labor systems provided the workers for Classical Empires?
The Romans provided workers by enslaving the people they conquered. Although it was outlawed by Cyrus the Great in Persia, it was still
present there as a source of labor. The Han dynasty also utilized slavery as a source of labor.
Describe the gender and family structures of Classical Era empires.
In China, family structures were based on Confucianism, which was based on relationships within a family. Typically fathers were at the top of the
family, their sons were second, mothers were third and the son’s wives were the lowest in the family. For the most part, men dominated in the
family structure in China. In China, loyalty to the family was considered to be very important.
In Persia and Rome, gender played a greater role than family structure. Men performed jobs and left the home to earn wages. Women stayed
home and took care of family and chores. Women married at a young age, some in their teens to men who were in their twenties.
What caused Classical Empires to decline, collapse, or transform into something else?
Several factors combined to lead to the fall of the Classical Empires. External forces, like the Germanic tribes and steppelanders outside of the
Han dynasty, were jealous of Classical Empire wealth. This led them to invade these empires to gain the benefits of being a Roman, Persian or
Hani. Empires also declined to due to moral decline, as empires grew comfortable with their lives of luxury. This created weakness that could not
hold up against outside forces. The Classical Empires also deviated from their core beliefs from when they were growing. For example, Roman
soldiers lost pride in fighting for Rome, and only cared about money, resulting in weaker defenses from external forces.
What were the environmental and social weaknesses of Classical Empires?
Social weaknesses are the moral declines that Classical Empires went through. This includes Roman emperors that became materialistic and
increased tax pressure on the poor while the rich evaded taxes. Environmental causes for the decline of the Classical Empires included the
external forces that resulted from lack of inclusiveness and over extension on the part of the empires. This made the empires harder to defend
and more money had to be put towards excluding outsiders. This hurt the economy and helped create even more weaknesses in the Classical
Empires.
What external weaknesses contributed to the end of Classical Empires?
For the Romans, Germanic tribes’ jealousy of their wealth led to invasions that the Romans could not fend off due to preoccupation with wars
against the Persians. The Han faced steppelanders from the west were absorbed into the Han dynasty, which resulted in the weakening of the
Han dynasty. Persians were taken down by a unified Greece that banded together when Persia invaded to take over trade in the region.
Eventually, Alexander the Great conquered Persia.
Key Concept 2.3 - Emergence of Transregional Networks of Communication & Exchange
How did Classical era trade networks compare to Ancient era networks?
Classical era trade networks spanned larger distances and encouraged the trading between peoples of many different ethnicities, as large
empires had brought many peoples in contact with each other. Many luxury items or raw materials, manufactured or native to a specific
population, was traded along these routes. The eastern hemisphere contained many land and water routes, while the American trade routes did
not develop until much later. Such examples of larger trade routes include the Silk Road, trans-Saharan Caravan routes, and Indian Ocean sea
lanes.
What forces contributed to the changes between the two eras?
The new contact between peoples and larger empires of the Classical era caused a demand of foreign goods. With new contact also came the
motivation to spread religion and exchange technology.
What was commonly traded along these trade networks?
Food crops, luxury items (such as silk, dyes, spices, sugar, tea, incense, etc.), animals (cows, oxen, horses, pigs, camels, etc.), were all tangible
items traded along these networks.
What technologies enabled long-distance overland and maritime trade?
Long-distance overland trade was enabled by the invention of yokes, saddles, and stirrups, which allowed long caravans of goods and people to
travel. Maritime trade was enabled by the invention of dhow ships, lateen sails, and a new knowledge of cartography and an weather currents.
Besides the physical goods, what intangibles also traveled along trade networks?
Many different ideas and technology were exchanged along these networks, such as farming or navigation techniques. In addition, many
religions were spread along these networks. Yet another intangible object that traveled along these networks was disease.
What crops spread along Classical Era trade networks?
Rice, cotton, sugar, and many various fruits spread from the Southern part of Asia to the Middle East and Europe, while some wheat was spread
back towards southern Asia.
What effects did diseases have on Classical empires?
Disease caused urban populations to decline; it also helped contribute to the decline of the (West) Roman and the Chinese empires.
How did religions spread along trade networks, and how did the trade networks affect the religions?
Religions were spread along the trade networks through missionaries as well as traders bringing their beliefs with them on caravans. These
religions included Buddhism, Hinduism, Christianity, and Daoism. These trade networks affected the religions by creating new customs within the
religion to match the mesh in with local customs.
Period 3: Regional and Transregional Interactions, c. 600 to c. 1450 CE
Key Concept 3.1 Expansion and Intensification of Communication and Exchange
Networks
How did trade networks in the post-Classical Era compare to the Classical Era?
What new technologies, governmental policies, and merchant activities accompanied these developments?
What role did pastoral and nomadic groups play in these trade networks?
How did the physical size of post-Classical trade networks compare to the previous era?
What Classical era trade networks continued during the post-classical era, and which new cities were added during the post-Classical
era?
What new technologies enabled the growth of inter-regional trade networks?
What factors encouraged commercial growth in the post-classical era?
How did trans-Eurasian trade as a whole develop during the post-Classical era?
What were the effect of migration in the post-classical era?
What basic understandings of environment and technology did post-classical traders need to conduct their business?
What were the environmental effects of migration in the post-classical era?
What were the linguistic effects of migration in the post-classical era?
How did trade networks as a whole develop in the post-classical era?
