NATIONALITY, ETHNICITY AND CONFLICT: WHAT IS NATIONAL IDENTITY? WHAT
IS ETHNICITY? ARE THE TWO DISTINCT?
Introduction
Every person desires to be identified with a particular group of people or a state giving
them a sense of belonging. This regardless of whether a person is from a particular cultural
background, historical origin, sharing the same family ties or due to economic and social-cultural
similarities. In history, humans are deemed to share a common ancestry with similar cultures,
history having a sense of solidarity with one another. The notions of ethnic identity and national
identity are premised by defining what is identity? According to Katzenstien (1996) identity is
defined as a ‘cognitive schema which one constructs images and attributes as a set of meanings
to oneself while taking the perspectives of others (Katzenstien, 1996). On the other hand identity
is considered as being a psychological phenomenon where one has feelings about oneself, goals,
character and origins determining who they are in a situation or position and the roles they play
within a societal setting (Wendt, 1994). Thus, national identity and ethnic identity may be
considered as ways in which individuals identify with a particular community, tribe, clan, village
or a nation. This may be considered as bonds that ties people from the same territory together.
This paper focuses on nationality, aspects of ethnicity and a discussion on whether the concept of
ethnicity and national identity are similar. It discusses ethnicity and national identity within the
precepts of the Sudan and South Sudan conflict that is mainly caused by national identity.
Brief Background of the Situation in South Sudan
Sudan prior to the split into Sudan and Southern Sudan was one nation made up of
different ethnic groups. Northern Sudan was occupied by Arab Muslims who considered
2
themselves as being more superior to the rest in terms of ethnicity and religious identity by virtue
of being Muslims and being Arabs. The South Sudanese at that time occupied the Southern
Sudanese territory a mixture of Sudanese Christians and other ethnic groups that did not ascribe
to the Islamic faith. The fact that Sudan was a state, the Northern and Southern communities
clashed due to their separate identities whereby the Northern government sought to dominate the
other ethnic groups and religiously purify the nation and create an Arab state.,
The problem in Sudan is therefore considered as having been caused by different factors,
but the predominant cause is the clash of different ethnicities and historical differences caused by
the slave trade, traditional enemies and colonisation (Bestwick, 2004). The fact that there existed
different ethnic groups in South Sudan made it difficult to establish a state which led to civil war.
The dominant ethnic group in the Northern Sudanese attempted to assimilate the other ethnic
group creating prejudice amongst the existing ethnic groups. The end of the civil was only
achieved after a referendum vote was cast in 2011 and South Sudan was created as a State
separate from Sudan.
In regards to the Sudan conflict, then identity either ethnic or national plays an important
role in creating cohesion within a particular state. It is the way in which a sense of belonging is
achieved in the modern society.
National Identity
In defining national identity, then one has to define a nation. A nation may be defined as
a geographically segregated group of people sharing or believing that they share the same
national identity (Miller, 2000). According to Smith in his book titled ‘National Identity’ (1991)
he defines a nation as ‘a named human population sharing the same historic territory, common
3
myths, memories, public culture, a mass, the common legal rights, the same economy and the
same duties for all its members (Smith, 1991 p. 14). It is from these definitions that one can
infer that the characteristics of a nation having a public culture, it may have the same legal rights
and duties impacted on all its members separated by the common laws and customs and may
have the same economy (Guibernau, 2004). In the modern day definition of a nation then one
would consider a nation as having a cultural community, it is a political institution and it is
subject to transformations over a period of time. In regards to the Sudan situation, then one
identifies themselves in an international setting as being Sudanese because this is their country of
origin regardless of whether they are from the North or South.
In Smiths view a national identity on the other hand, refers to ‘a political community,
territory, common values and traditions, citizenship, patria and history (Smith 1991). National
identity is therefore defined by the nation having similar or common culture the same civic
ideologies, with a common understanding, ideas, sentiments that binds the entire population.
National identity is considered the identity of a person, a sense of belonging to a particular state
or a nation that shares common ideals.
In the world according to William Robin (2003) the world has recognised cultural
groupings, minorities with about 6000 languages documented. In any country there are different
politicised groupings that trickle down to small ethnic groupings. Ethic identities and ethnicities,
though not universal are considered the simplest form of identity in any social cultural grouping.
