Page 1 of 20
Small Pelagic Fish and Squid
Identification of Contemporary Issues and Risks Paper
Have your say
This paper, Identification of Contemporary Issues and Risks associated with the harvest of small
pelagic fish and squid in the Northern Territory (NT), is an opportunity to contribute to the
development of a management framework for the harvest of these species. At this early stage no
decisions have been made on what treatments could be applied to best address risks or what the
preferred options will be to deal with issues.
This paper is intended to assist the Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (DPIF) identify
issues that will need to be addressed in the development of a management strategy, including
harvest/decision rules, for sustainable harvesting of small pelagic fish and squid. The issues that
are raised in this paper are not exhaustive.
All interested members of the community including non-government organisations, industry and
members of the public are invited to contribute by providing written submissions on the issues
canvassed in this paper and/or other relevant matters. You do not have to comment on all aspects
of the issues paper; you may wish to comment only on those aspects of interest to you. Equally,
your submission need not be limited to the issues raised in the paper; comments on any other
matter that you believe would aid the process are welcome.
You are encouraged to include a description of how the issue/s affect the harvest of small pelagic
fish and squid, and suggest possible treatments that could be applied to best address the issues
and risks; wherever possible include evidence and/or examples to support your argument. When
making your submission you should include:
 any of the issues raised in this paper that you consider a priority;
 any of the issues raised in this paper that could benefit from additional context or
information or for which there is a differing explanation/viewpoint to that provided in this
paper;
 future research and information needs;
 additional issues that require consideration that are not raised in the paper;
Note: submissions provided on matters outside the scope of the paper may not be considered.
Your comments on the issues and risks associated with the harvest of small pelagic fish and squid
will be used, in consultation with an advisory group, to develop a draft management framework for
the harvest of small pelagic fish and squid.
Send your submission by email to kate.simpson@nt.gov.au (the preferred option).
Or you can post it to:
Small Pelagic Fish and Squid
Fisheries
Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries
GPO Box 3000
Darwin NT 0801
Submissions should be received by COB 30 August 2013.
Submissions received after this time will be considered only to the extent practical but cannot be
assured any formal consideration.
Page 2 of 20
Acronyms
AFZ
Australian Fishing Zone
CITES
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
DPIF
Department of Primary Industry and Fisheries
ESD
Ecological Sustainable Development
DEPM
FTO
GPS
Daily Egg Production Model
Fishing Tour Operator
Global Positioning System
IUU
LENS
Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated
List of exempt native specimens
NCMRN
North Commonwealth Marine Reserves Network
NPF
NRFS
NT
Northern Prawn Fishery
National Recreational Fishing Survey
Northern Territory
OCS
Offshore Constitutional Settlement
ONLF
SPSMAG
Offshore Net and Line Fishery
Small Pelagic and Squid Management Advisory Group
TACC
Total Allowable Commercial Catch
TEPS
Threatened, Endangered and Protected Species
Page 3 of 20
1. Purpose of the Paper
The Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries (DPIF) is exploring the potential for developing
a formal management framework to harvest squid and small pelagic fish, namely herring,
pilchards, sardines and anchovies.
The proposed steps in this process include:
1. Public release of a paper identifying the issues and risks associated with the harvest of
small pelagic fish and squid
2. Formation of an Advisory Group to prepare a draft management framework
3. Public consultation on the draft management framework prepared by the Advisory Group
4. Finalisation and approval for the management framework
The purpose of this paper is to identify and provide information about issues and risks associated
with the harvest of small pelagic fish and squid in waters adjacent to the Northern Territory (NT).
These can then be addressed in the development of a management strategy for sustainable
harvesting of these species.
To achieve this, the key objectives are:
1. Undertake preliminary consultation with stakeholders
2. Prepare a paper that identifies key issues and provides the basis for discussion by the soon
to be formed multi-sector Small Pelagic and Squid Management Advisory Group
(SPSMAG) to develop future management arrangements for the sustainable harvest of
these species
The preliminary work completed to date includes:





exploration of fishing gears suitable for the harvest of small pelagic fish and squid;
a desktop review of the available biological information on small pelagic and squid species;
a desktop review of small pelagic fisheries in Australia;
a departmental workshop to discuss risks and issues associated with the harvest of small
pelagic fish and squid; and
initial discussions with key stakeholders regarding future directions for harvesting small
pelagic fish and squid in the NT.