Why and where did Muslim trade networks change in the post-classical era?
What institutions did merchants create to foster both trade and cultural diffusion in the post-classical era?
How well did post-classical societies know and understand each other?
How did post-classical trade affect the diffusion of literary, artistic, and cultural traditions?
How did post-classical trade affect the diffusion of scientific and technological traditions?
What were the biological effects of post-classical trade?
What new foods, crops, and agricultural practices diffused in the post-classical era?
What diseases and pathogens also spread via post-classical trade networks?
Key Concept 3.2 Continuity & Innovation of State Forms and Their Interactions
How did state formations develop in the post-classical era?
The Byzantine Empire developed out of the remains of the Roman Empire, maintaining the legacy associated with Rome but with a changing
culture, including the adoption of Christianity, and shifting from Latin to Greek. The Muslim world was united under the Caliph.
How did post-classical states avoid the mistakes of classical empires in the regions where
classical empires collapsed?
The main goal of post-classical states was to reestablish the strong central control that classical empires had lost through nomadic invasions.
What new forms of governance emerged in the post-classical era?
New empires were centered around major rising religions. Religion affected the values of the government and served as a unifying force among
the people. Examples include Christianity in the Byzantine Empire, the Muslim world unified under the caliph, and Buddhism in China.
How & where did governmental diffusion occur in the post-classical era?
New governments drew on older traditions. For example, the Muslim empire followed some Persian tradition. Mongol leadership also diffused
across Asia under the conquest of Genghis Khan.
How did states in the Americas develop in the post-classical era?
The Mayans had a system based on monumental building, wars, and ritual blood-letting. Many city-states existed. The Incas and Aztecs
developed long-distance trading networks.
What technological and cultural exchanges did states encourage in the post-classical era?
States exchanged knowledge of mathematics and inventions like paper for writing. They also exchanged religious ideas.
Key Concept 3.3 Increased Economic Productive Capacity and Its Consequences
What were the overall worldwide economic trends in the post-classical era?
Trade was increasing and expanding during the post-classical era, influenced by increasing productivity and interconnectedness.
What new innovations affected agriculture in the post-classical era?
New techniques such as irrigation and forest-clearing made more land suitable for farming. In Japan, a new heavy plow allowed for increased
production.
How and why did crops migrate during the post-classical era?
The Chinese began to use Vietnamese rice because it was easier to cultivate.
How did textile and porcelain production develop in the post-classical era?
Textiles were a main product of India and silk and porcelain were important exports in China. Production was high during this period for
prosperous Indian Ocean trade. In China, production entered a pre-industrial era, with porcelain, silk, and steel overseen by the state.
Why did some post-classical urban areas decline?
Some urban areas were weakened by enemy invasion or deadly plagues. Decreases in agricultural production also caused some areas to
decline.
Why did some post-classical urban areas prosper and grow?
Areas with high productivity who took part in trade were able to prosper and expand.
What roles did cities play in their societies during the post-classical era?
Trading cities on the Indian Ocean brought wealth and prosperity to their societies. Cities were centers of trade and cultural exchange.
How did social and labor systems develop during the post-classical era?
In China, the forced laborers became free peasants who provided most of the labor for the empire.
What pre-existing labor systems continued through the post-classical era?
Slaves had been used widely in the Roman and Greek Empire and slavery continued in the Muslim Empire. In India, the Caste system of labor
classification continued.
How did social and gender hierarchies develop in the post-classical era?
In the Byzantine Empire, women often held important government positions but were still considered inferior to men. In China, women were
considered subordinate to their husbands and were involved in household chores and silk production. During this period, women did gain more
independence. In many societies, the social order became a feudal system with lords and laboring peasants.
What new labor forms developed in the post-classical era?
In the Ottoman Empire, the use of Janissaries began, Christian children recruited to become soldiers. In Egypt, the mamluks were a class of
slave soldiers.
Who did some gender roles and family structures change in the post-classical era?
Although the new state religions declared spiritual equality for women, they were not always treated equally. In Islam, women had no active role
in religion or government.
Period 4: Global Interactions, c. 1450 to c. 1750
Key Concept 4.1 Globalizing Networks of Communication and Exchange
Describe the degree of global ‘interconnection’ after 1500 CE compared to before 1500.
By the year 1500, many discoveries in Europe allowed them to travel further, connecting them to the Indian Ocean trade routes as well as to the
new world. This was a major increase in global ‘interconnectedness,’ as these regions had been previously relatively isolated.
What were the overall effects of this change in global interconnectedness?
The main effect was the connection between Europe and Asia and between the existing world and the Americas. These connections allowed for
trade, exchanges of ideas, and the formation of colonies.
How did the global trade network after 1500 CE affect the pre-existing regional trade
networks? (Indian Ocean, Mediterranean, trans-Saharan, Silk Routes)
The European presence in the Indian Ocean trade did not greatly influ
ence the other participants. There was very little European involvement compared to the existing trade and the Europeans did not provide any
new or valuable products to the trade system.
What technical developments made transoceanic European travel & trade possible?
Some navigation innovations included the astrolabe to determine latitude and the use of the compass to determine directions. A major
development in the ships used was the triangular sail. Triangular sails allowed sailors to sail into the wind, encouraging voyages further and
further from home.
Where did those developments originate?
Most of these innovations originated in Asia but were adopted and spread by the Muslim Empire, eventually reaching Europe.