The membership of a particular nation entitles one to certain rights and responsibilities imposed
by that particular state. National identity, according to Miller (2000) is considered to be a
valuable form of membership because it shapes individual identities, values and opinions about
justice.
4
The theories propounded by scholars that the theories of origins of nations are a four.
Firstly, the nationalist theory which posits that nations are direct descendants of ancient ethnic
groups (Smith, 1998). The pernnialist theories view nationalism as having arisen from a stable or
an ancient unit with social cohesion (Smith, 1998). This is because prior to the creation of a
nation, citizens owed allegiance to their clan, tribe, region or village. The global perspective of
nationality is that humans are divided into groups that are called a nation. When one invokes
national identity, then one means identifying oneself with a particular collectively called a
nation.
Ethnicity
In defining what is ethnicity, one has to know the characteristics of ethnicity that is an
ethnic grouping must have a cultural distinctiveness, that is the language, food preferences,
songs, their dances, taboos, games and literature (Williams, 2003). The second characteristic;
whereby a person forms part of a member of a group by virtue of their birthright (descent) and
through marriage (Williams, 2003). An ethnic group may also be defined as having originated
from the same historical homeland, they have a distinctive occupation in terms of geographic
concentration and segregation, a different type of treatment of the other ethnic groups, memories
of a common past, claims of autonomy and resistance of invasion from outsiders (Williams,
2003). The simplest definition of ethnic identity may be based on individuals having the same
recognisable set of characteristic united by heritage and blood.
Ethnic identities in most instances manifest itself through cultural practices for instance
the Chinese –‘Chinese food’, the ‘German ‘language that simply shows the distinction between
particular cultural practices and institutions. The consequences of ethnic groupings may be the
5
creation of political institutions such as a state impacting directly on international relationship. In
the Sudan situation an ethnic identity is constructed through identifying oneself with religion that
is Islamic or Christianity.
How does one approach ethnicity? In understanding ethnicity one must understand the
theories of ethnicity. According to Adrian Hastings there are three forms of ethnicity theories;
primordialist, instrumental and constructive theories (Hastings, 1997). The primordialist theory
asserts that ethnicity is determined and fixed at birth and therefore ethnic identification is based
on a deep attachment to a particular ethnic group or culture (Hastings, 1997). Instrumental
theorists believe that ethnicity arises out of historical and symbolic memories that is created by
leaders in pursuit if their own interests (Hastings, 1997). The constructive theorists assert that
ethnic identity is not something possessed by anyone but it is a feature of construction based on
the social and historical context in order to further one’s own interests (Hastings, 1997).
Is there a distinction between the two concepts?
National identity is considered as a form of collective identities, whether it is based on
language, religion, region or a race. National identity compared to ethnic identity is a politicised
form of ethnic identity because different ethnic groups or one ethnic group decide to adopt a
common political identity and this is no longer created on the basis of cultural or social
differentiation. For instance, in understanding the context of Bosnia-Herzegovina a nation may
refer primarily to the people and not the political state where there is only one race and ethnic
groups and religions overlap (Katzeinstein, 1996).
There is no distinction between national identity and ethnicity when it comes to
identifying one’s self with a particular state or particular groups. Ethnic identity and national
6
identity are aspects of individual identification. A self-conscious ethic group, according to
Williams (2003) may be creating a state, especially when an entire nation is formed by one
ethnic group. Thus, in distinguishing between national identity and ethnicity one has to consider
the fact that nationality arises when there is a commonly shared ideology that is supported by a
common social movement in support of a nation. Thus, national identity arises when persons of
different ethnic groups or similar ethnic groups agree to share the same form of national identity
by virtue of their geographical location and similarities in their historical backgrounds.
National identity, according to Williams (2003) may arise due to the maintenance of a
strong bond between the ethnic groupings existing within a particular territory. These bonds of
national identity may be formed through common occupational positions, the phenotypical
characteristics, and concentrations within a residential area or shared participation in common
institutions. National identity may therefore arise out of different ethnic groups merging to form
a nationality in what Williams (2003) defines as ethno-nationalism.The Sudanese conflict is an
example of ethno-nationalisation where the dominant Arab ethnic groups consider themselves as
being superior to the other ethnic groups; assert their authority over the other ethnic groups
hence creating a form of ethno-nationalism. This may also imply that ethnic identities may be
manipulated through a political process in order to destabilise nations or seek autonomy over
other ethnic groups that are less aggressive.