2. Scope of the Paper
This paper is focused on the policy, operational, administrative, research and compliance issues
associated with the ecologically sustainable harvest of small pelagic fish and squid using proposed
fishing gears in a NT context.
Specific issues associated with access to the fishery, setting of Total Allowable Commercial Catch
(TACC) and licensing arrangements of a potential managed fishery are not within the scope of this
paper. These details are proposed to be underpinned by scientific assessments and developed
with the assistance of a broad-based advisory group tasked with providing considered advice to
the Director of Fisheries.
3. Background
The Fisheries Division of DPIF works to conserve, sustainably develop and share the NT’s fish and
aquatic resources to benefit both current and future generations.
Small pelagic species are important to the commercial, recreational and Indigenous fishing sectors
as a source of bait, for livestock and aquaculture feed, and increasingly, for human consumption
(Sands et al 2009). Small scale fishing trials harvesting small pelagic species have been
conducted off the NT coast since 1999 and research scientists have identified as many as 20
potential target species of small pelagic fish and squid, many of which are popular food species
both locally and overseas.
Page 4 of 20
The fishing trials conducted to date have been undertaken in a conservative manner with specified
conditions of operation, including permitted gear types and fishing areas. Permitted gear types
have included purse seine, lift and drop nets with length, drop and mesh size restrictions (Table 1).
Fishing activities have been permitted offshore with purse seine activities restricted to waters
greater than 15 nautical miles (nm) from the coastline (Table 1).
Table 1 SPDF gear restrictions and characteristics
Constraints
Lift Net
Drop Net
Purse seine
Spatial
three nautical miles
(nm) from the coastline
to the outer boundary of
the Australian Fishing
Zone (AFZ)
three nm from the
coastline to the outer
boundary of the AFZ
15nm from the coastline
to the outer boundary of
the AFZ
Equipment
Diameter/ longest
length ≤ 30 m
Diameter/ longest
length ≤ 30 m
Length ≤ 400 m
Mesh ≤ 25 mm
Mesh ≤ 25 mm
Drop ≤ 40 m
Drop ≤ 15 m when
suspended from centre
Drop ≤ 15 m when
suspended from centre
Deployed using a
mechanical device
designed to lift the net
vertically through the
water
Deployed using a
mechanical device
designed to drop the net
vertically into the water
Mesh ≤ 30 mm
Our understanding of small pelagic species in the NT, their role in the marine ecosystem and the
impact of fishing has increased over the past 10 years. The fishing trials and monitoring trips have
enabled fisheries to collect data related to catch and effort, species composition, interactions with
Threatened, Endangered and Protected species (TEPS), bycatch, and baseline biological
information for selected species. Details of the identified small pelagic fish and squid species are
provided in Appendix A.
There is expected to be significant potential to develop a small pelagic fishery adjacent to the NT in
a manner that is ecologically sustainable, optimises returns to the community and minimises
conflict between resource users. The primary aim is to develop a long term and ecologically
sustainable food-supply fishery to meet increasing demand coming from national and international
markets. The supply of fresh bait to local markets in the Territory and interstate is an important
secondary objective to avoid the use of imported baits.
In investigating this potential, the following policy, operational, administrative, research and
compliance issues, along with any other identified issues, will need to be considered and
addressed in the development of a management framework.
4. Policy Issues
4.1.
Sustainability
Ecological sustainability of Australia's fisheries is essential not only for long-term species and
ecosystem viability but also to underpin economic sustainability (DEWR 2007). Small pelagic fish
tend to form large schools and are characterised by a small body size, rapid growth, early maturity
and high fecundity (Pikitch et al 2012). Populations of small pelagic fish have been shown to be
strongly dependant on environmental conditions and as such populations can fluctuate significantly
over time (Alder et al 2008; Pikitch et al 2012). In several regions of the world high fishing levels
and variable recruitment influenced by environmental factors has resulted in stock and fishery
collapses (Sands et al 2009). Although our understanding of small pelagic species in the NT, their
role in the marine ecosystem and the impact of fishing has increased over time there is still
insufficient information to make a formal quantitative stock assessment. Fisheries agencies in
Australia are committed to incorporating the principles of ecological sustainable development
Page 5 of 20
(ESD) in the management of fisheries resources and there is now a national ESD reporting system
for all Australian fisheries (Fletcher et al 2002).