What were the major notable transoceanic voyages between 1450-1750 CE?
● 1492: Christopher Columbus discovered the Caribbean on a Spanish funded voyage.
● Vasco de Gama sailed around Africa into the Indian Ocean.
Where did Zheng He and the Chinese Treasure Fleets travel?
Why did Portugal begin longer maritime voyages ca. 1430 CE?
What effect did Columbus’ travels have on Europeans?
What originally motivated Europeans to travel across the northern Atlantic?
How did the new global connections affect the peoples of Oceania and Polynesia?
What new financial and monetary means made new scale(s) of trade possible?
What previously established scale(s) of trade continued?
Describe European merchants overall trade role c. 1450-1750.
What role did silver play in facilitating a truly global scale of trade?
What new mercantilist financial means developed to facilitate global trade?
What were the economic and social effects of the Atlantic trading system?
What were the unintentional biological effects of the Columbian Exchange?
What foods were transferred to new geographic regions as part of the Columbian Exchange, and what were labor systems made this
transfer possible?
What plants/animals were deliberately transferred across the Atlantic as part of the Columbian Exchange?
What effects did American food crops have on the diet of Afro-Eurasians?
How did settlers’ action affect the Americas environmentally?
How did the Columbian Exchange affect the spread of religions?
Where did the “universal” religions of Buddhism, Christianity & Islam spread?
How did the Columbian Exchange affect religion(s)?
How did the arts fare during this period?
How did public literacy as well as literary and artistic forms of expression develop during this period?
Key Concept 4.2 New Forms of Social Organization and Modes of Production
How did agriculture’s role change between 1450-1750?
Prior to 1492, there was minimal contact between the new world and Eurasia and Africa. Once Columbus made contact with North and
South America the exchange of crops, slaves, and diseases began, known as the Columbian exchange. Agriculture became a way of
exploiting underdeveloped nations. Europe used the raw materials of the America’s to make themselves wealthier. Before, agriculture
was primarily used as a food source for a population. Afterwards, agriculture was also used to produce commodities such as tobacco
and sugar cane (meaning agriculture also became more important in global trade).
What pre-requisite conditions made these changes possible?
-Advancements in maritime technology (such as compass, ships, sails, etc.)
-Discovery of the New World
-Initial monetary investments in plantations/exploration
-Source of labor (slaves, indentured servants)
-Initiative to attain more raw materials through expansion
How did labor systems develop between 1450-1750?
As imperialism picked up speed there was a growing need for labor. Europe began to exploit what they thought of as the “inferior”
races. Forced labor included natives and African Americans.
How was peasant labor affected between 1450-1750?
In regards to the end of industrialization, peasant labor shifted from farms to factories. In the Americas, indentured servants began to
decrease as more slaves were shipped across the Atlantic. Also, in Europe here was a shift in the control of peasant labor. Tighter
control and less freedom for the laborers emerged.
How did slavery within Africa compare to the pre-1450 era?
Slavery within Africa increased to match demands of the slave trade. Cities also grew along the eastern border of Africa. These towns
became hubs of the salve trade. Slavery enabled towns to grow in Africa. Slavery became a source of income for African towns.
How did the Atlantic slave trade affect both African societies and the economy of the Americas?
The Americas benefited from the slave trade because the increase in labor allowed for an increase in productivity. This also helped the
economies of European nations because they reaped the benefits of the American colonies.
How did labor systems develop in the colonial Americas?
There was a need for labor force in the New World to work the tobacco and sugar cane plantations. Initially, indentured servants were
sent to the New World. These servants were promised a headright of 50 acres after 7 years of service. Indentured servants became
more risky because they were prone to rebellion. As a greater need for labor arose, slaves also were forced to migrate from Africa to
the New World.
How did the post-1450 economic order affect the social, economic, and political elites?
It directly benefited the merchant class due to the increase in trade. The gap between the powerful elite (plantation owners) and the
indentured servants and slaves increased as well as the rich became richer but the lower class did not change in economic status. 2
How did pre-existing political and economic elites react to these changes?
Due to the rise of aristocracy, power shifted from the important members of social groups to smaller family units who were wealthy
and well-connected. Therefore, these important members lost their social status.
How were gender and family structures affected to these changes?
There was an increase in women rulers during the 16th century, For example Mary Queen of Scots of Catherine de’Medici, Regent of
France. These women were often more respected s rulers during these times; however, women were still seen as their husbands
property. Since aristocracy became increasingly favored by society, the family unit became more prevalent.
How did societies in the Americas reflect the post-1450 economic order?
Due to the insurgence of slaves and immigrants, new societies and social standings developed in the Americas according to race.
Native American societies withered as European elites continued to conquer their land and exploit their natural resources. At the same
time, European conquest enabled new leaders to arise in the Americas, such as powerful Native Americans.
Key Concept 4.3 State Consolidation and Imperial Expansion
How did empires attempt to administer the new widespread nature of their territories?
European powers tended to install officials in the areas that they ruled who were of European descent. For example the Spanish
appointed creoles to political offices in Latin America and some parts of South America. ‘
How did the role of Africa, the Americas, Asia, and Europe develop in this new -world-wide political order?
-Africa supplied the labor force (slaves) for empires in some colonies
-the Americas became the site of new colonies of the Spanish and British Empires
-Asia-In the seventeenth century Chinese and Japanese citizens participated in the growing opportunities as colonists. Site of
European trading empires.