Ethnic nationalism or ‘Etna-nationalisation’ is a doctrine that emanates from the belief
that the particular members of an ethnic group are a nation, that arises out of their own rights to
own a particular piece of land, and those who are not from that particular place do not own such
lands. For instance, one may allude to the colonisation uprising in most of the African countries
where liberalisation movements were founded on the basis that intruders had occupied their land.
7
However, one distinct notion of national identity is founded on the basis that it is not linked to
the fact that the nation is the original homeland of specific groups.
Ethnic tensions are a common feature in most nations; however, this does not erode the
existence of national identities (Crawford, 2007).
The manipulation of ethnic identities
compared to national identity is much higher because ethnic manipulation causes separation
mainly caused by political processes. Conflicts such as those witnessed in Sudan since 1985 are
bound to arise within a nation where the different ethnic groups fail to have the same ideals,
share the same religion and same historical background fail to come to terms with living together
as a nation.
In regards to ethnicity, change is an important variable, especially when it comes to
interactions of different ethnic groups at different levels. For instance, in cases where due to
internal or external forces, different ethnic groups interact either culturally or socially, and this
may lead to changes in the ethnicity and ethnic identities of a person. This is because due to the
existence of different boundaries, ethnic groups may merge, may disappear, may be assimilated,
they may fade due to division due to linguistic, religious or racial influences (Williams, 2003).
The effect of cultural interaction may lead to the loss of ethnicity, which may become a symbolic
aspect with national identity, becoming the main way of identifying a particular group. Ethnic
integration in a national setting may occur due to immigration and intermingling over a
substantial period of time and through assimilation and accommodation on daily basis, and then
this may erode the boundaries between different groups leading to integration of cultures.
National identity as compared with ethnic identity is not subject to gradual weakening
because nationalisation of national identity means that a state has achieved a sense of political
8
autonomy. This, according to Williams implies that in many states ethnicity does not form the
core of national identity. This is because different ethnic groups occupy the same land and
conflicts is no longer part of the social-economic framework and a state turn into a multi-ethnic
nation,
In conclusion, national identity and ethnic identities gives individuals a sense of
belonging to a particular nation or ethnic groups. Though scholars argue that these two notions
are constructive, psychological and abstract, they give individuals a sense of belonging. Ethnic
identity is a variable that is subject to change when an ethnic group becomes assimilated or
gradually interacts with other ethnic groups and loses its identity. A nation is made up of
different ethnicities; however, there are instances where a nation is made up of only one ethnic
group. Sudan is an important example of what happens when different ethnic groups fail to stay
together as a nation. Conflict and wars are a feature of instances where nationalism fails due to
ethnic differences.
9
REFERENCES
Adrian Hastings, The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion, and Nationalism
(Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 1.
Bestwick, S. (2004). Sudan’s Blood Memory: The legacy of war, ethnicity and slavery in south
Sudan.(Rochester: University of Rochester Press NY, 2004).
Crawford B. Globalization and Cultural Conflict: An Institutional Approach. In H. Anheier and
Y. R. Isar (Eds.), The Cultures and Globalization Series: Conflicts and Tensions, (pp. 31-50).
(Thousand Oaks CA: Sage, 2007).
Giberbnau Monsterrat . Anthony D. Smith on nations and national identity: a critical assessment.
Nations and Nationalisms(2004) 10, 2, pp. 125-141
Katzenstein, P. (Ed.). (1996). The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World
Politics.(New York: Columbia University Press, 1996).
Miller D. Citizenship and National Identity(Polity, 2000)
Robin M. Williams, Jr. The Wars Within: People and States in Conflict (Ithaca, 2003), Chap. 1:
“The Multiple Realities of Ethnicity,” 11-33.
Smith Anthony D 1991 National Identity . London: Penguin
10
Smith Anthony D, Nationalism and Modernism: A Critical Survey of Recent Theories of Nations
andNationalism (London; New York: Rutledge, 1998), 8.
Wendt, A. Collective Identity Formation and the International State. American Political Science
Review (1994) 88, 384 – 96.