4.2.
Public perception
Social research has identified a generally negative community perception of commercial fisheries.
These community concerns are largely around environmental issues such as bycatch and
discarding, as well as the ability of governments to effectively manage and ensure the
sustainability of commercial wild-catch fisheries, particularly in light of fishery collapses overseas
(Aslin and Byron 2003).
The development and management of fisheries benefits from good collaboration and
communication between stakeholders. Positive public perception of commercial fisheries is
essential for the support and development of economically valuable local businesses and to
prevent the loss of available markets. Negative public perceptions can arise when impacts of a
fishery are seen to be poorly addressed. Good communication and best available science will be
needed to address concerns and perceptions related to the harvest of small pelagic fish and squid.
Areas of concern may include:
 Sustainability – the scientific knowledge of the species and impact of fishing is incomplete;
 Ecosystem impacts - the small pelagic species targeted form the basis of the marine food
web and are a critical food source for larger fish, marine mammals and seabirds;
 Fishing gear – the use of a purse seine net is an efficient and consistent method of catching
target species, but may also catch non-target species and/or TEPS such as sailfish and
dolphins and has the potential to interact with habitats if used inappropriately;
 Resource conflicts – the fishery resource (albeit indirectly) with regard to small pelagics and
marine environment is already shared among many users.
4.3.
Commonwealth arrangements
4.3.1. Offshore Constitutional Settlement (OCS)
Australian fisheries are defined as those fisheries falling within the Australian Exclusive Economic
Zone, which extends to 200 nm from coastal baselines. To simplify jurisdiction, boundaries have
been developed assigning management responsibility to the State, Territory and/or Commonwealth
Governments. State/ NT laws apply to coastal waters (up to 3nm) and Commonwealth laws apply
from those waters out to the limit of the Australian Fishing Zone (AFZ; 200nm) unless there is an
Offshore Constitutional Settlement (OCS) arrangement to determine otherwise (DAFF 2013).
The OCS provides a framework for the States/Territory to either manage fisheries resources in all
adjacent waters, pass management responsibility to the Commonwealth, or alternatively, for the
Commonwealth and the States/Territory to come together and jointly manage a fishery. Currently
fisheries OCS arrangements are in place with all states and the NT. They have been negotiated on
the broad concept that localised fisheries adjacent to a state should be managed by the state, and
the Commonwealth should manage fisheries occurring off more than one state or where there is
involvement of foreign fishing boats (DAFF 2013).
The OCS arrangement relevant to the harvesting of small pelagic fish and squid is the
arrangement between the Commonwealth and the NT in relation to the fishery for fish and other
aquatic life resources in waters relevant to the NT, gazetted in 1995 (NTG 1995). This
arrangement includes all species of fish of the Class Osteichthyes (bony fish) and aquatic life
including all species of aquatic invertebrates, with specified exceptions, and provides for the
harvesting of these fish to be managed in accordance with the law of the NT.
4.3.2. Marine Bioregional Planning
Marine bioregional plans have been prepared under section 176 of the Environment Protection and
Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act) for the South-west, North-west, North and
Temperate East marine regions in Commonwealth waters around Australia (SEWPaC 2012).
The North Marine Bioregional Plan describes the marine environment and conservation values of
the region, identifies and characterises the pressures affecting these conservation values,
identifies regional priorities and outlines strategies to address them, and provides advice to
Page 6 of 20
decision-makers and people planning to undertake activities in the North Marine Region in relation
to some of the region’s conservation values (SEWPaC 2012).
Under the EPBC Act, any action that has, will have or is likely to have a significant impact on a
matter of national environmental significance requires approval from the environment minister.
There are currently eight matters of national environmental significance protected under the EPBC
Act including the Commonwealth marine environment. A number of pressures related to fishing
activities including extraction of living resources, bycatch and marine debris have been identified
as a concern in the North Marine Region. Advice from the Commonwealth is required as to
whether further assessment and approval are required under the EPBC Act to harvest small
pelagic fish and squid.
4.3.3. Marine Reserves
In 2012, the Australian Government established 40 new Commonwealth marine reserves around
Australia building on existing marine reserves. The North Commonwealth Marine Reserves
Network (NCMRN) protects 157 483 km2 of Australia's marine area through eight separate
reserves (Figure 1; SEWPaC 2013a).