-Europe- Great Britain and Spanish civilizations had empires. Portugal and the Netherlands had more of a trading empire in Southeast
Asia.,
How did the people of various empires react to their government’s methods?
These people either accepted the new rulers and complied with new leadership or they resisted the new rule. Some colonies attempted
to remain neutral as well.
How did political rulers legitimize and consolidate their rule?
They appointed officials that were of their own descent, hired translators in order to negotiate with the locals, and attempted to
assimilate the locals into their culture and religion.
What role did religion play in legitimizing political rule?
Religion became a way for empires to justify their actions. These powers believed it was their duty to civilize and spread their religion
to those they deemed “uncivilized”. Religion was part of a greater scheme of cultural assimilation of the natives. For example,
converting the Native Americans into Christians alleviated the tension between them and the British Empire, allowing for easier trade
between them.
How were ethnic and religious minorities treated in various empires?
-Blacks were considered inferior in the Americas as they were slaves. This means that they were exploited as a labor force and had
less rights.
-Native Americans were considered to be savages by the Europeans, which led to conflicts between the two.
-Cults in Mexico convulsed the Church. Missionaries attempted to convert the cults through peaceful and violent methods
How did rulers make sure that their governments were well run?
Empires appointed rulers of their own descent to run the colonies. When empires felt that their power was in jeopardy of being
overthrown they used violence to decimate the opponents. For example, in the Americas the local government destroyed the
rebellious indentured servants in their fight for power, known as Bacon’s rebellion.
How did rulers finance their territorial expansion?
-Joint-stock company: the costs were divided amongst shareholders
-ex. Dutch East India Company
-paid for by government
What was the relationship between imperialism and military technology?
As military technology increased imperialism as a result increased and also vice-versa. For example machine guns and rapid-firing
rifles made imperialism possible.
How did Europeans go about creating new global empires and trade networks?
-Maritime trade routes (i.e. the discovery of the easterly winds that connect the New World to Asia)
-advancements in technology (i.e. better stream-lined ship design)
-creation of joint-stock companies which we used to finance such explorations
How did pre-existing land-based empires and new empires during this era compare to previous era’s empires?
New land empires became arenas of global trade. There was a greater connection between empires. Technology, culture, religion, art,
and political ideas were easily spread and shared across great distances. There also was more diversity in animal and plant life across
the globe because of the new connections made during imperialism.
What obstacles to empire-building did empires confront, and how did they respond to these challenges?
-hostile natives- usually dealt with by force
-changing climates
-disease-natural selection
-competing empires-attempted to find more natural resources and grow more cash crops
Period 5: Industrialization and Global Integration, c. 1750 to c. 1900
Key Concept 5.1 Industrialization and Global Capitalism
How did Industrialization affect seemingly unrelated fields like social structures, culture, the economy?
-Industrialization solidified the positions of the upper and lower class – factory workers did not earn enough to better their social
standings and factory owners became very wealthy. There were some exceptions such as successful entrepreneurs (such as
Carnegie) but they were rare.
-“Streets were paved with gold” – Immigrants came to America looking for opportunities to better their social status and financial
standings
-Women and children became important in bringing money for the family and as a labor source.
-Steel and oil industries fueled the growth of the American economy.
What combination of factors were necessary to begin the Industrial Revolution?
-labor sources from immigrants, women, and children
-growth of cities (shifted from rural areas)
-initial investments from entrepreneurs
-new technology
-reliable sources of raw materials (ex. Cotton for textiles, iron for steel)
-a need for the product
What “fueled” (both literally and metaphorically) the Industrial Revolution?
-competition
-labor, raw materials
-Same as the last question
How did factories change the nature of labor itself?
-shift from agricultural labor to industrial labor
-jobs became less diversified (e.g. a laborer would always do the same task in a factory)
-more women and children in the workforce
-decreased sanitary/ safety conditions, frequent abuse to the workers in the workplace
-sometimes unfair practices were enacted (very low wages, long hours)
-usually based on a strict time schedule
Where did factories start, and where/how did the factory system spread?
Factories were introduced in Britain, specifically factories that specialized in textile and iron production. The factory system spread to
other regions of Europe and to America. The concept of factories spread to regions that had raw materials available to them. There
was also an increasing need (due to rapid population growths and increasing global trade) for certain products, so factories, places
that can produce those products reliably and quickly, were necessary to meet that demand.
What was the “2nd Industrial Revolution?”
The second industrial revolution (which occurred during the late 19 th century) was based around the many scientific innovations that
occurred during the time (Bessemer steel, electricity, internal combustion engine, new chemicals). The rapid increase in demand for
these types of products caused the need for new methods of fast production – such as mass production and the assembly line. These
changes occurred mostly in the United States and continental Europe.
How did the Industrial Revolution affect the role of science in larger society?
Scientific methods became more accepted by factory owners. New ways and techniques to better improve production started to have a
scientific framework. Accepting scientific practices slowly trickled down to the lower class. It also caused a dispute between religion
and reason.
How did the Industrial Revolution influence world trade overall?
It created new markets, demand was met by increased production, the importation of raw materials became more prevalent. New
technology such as railroads and steam power lowered transit time (therefore, exportation of perishable food products became
possible) Overall, global trade increased.
What raw materials were commonly exported to industrialized areas?
Coal, iron, cotton, food (wheat or livestock for butchering purposes), labor, wood
As industrial production rose, what type(s) of production declined?
