Threat
Reference
Consequence
Proposed mitigation
Habitat
Turner et al. 1994; Williams-
Increased extinction risk
Permanently protected
fragmentation and
Linera 1995; Cribb 1997;
through population decline,
habitat either in National
destruction
Roberts and Wilcock 2005; Kull
reduced distribution, small
Park or legislatively
and Hutchings 2006; Arenas et
population sizes and genetic
protected private property
al. 2007; Hundera et al. 2013
consequences
Vale et al. 2013; Andersen et al.
2014; Chung et al. 2014; Crain
and Tremblay 2014
Herbivory
Whigham 1990; McKendrick
Reduced fecundity,
If present: fencing, caging
1995; Winkler and Mehltreter
longevity of plant-life and
and/or animal control
2005; Erickson et al. 2006; Faast
reduced distribution.
and Facelli 2009; Wonkka 2010;
Light and MacConaill 2011;
Zettler and Zettler 2012
Weeds and
Lym 2005; Duncan et al. 2005;
Competition
Brundrett 2007; Swarts and
Reduced distribution.
If present: suitable
spraying or hand weeding
Dixon 2009
Threat to pollinator/
Hutchings 1989; Parra-Tabla et
Reduced pollination rates or
Ensure pollinator presence
pollinator decline
al. 2000; Vereecken et al. 2010;
lack of pollination.
and size of habitat reserved
Barman and Devadas 2013
is both intact and
large>100 Ha
Illegal
Yokoi and Milliken 1991;
Increased extinction risk,
Increase community
Collection/over
Ramsay and Stewart 1998; Alacs
reduced distribution, small
awareness/involvement
collection
and Georges 2008; Seaton et al.
population sizes and genetic
and legislate
2010; Subedi et al. 2013;
consequences
Ghorbani et al. 2014; Kreziou
2015; Phelps and Webb 2015
Small population
Li and Ge 2006; Chung and
size
Chung 2007; Pierce et al. 2010
Inbreeding depression
Ensure seed is sourced
from as wide a range of
Threat
Reference
Consequence
Proposed mitigation
plants as possible, if
needed outcross between
populations to improve
population fitness
Fire
Cropper and Calder 1990; Cook
Varying response from
Insure appropriate fire
1991; Lunt 1994; Lunt 1997;
increasing risk of extinction
management of area
Coates et al. 2006; Coates and
to infrequent fires
Duncan 2009; Jasinge 2014
decreasing presence of
flowering
Pathogens
Petit and Dickson 2005;
Reduced fecundity
Ballantyne and Pickering 2012
Use phytosanitary and
hygiene protocols for both
propagation and reintroduction to minimise
chances of disease.
Climate Change
Liu et al. 2010; Swarts and
Potentially leading to
Use PVA and climate
Dixon 2009; Koopowitz and
reduced distribution and
information to predict
Hawkins 2012; Barman and
extinction
suitable future areas for re-
Devadas 2013; Seaton et al. 2013
introductions