Figure 1 North Commonwealth Marine Reserves Network (SEWPaC 2013)
The NCMRN was established in 2012 and was proclaimed for the purpose of protecting and
maintaining marine biodiversity, while allowing for the sustainable use of natural resources in
appropriate areas. A management plan has been developed as required under the EPBC Act and
will come into effect on 1 July 2014. In the interim period, transitional arrangements involve no
changes on the water for marine users. That is, there are no changes to management
arrangements in the marine reserves that existed prior to the establishment of the new reserves
(SEWPaC 2013a).
Under the EPBC Act, commercial fishing operations (being actions for commercial purposes that
involve the taking, killing, injuring, moving or keeping of native species) are prohibited in the
NCMRN unless done in accordance with the NCMRN Management Plan. Commercial fishing
operations in the NCMRN are also subject to regulation under the Fisheries Management Act 1991
or State/Territory fisheries laws (under arrangements made under Part V of the Fisheries
Management Act). In the Commonwealth marine reserves these laws apply to the extent that they
can operate consistently with the EPBC Act and Regulations, and the NCMRN Management Plan
(SEWPaC 2013a).
Page 7 of 20
All activities require approval to be undertaken in marine reserves. Approvals are provided in the
management plan or through class approvals or individual permits. Commercial fishing using a
purse seine or lift net is listed as a permitted activity in special purpose and multiple use zones
(SEWPaC 2013a). The assessment for these gear types was based on other commercial fisheries
and as such a further risk assessment may be needed of the fishing gears used to harvest small
pelagic fish and squid. Drop nets have not been assessed and as such are not currently permitted
in the NCMRN. To be included in the class approval for commercial fishing activities in the
NCMRN, the proposed gear types will need to be assessed and approved by the Commonwealth.
4.3.4. Export accreditation
In Australia, the export and import of wildlife and wildlife products is regulated under the EPBC Act.
The export, for commercial purposes, of an Australian native wildlife specimen (unless exempt)
and/or CITES-listed specimen, must come from an approved program such as a wildlife trade
operation. A wildlife trade operation is an operation taking specimens that meets legal
requirements, such as a market testing operation, a small-scale operation, a developmental
operation, a commercial fishery, a provisional operation or an existing stocks operation (SEWPaC
2013b).
Wildlife trade operations are made through an instrument signed by the Australian Government
environment minister and published in the Australian Government Gazette. The minister may
specify the period, the circumstances or the conditions under which the operation will be subject in
the declaration. Approval is for a maximum of three years (SEWPaC 2013b).
Applications are assessed against the requirements of the EPBC Act. The assessment and
approval process usually takes around three months if an application is satisfactory and contains
all supporting documentation. To export small pelagic fish and squid to overseas markets, an
application for a wildlife trade operation will be required.
There is also the list of exempt native specimens (LENS) that are exempt from export regulations.
The list includes only specimens that are, or are derived from, Australian native animals and
plants. Specimens listed can be endorsed to trade for up to five years without a permit (SEWPaC
2013b).
5. Operational Issues
5.1.
Target and byproduct species identification
Target species have so far not been specifically defined due to the developmental and explorative
nature of the fishing activities. Information collected to date suggests that schools are often a
mixture of species rather than a single species. This may be influenced by the fishing methods
trialled to date which have used light to attract target species rather than advanced sonar
technology to directly target schools. Catch compositions have the potential to change over time as
fishing methods develop and become more efficient.
Further consideration needs to be given to the selection of target species and byproduct species
and the potential for this to vary over time. Influencing factors include catch proportions, market
prospects and current management arrangements (if any). The primary and byproduct species
considered for this fishery are provided in Appendix A.
5.2.
Fishing methods/gears
There are three gear types trialled to date to target small pelagic fish and squid species including
lift, drop and purse seine nets. Results from fishing trials to date show the purse seine to be the
most effective approach in terms of kilograms per set hour (Figure 2). The purse seine net has
been identified as a key requirement for the harvest of these species to be economically viable.
Page 8 of 20
Figure 2 Overall catch per unit effort by gear type (1999-2012)
A general description of the gear types used are as follows:
Lift nets consist of a horizontal netting panel or a bag with the opening facing upwards (Figure 3).