Products that were made by artisans or were handmade (ex. made-by-order furniture, pottery, etc.)
What “new” markets did industrialized states look for/create for their exports?
Easily exploitable natives (such as those in imperial colonies) who can monopolized by their products
What role did monetary and precious metals play in the Industrial Revolution?
-Iron became an essential material for steel production
-Silver, gold, and copper were exported faster due to the introduction of faster transportation (steam power and railroad)
-Important raw materials, so there was an increase in exports in these materials
-Gold and silver became important in developing economies (to back up paper money), so they were important exports
What financial institutions facilitated industrial production?
-Banks loaned money to entrepreneurs
-Governments (particularly the U.S) funded industrial developments such as railroads or canals which aided in transportation of raw
materials and exports
How did the Industrial Revolution affect the scale of businesses and overall economic activity?
-“Trusts” and big businesses became more prevalent
-Monopolies overtook the market which made it more difficult for smaller businesses to survive
-Businesses grew to a national scale
-Money was concentrated with the rich
How did industrialists legitimize the economic changes of the Industrial Rev?
-Social Darwinism – the big businesses deserved to survive since they were better equipped in terms of money and other investments
than the smaller businesses. This also reflected their views of themselves in relation to the lower class.
-“Gospel of Wealth” – God gave the rich the duty to help the poor by providing opportunities but not through charity so the poor would
have to work for their own well-beings.
-“Self-strengthening”- they believed that their work would develop the nation as a whole
What were the important developments in transportation during the Ind. Rev?
-Steam power/ coal – powered ships and trains reliably
-Railroads/trains – enabled products/ideas to be quickly transmitted to other regions of the continent
How did workers respond to the Ind. Rev., and how did their vision of society compare to industrialists’?
Some accepted their status (ex. believed in Rags to Riches) but most protested against the unfair work practices enacted by big
businesses. The protests led to worker unions, the later establishment of anti-trust organizations/constitutional acts.
How did governments respond to the tremendous economic changes of the Industrial Revolution?
-In US, presidents/federal government did nothing to stop the overgrowth of big business
-In US, the government banned slavery due to shift to industrial economy
-In Japan, the government became more involved with business.
-Developed more massive armies due to increase of wealth
-Competition between industrial nations, which resulted in more conflicts
How and why did some governments reform their practices because of the Industrial Revolution?
-As big businesses grew there became a need to mediate between employers and workers.
-Initially, the US government favored big businesses in the court. Later, however, the government was somewhat against big business
and several anti-monopoly acts were passed (e.g. Sherman Anti-Trust)
-The US government had to also deal with protesters (particularly those working under factory conditions).
-Some governments, such as China, actively pursued industrial activities to strengthen the state (i.e., self-strengthening) by adopting
western technology (which was considered to be shameful in the past). They did not, however, truly became an industrial nation as
their “self-strengthening” was a reaction to the recent rise of Western dominance.
How did the Industrial Revolution affect social and demographic characteristics?
-In industrial nations, cities were population centers
-Initially, mortality rates/instances of illnesses increased to the unsanitary conditions of factories and cities
-famines and food shortages were common as food had to be brought into cities
-population increased dramatically
Key Concept 5.2 Imperialism and Nation-State Formation
What are the similarities & differences between colonialism and imperialism?
Similarities: Both involve the acquisition of land, the control of another nation
Differences:
· Colonialism: This refers to the immigration of people to a new territory who still abide by the laws and customs of the mother
country. Colonies tend to be more permanent than imperial satellite nations.
· Imperialism: Focused more on monetary goals rather than permanent settlement. Primary workforce comes from natives of that
territory rather than immigrants/settlers from the mother country.
How did imperialism affect Europe’s influence around the world?
● Increases due to the greater presence of European colonies throughout the world
● Spread of westernization (the West started to out produce China and Japan)
● European culture (language, religion, etc.) spread
Which states increased their influence and control over their pre-existing colonies, and which saw their influence decrease?
● Great Britain increased its control over India
● Spain lost control of its colonies in Latin America, as their colonies successfully fought for independence
● Great Britain also lost control of its American colonies
● China increased control over their empire (Manchuria, Taiwan, Vietnam, etc.)
● Persia and the ottoman empires control weakened (Balkans, Romania)
What methods and tactics did industrialized states use to establish and expand their empires?
● Empires offered incentives to natives (westernization, culture, protection) in exchange for their compliance
● They occupied powerful roles in court and office (eg. China in Thailand)
● They used military force to stabilize the empire
● Indirect rule (eg. In Africa Britain ruled through the natives)
● Adopting business imperialism provided a stable source of income (through the acquisition of raw materials/cash crops)
which could be used to further government efforts to expand their empires
How did imperialism help, hurt, or change various states?
● Overall, African countries/nations were impaired by the intervention of imperialistic European nations
○ The African population was largely decimated due to an increase in disease, plague, and violence
○ Natives were exploited for unfair labor practices (not necessarily slavery) and raw materials were plundered by the
●
●
●
●
Europeans
The court of colonized nations began to resemble that of Europe (for example the court of Sultan of Kedah resembled
European practices)
○ Trial by jury replaced supernatural practices
Countries in South America, the Caribbean, and Latin America became predominately Spanish/Portuguese
Countries in Southeast Asia (ex. Philippines) became predominately Christian/Catholic
American colonies experienced a boom in population growth (due to British rule), which accelerated settlement and
industrialization in the region
How did anti-imperialism affect the Ottoman Empire’s territories?
● Resistance of colonies led to the formation of independent states
○ Ex. Balkans, Greece, Egypt
What were the effects of nationalism on various peoples and regions?
● Nationalism started revolutions to gain independence from mother country
○ The Jamaica letter was an appeal to England to support Latin America ni their fight for independence against Span
○ Anti-imperialism in the Ottoman Empire also thrived off of nationalism and helped to create new territories
● Increased racism against natives
How did imperialists justify imperialism?
● Social Darwinism
● The belief that they were aiding natives through religious conversion and westernization
○ Believed it was “god’s duty”
● Promise of new wealth achieved through greater access to raw materials
Key Concept 5.3 Nationalism, Revolution, and Reform
How did both the Enlightenment and colonized peoples’ actions affect political developments after 1750?
The rise and diffusion of Enlightenment thought that questioned established traditions in all areas of life often preceded the revolutions and
rebellions against existing governments. The spread of Enlightenment ideas and increasing discontent with imperial rule propelled reformist and
revolutionary movements.
How did political rebellions affect the political structures and ideologies around the world?
These rebellions often resulted in the formation of new states and stimulated the development of new ideologies. These new ideas in turn further
stimulated the revolutionary and anti-imperial tendencies of people around the world.
What role did the Enlightenment play in making political revolutions & rebellions possible?
The Enlightenment thought that questioned established traditions in all areas of life often preceded the revolutions and rebellions against existing
governments.
How did Enlightenment thinkers affect understandings of the relationship between the natural world and humans?
Enlightenment thinkers believed that the relationship between humans and the natural world should be observed, and that these observances
should be used to make deductions and inferences on how the world works. This can be noted in the writings of Rousseau and Voltaire.
How did the Enlightenment evaluate the role of religion in public life?
Enlightenment thinkers believed that religion should not play a role in public life; instead, the public should rely on reason rather than faith.
What new political ideas re: the individual, natural rights, and the social contract did the Enlightenment develop? What social &
political norms did Enlightenment thinkers challenge? What were the effects of their questioning?
The Enlightenment developed new political idea about the individual, natural rights, and the social contract by challenging the existing notions of
the social order. This led to the expansion of rights (such as suffrage), the ending of serfdom, and the abolition of slavery. These ideas can be
noted in Locke’s and Montesquieu’s work.
What is the basis of national identity and nationalism?
The basis of national identity and nationalism grew along a commonality shared by the people based on geographical location, language,
religion, and culture. This national community linked the people’s identity within their national boundaries.
How did governments use these new ideas on their populations?
Governments used these ideas to create nationalistic empires; they used these ideas to unify diverse populations that may have had tensions in
the past.
How did subject peoples relate to their ruling governments?
The peoples rebelled against their governments based on imperialism and monarchy, instead tending towards more democratic and republican
measures.
How did rebellions and revolutions in the Americas and Europe reflect Enlightenment ideals?
Many colonies in the Americas rebelled against their imperial overlords in Europe, which created many new nations in Northern and Latin
America, including the United States. The French rebelled against their monarchy. These revolutions reflected the Enlightenment ideals in
writings: the Declaration of Independence, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, and the Jamaica Letter.
How did slaves’ resistance affect existing authorities in the Americas?
The slaves resistance, such as the Maroon societies, challenged existing authorities in the Americas (Brazil, Cuba, the Guyannas).
What was the relationship between nationalism and anti-colonialism?
Nationalism contributed to anti-colonial movements, as it brought many people together to reject their imperial overlords. Examples of this
include the Boxer Rebellion and the Mahdist Revolt.
How did religion influence nationalism?
Many people in a location were brought together by a common religion. This common religion led to a growth of nationalism, as well as
influencing rebellions against their imperial masters. Such examples include the Taiping Rebellion and the Ghost Dance.
How did imperial governments react to nationalistic rebellions?
Many rebellions caused the imperial governments to reform and rework their imperial policies. Some examples include the Bismarckian reforms
instituted by Germany, or the Self-Strengthening movement prevalent in China.
What other new ideologies did the Enlightenment stimulate?
The Enlightenment stimulated a new look at the physical world (thereby influencing the Industrial Revolution in a way) as well as new political
ideologies to replace monarchist and imperial governments.
What new political ideologies developed from ca. 1750-1900?
Some new political ideologies that developed from 1750-1900 included communism, liberalism, and socialism.
What people or issues did Enlightenment thinkers ignore or overlook?
Many Enlightenment thinkers ignored and overlooked the demands for women’s suffrage and gender hierarchies that many women had
expressed discontent for throughout the time period. These issues went largely ignored until after World War I.
Key Concept 5.4 Global Migration
How did migrations in this period compare to earlier periods?
The number of migrants during this period was far greater than any other earlier period. This was the main difference between the migrations of
this period compared to earlier periods.
What were the main social, economic, and political causes and effects of this new age of migration?
Some causes of this new age of migration included the new nature of transcontinental and oceanic empires, with a global capitalist economy.
Some people migrated for a betterment of social and/or economic situation, while others were forced to migrate as commodities. Some effects of
this migration was the peoples needing to adapt to the new society they migrated to, as well as a challenge to governments in fostering national
identities and regulating the flow of people.
How did the Industrial Revolution affect migration patterns during this period?