The nets are generally hauled out mechanically with several long poles used off the side of the
boat to keep the net open. Bait or lights are used to attract fish (FAO 2013).
Figure 3 Lift nets (FAO 2013)
A drop net is a form of falling gear. A net is dropped down on the species to be captured and is
generally used for harvesting schools of fish swimming near the water surface (FAO 2013; Figure
4).
Light
Vessel
Figure 4 Drop net
Page 9 of 20
Purse seine is made of a long wall of netting framed with floatline and leadline (usually, of equal or
longer length than the former) and having purse rings hanging from the lower edge of the gear,
through which runs a purse line made from steel wire or rope which allow the pursing of the net
(FAO 2013; Figure 5). Generally it is the most efficient gear for harvesting schools of pelagic
species.
Figure 5 Purse seine net (FAO 2013)
These nets are not necessarily very selective in terms of the species and size of fish caught,
particularly when lights are used to attract fish. The use of lights attracts a large range of species
increasing the risk of non-target species being caught. There is the possibility of interactions with
TEPS and other species of importance when using the proposed fishing gear. Operational
techniques such as avoidance of non-target species, releasing nets, short duration of shots etc.
can be used to minimise the risk of interactions with TEPS and other species of importance
Due to the characteristics and operation of the three gear types there is generally no impact on the
benthic habitat. The exception to this is when the water depth is less than the height (or drop) of
the purse seine during fishing operations, which can result in the lower edge of the gear making
contact with the sea floor. The North Marine Region contains unique sea floor features with
ecological properties of regional significance that must be considered when defining gear types.
5.3.
Interactions – TEPS and non-target species
Fisheries researchers on monitoring trips have assessed the potential for TEPS and other
important species interactions when harvesting small pelagic fish and squid. Based on the gear
and operational practices trialled to date, the risk of interaction has been assessed as low
(Johnson 2012). Several factors have been identified that reduce the likelihood of interaction with
TEPS and other important species including:
 the relatively small size of each of the gear types previously used;
 short shot durations;
 small mesh sizes for each gear;
 sufficient opportunity for TEPS to escape due to unrestricted access to the surface during
hauling; and
 active avoidance of shark and mackerel schools by fishers due to the potential for costly net
damage.
Although the risk of interaction appears to be low, some TEPS and other species have been
recorded on occasion. Table 2 provides a summary of reported interactions with TEPS and other
non-target species for the period 2007– 2012.
Page 10 of 20
Table 2 TEPS and other species interactions (2007-2012)
Species Group
Species
No. of interactions
Comments
Sea snakes
75 sea snakes released
alive from 35 interaction
events (7.5%)
Sea snakes have often been sighted in
the areas where the fishery operates.
These were sometimes captured in the
purse seine net but either escape over
the float line before the catch is hauled
aboard or are removed and released
alive without harm to the animal.
Turtles
1 turtle released alive
(<0.5%)
A single turtle has been reported as
released alive from a lift net.
Sharks
6 sharks1 released alive
from 6 interaction events
(1.5%)
Sharks have been caught in both lift
and purse seine nets.
Devil Rays
12 rays released alive from
3 interaction events (0.5%)
Devil rays have been caught in both
drop and purse seine nets.
Dolphins
No direct interactions (0%)
Dolphins were observed around the
vessel during a monitoring trip in 2009,
but interaction was avoided by moving
to a different fishing ground.
Sailfish
Limited interactions with
these species have been
reported (<0.5%)
Sailfish have been observed to be
trapped inside the purse seine, which
was opened allowing the fish to be
released alive.
Mackerels
(Spanish, Grey)
Interactions with these
species have been reported
with low numbers captured
in the nets. It has also been
observed that on occasion
larger numbers have been
caught (14.0%)
Unlike most other species, Mackerels
appear to die in the net before they
can be released as they tend to get
their sharp teeth caught in the fine
mesh.
Limited interactions with
these species have been
reported (1.0%)
These species typically survive capture
and can be released alive.
Marine reptiles
Sharks and rays
Whales and
other cetaceans
Other important
recreational and
commercial
species
Trevally
Queenfish
5.4.
Localised depletion
It is important for fishing operations to spread effort to avoid localised depletion. Small pelagic
species are generally found in large, highly mobile aggregations and considered by some to be
less susceptible to localised depletion than resident fish populations (Buxton et al 2012). However,
this tendency to aggregate increases the ability of fishers to detect and catch these species using
modern acoustic and aerial techniques (Pikitch et al 2012).
It is a requirement for all fishing operators to provide fisheries officers with catch, location and effort
data. This is done through logbook reporting with Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates,
date, time and species composition information recorded for fishing operations. Species specific
data may not be sufficient to identify areas of localised depletion. Logbook data, while providing
some information on species distribution and catch rates, provide insufficient information on areas
of naturally low abundance, or areas of high abundance which may be targeted more frequently.
1
Not all records detail the type of shark – some records indicate that the shark captured was a blacktip shark
Page 11 of 20
5.5.
Ecosystem impacts
Based on the information collected from the fishing and monitoring trials, ecosystem-level impacts
are considered low at this point in time for the following reasons:
 harvest volumes have been low;
 relatively low catch rates have been spread across a variety of species;
 a low level of commercial fishing activity has been spread over a large geographical area;
 there has only been a single operator in the fishery;
 the gear used does not interact with the seafloor.
Ecosystem-level impacts could be expected to increase as the fishing operations develops through
an increase in the number of operators, catch rates or catch volumes of individual species.
Consistent with the principles and strategies of ESD, the ecological risk assessment process is a
method used to identify and address all potential risks and consequences on the ecosystem. The
impact on the ecosystem will need to be assessed and consideration given to how to minimise
ecosystem impacts.
5.6.
Discarding and wastage
In commercial fishing operations all animal material returned to sea, whether alive or dead, are
referred to as discards, with the amounts of fish discarded often highly area and gear specific
(Kelleher 2005; Zeller and Pauly 2005). The catch composition from fishing trials undertaken to
date indicate that most catches are a mixture of species rather than a single species. In multispecies fisheries where there are often price differences between the different types of fish and the
quality of fish, discarding of lower value fish may occur to maximise profits (referred to as high
grading).
The fishing gear and processing methods may also influence the amount of discarding and
wastage. Depending on size, purse seine nets have the capacity to harvest a lot of fish each time
the net is deployed and where the capability of the vessel does not match the harvest capacity, this
may result in significant amounts of wastage. Where species cannot be immediately frozen and
processed on board, there is a further risk of damage or spoiling before the product can be
unloaded and sold.
5.7.
Cryptic mortality
Small pelagic fish species are typically frail and mortality is often high as a result of the harvesting
process. Most small pelagic fish that make contact with fishing gear and escape, or come into
contact with other fish will not survive (Freon et al 2005). For other species, there is little scientific
information available on the survivability of released or discarded species, resulting in unaccounted
or cryptic mortality which has not been quantified. It is unknown whether some species are more at
risk than others to mortality after release. Handling practices may contribute to cryptic mortality by
causing unnoticeable damage to fish being hauled on board. Once released, these fish may have
reduced capacity to capture prey or avoid predation.
Ghost fishing occurs when lost gear such as nets continue to passively catch fish, mammals and
protected species. The ‘amount’ of fish caught by lost gear can greatly depend on many factors.
For example, the effect of lost nets can greatly depend on the size of the net (or ‘catch’ area), how
long the net stays on the surface, how far it is carried by winds or currents, how long it takes to
degrade, and how quickly the catch area is reduced through the entanglement of marine
organisms so that the net becomes visible to other marine life. The amount of fish and other
animals which will have been "caught" can be very difficult to estimate.
5.8.
Resource sharing conflict
5.8.1. Fishing Area
NT marine waters are shared by a range of traditional, commercial and recreational users. The
permitted area of operations for commercial fishing activities is generally restricted to NT marine
waters, as declared in the Petroleum (Submerged Lands) Act 1967. Further restrictions can apply
depending on the fishery and any other declared uses, such as marine parks. Three different
Page 12 of 20
fishing gears have been used to harvest small pelagic fish and squid. During fishing trials, drop and
lift nets have been permitted in waters extending 3 – 200 nm from the coastline while purse seine
net has been permitted in waters extending 15 – 200 nm from the coastline. The proposed area of
operation, considering all users, needs to be determined for any future harvesting of small pelagic
fish and squid.