Migration in many cases was influenced by changes in demography in societies that presented challenges to existing patterns of living. For
example, the rise of industrial cities caused many migrants to migrate from their current locations to cities in search for jobs.
What were the causes of world population growth?
The population grew rapidly due to the rise of cities, new agricultural and food production techniques, and improved medical conditions.
How did new modes of transportation affect migration?
New modes of transportation caused people to relocate to cities. This allowed global urbanization to continue throughout the nineteenth century.
Why did people migrate?
People migrated for a variety of reasons; some were forced to migrate, others were forced to escape religious and/or political persecution, while
others still migrated voluntarily to better the societal/political/economical position.
What were the economic motives behind migration?
Many people migrated to better their economic standing; the migration to different nations, as well as cities, offered jobs and economic
opportunities for many to start earning, including women and entire families.
What types of migration were voluntary vs. involuntary?
There were many voluntary migrations, usually from workers or specialized craftsmen, who migrated to better their standing in society. However,
there were many involuntary migrations as well; the global economy relied on slavery as well as Chinese and Indian indentured servitude.
How permanent were migrations?
There were many permanent migrations, where people left their lives from one nation to move to another one to start anew. However, some
migrations were temporary or seasonal who returned to their home societies. An example of this is the Japanese farmers who migrated to
various places in the Pacific.
What were the social consequences and reactions to 19th century migrations?
There were a large amount of social consequences to 19 th century migrations. Among these were a change in gender roles, new ethnic
neighborhoods and cultures, and social/racial prejudices against the migrants from the receiving societies.
How were gender roles affected by migration?
Many jobs and labor demanded a high amount of physical work; due to this, a majority of the migrants were male. Women were left to take on
new roles and jobs at home that had been occupied by men previously, leaving women to be more affiliated with tending to the household.
How did migrants preserve and transplant their culture in their new homes?
Migrants transplanted their culture by forming cultural communities (more prevalent in urban populations) in their new homes. They preserved
their new culture through these communities and networks. Some examples include the Irish and Italian housing in city suburbs such as Boston
and New York, or “Chinatowns” prevalent in these urban centers as well.
How did receiving societies react to the new presence of foreign migrants?
Many receiving societies did not take kindly to the presence of foreign migrants. Socially, the receiving populace often discriminated against
these racial groups. Politically, many governments attempted to regulate the flow of foreign migrants into their countries (utilizing policies such as
the Chinese Exclusion Act).
Period 6: Accelerating Global Change and Realignments, c. 1900 to present
Key Concept 6.1 Science and the Environment
How did science affect humans’ conception of the natural world in the 20th century?
What new technologies and discoveries affected communication, transportation, and conceptions of the
How did scientific discoveries affect humans’ ability to feed and care for themselves?
What new energy technologies affected the 20th century?
How did humans’ relationship to the environment change in the 20th century?
What negative consequences in the 20th century accompanied the benefits of industrialization?
What caused some of the major demographic changes in the 20th century?
How did the invention of reliable birth control affect gender roles?
How did new military technology affect wartime casualties?
Key Concept 6.2 Global Conflicts and their Consequences
Why did older, land-based empires decline and/or collapse?
Many colonies in the Americas rebelled against their imperial overlords in Europe, which created many new nations in Northern and
Latin America, including the United States
● Repeated effort to rebel against colonizers gradually wore down imperialist motivations. Nations realized less profits from colonies.
Moreover, resistance efforts became more organized and forceful
● World War I and II took attention away from colonies, so imperialists were more willing to give up their lands.
● Better education, humanitarian, and cross-cultural pollination lessened the racism against colored people.
What new movements challenged the status quo during the age of imperial rule?
● The spread of democracy from France and America to many other rising regions of the world decreased the strength of dictators in the
world.
● Nationalism and self-identity gave native people a common bond and an impetus to overthrow their controllers in order to establish
their own sovereignty.
Who helped lead and define these movements?
● Charismatic and influential leaders own spurred nationalistic efforts to rebel. These often began as small, localized movements. If
support was given, they eventually evolved into national movements for independence. These could be frustrated common farmers,
rogue imperialistic officials, or religious leaders.
● Examples include Gandhi of India, Nelson Mandela of South Africa, Kemal Atatürk of Turkey, Juan Domingo Perón of Argentina, Ho
Chi Minh of Vietnam, and Lawrence of Arabia.
What new identities were used to unite populations spread across national borders?
● The most common identity was one of ethnic unity among the peoples of a colonized region. A conflict would be pitted between the
natives and the foreign colonizers based on skin color, language, culture, and motives.
● Appeals to democracy, religion , and economic motives also played a role in overthrowing many controllers.
What ideologies were often used to “undo” imperialism?
● Ideologies that contradicted imperialism included racial equality, self-determination, capitalistic freedom, national identity, and
democracy for the people of a nation.
How were colonial peoples affected by the change of old colonial boundaries?
● Many times, the colonies would often be economically and politically weaker immediately following liberation. The old control of
production, export, and rule left a void of power. Without any established control of the economy and guaranteed markets for goods,
economies often fell into hardship. This situation also allowed many dictators and radical leaders to take the reins, often worse than the
original colonizers. However, over time many freed areas established their own industries, democratic governments, and identities.
Still, many third-world countries lag the world today because of lingering effects from colonialism.
How were relationships between imperial powers and former colonies maintained after the end of those empires?
● Most often, trading relationships reemerged. Colonizers still needed the goods of their former markets, so liberated nations still
exported their products under their own conditions. After a few years of isolation, the relationships were usually amiable and based on
trade.
●
What circumstances contributed to genocide and mass refugee populations?
People thought that they could make the world a better place by getting rid of supposedly inferior peoples to gain more territory for their own
culture. This may have been due to advances in the understanding of genetics.
How did the World Wars affect the nature of war and the relationship of the government to their populations?
● Entire population participated in total war, producing weapons and materials for war
● The line between civilian and soldier was blurred
● Governments created programs for their civilians to help out in the war effort
● Many governments across the world were involved, even if not directly connected to the original conflict.
● Government played a bigger role in people’s lives with social programs, education etc.in the process of restoring countries after the
war.
What ideologies motivated the World War conflicts?
● Communism / Dictatorship/ USSR
● Capitalism / Democracy/USA
● ideas about racial and cultural superiority
How did the world’s balance of power change during the Cold War?
● USA and USSR became the dominant super powers, confronting each other in smaller countries over political ideology
● Europe was weakened politically and economically
● Many colonized countries became independent as a result of nationalism and a weakened Europe
What were the Cold War’s military consequences?
● The existence of nuclear weapons created tension and fear with a threat of mass destruction never before seen
● USA’s military became the dominant military force in the world and was present across multiple countries. They began to “police” the
world.
What caused the Cold War to end?
Russia gave in as impoverished communist countries realized that capitalism was a better path to prosperity.
How did various reactions to the violence of the 20th century compare?
Protests, counterculture and boycotts are all examples of how people reacted to violence in the 20th century. Protests were typically non violent.
Boycotts were when people decided not to buy a certain thing because it disagreed with their moral consciences. Counterculture twas just a
dissenting voice against what the government was doing at the time.
How did the anti-war and non-violence movements respond to the century’s many wars?
● war protests
● counterculture
● boycotts
What alternatives were offered to the economic, political, and social social status quo?
● Utopias
● Fundamentalist extremes
● Regular society
How did reactions by governments and militaries affect the degree of conflict during the 20th century?
Governments and militaries contributed to increased tensions between countries. Arms races and competition played a large role.
Why did some movements use terrorism for political purposes?
● Extreme fundamentalism led them to look down upon secular societies
● Terrorism could strike fear into the accepted dominant societies
How was popular culture affected by the global conflicts?
During the wars, propaganda and media built support, but strong anti-war movements formed protests and counterculture.
Key Concept 6.3 New Conceptualizations of Global Economy, Society, & Culture
What new governmental institutions emerged as a result of the 20 th century conflicts?
-Global:
-United Nations
-League of Nations
-European Union
-World Trade Organization
-World Health Organization
-UNESCO
-UNICEF
-National:
-USA: “The New Deal”, NASA, various conservation administrations
-Russia: dissolution of USSR and formation of Russia Federation
What made these new institutions possible?
·
Various conflicts: World War I and II, Cold War
·
Global warming
·
New communication technology
·
Willingness to cooperate
What role did they play in the world during the 20th century?
·
They enabled the world to establish standards (ie. Weapon control, limits on dangerous emissions from the Kyoto Protocol)
·
Attempted to settle conflicts through peaceful negotiation
·
Technology race
How did new international organizations affect the relationship of states and peoples around the world?
·
European Union: United the countries of Europe and unified them under one currency
·
United Nations: Allowed for intervention of one country in to another country’s affairs in an attempt to help the people who
may be suffering under a country’s rule
·
Globalization: economies as well as culture
What were the economic effects of new international organizations? Humanitarian effects?
·
Promoted more trade relations between nations
·
Establishment of one single currency in the European Union
·
UNESCO helped to create global goals of erasing poverty and increasing communication across the globe
·
UNICEF distributed vaccines to underdeveloped African nations
How did international trade and commerce develop in the 20th century?
·
The collapse of many European states after World War II called for the establishment of a united Europe, which was
accomplished by the European Union.
·
After World War II, there was an era of superpowers, nations such as US, China, and the Soviet Union, that dominated global
trade.
How did these economic developments affect the distribution of world resources?
·
The rise of the superpowers saw that many raw resources were concentrated in the hands of the very powerful nations
What new social and cultural ideologies developed, and what were the consequences and reactions to these ideologies?
·
Radical government ideologies: Communism, Nazism, Fascism, Anarchism
o
Fear of these nations that support those ideologies
o
The United States attempt to spread democracy in an effort to stop the spread of communism
·
Human rights
o
Establishment of international organizations that promoted human rights
·
o
o
·
o
o
Accepting more scientific practices
Greater focus on education in schools
Ex. Greater understanding of genetics/DNA, human subconscious, quantum physics, linguistics, etc.
Counterculture
Increased number of protests (especially from college students) due to increased awareness of global/national issues
“Hippie” culture
How did communities of faith respond to the rapid changes in the 20 th century?
·
The increase in scientific practices and Darwin’s Origin of Species and theories of evolution caused conflict between science
and religion
·
The factuality of religion was put into question
·
In wake of the poor social conditions, some turned to faith
o
Gandhi led movements to achieve peace and freedom from the British hold on the Indian colony
How did the global nature of culture affect sports, music, fashions, and the arts?
o
The increase of an international culture led to the establishment of the Olympics which brought together nations in sports
competitions
o
The Beatles became a worldwide sensation, which led to globalization of music
o
Modernism, cubism, futurism and postmodernism became art movements that were accepted by global community