5.8.2. Recreational fishers and Fishing Tour Operators (FTO)
In 2009-10 a comprehensive assessment of recreational fishing in the NT was undertaken
following two previous surveys conducted in 1994-95 (Fishcount) and in 2000-01 (The National
Recreational Fishing Survey (NRFS; Coleman 2004)). The 2009/10 survey found that NT residents
spent an estimated $51 million on goods and services related to recreational fishing during the 12month survey period, of which $47 million (92%) was directly attributable to recreational fishing –an
average of over $1500 per fisher (West et al 2012).
The Fishing Tour Operator (FTO) industry is an important contributor to the Territory’s tourism
sector with approximately 70% of FTO clients being visitors from interstate or overseas, bringing
new money into the economy. A recent valuation of the NT guided fishing industry for the three
years 2008/09 - 2010/11 indicates the estimated average value of production is over $15 million
per year. The total economic impact of the sector for the same three year period is estimated at
over $26 million per year, with approximately 80% ($22 million) attributable to spending by
interstate and overseas tourists (NTG 2012).
The 2000-01 NRFS found that only around 6% of recreational fishing occurs in offshore waters (>5
km from the coastline). This is supported by the 2009-10 recreational fishing survey of NT
residents that found 8% of recreational fishing activity occurred in offshore waters. The offshore
nature of harvesting small pelagic fish and squid, suggests that direct interactions with the
recreational and FTO sectors are likely minimal.
While large pelagic fish, including Spanish Mackerel (Scomberomorus commerson), have been
targeted by recreational fishers for a number of years, billfish (particularly Indo-Pacific sailfish,
Istiophorus platypterus) are now being more frequently targeted by recreational and FTO sectors.
As the number of boats travelling offshore to target these species increases, so do the chances of
recreational fishers interacting with the commercial fishers. A small number of captures (and
subsequent live release) of sailfish have previously been recorded and there exists a risk that
direct capture of sailfish and possibly other billfish species in the purse seine gear may occur.
5.8.3. Other commercial fisheries
Although the small pelagic fish and squid harvested to date are not species targeted by other
fisheries, it has interactions with a number of existing managed fisheries in NT waters. These
include the Commonwealth Northern Prawn Fishery (NPF) and Tuna and Tuna-like Fisheries, the
NT Jigging Fishery (squid), Spanish Mackerel Fishery, Offshore Net and Line Fishery (ONLF), and
other NT fisheries which are permitted to use restricted bait nets to harvest baitfish for their fishing
operations (e.g. Demersal Fishery and Mud Crab Fishery).
The Commonwealth NPF identifies squid as a “minor byproduct species” and has undertaken risk
assessments to determine the potential impact of the NPF on squid species. A 500 tonne (t)
trigger limit has been set for squid, though this trigger has not been reached as squid catches in
the NPF in 2011 were reportedly only 4.8t (Barwick 2011).
The Commonwealth fisheries for Tuna and Tuna-like Fisheries include the Western Tuna and
Billfish Fishery, Western Skipjack Fishery and the Southern Bluefin Tuna Fishery. The area for
these fisheries encompasses large areas of the AFZ including waters adjacent to the NT. The main
tuna fishing grounds are in the south particularly in the Great Australian Bight. Some small-scale
collection of bait occurs in both the long line and purse seine fisheries targeting tuna and tuna-like
species. The OCS agreements impose bycatch limits upon operators to ensure that species which
are managed through State or other arrangements are not taken in commercial quantities. Several
of the bycatch species listed under the OCS arrangement have been identified as potential target
species for fishing operations harvesting small pelagic fish and squid.
The NT Jigging Fishery, although inactive for over 10 years, targets the same squid resource as
that targeted during recent small pelagic fish and squid fishing trials. The Jigging Fishery consists
Page 13 of 20
of a single licence that is conditionally transferable. The licensee will be consulted on any proposed
changes to squid harvests. Given the behaviours of tropical squid species and limitations of the
fishing gear, catches of squid in the Jigging Fishery are not expected to increase dramatically over
the coming years, although they will increase when the operator recommences fishing.
During recent fishing trials there has been some bycatch of Grey Mackerel and shark, which are
targeted in the ONLF, and Spanish Mackerel which is targeted in the Spanish Mackerel Fishery.
Further analysis is required to better understand whether bycatch of these managed species is an
issue when using all three gear types considered for the harvest of small pelagic fish and squid.
These species cannot be retained as they are part of other existing managed fisheries with effort or
catch already fully allocated (or in the case of the ONLF catch allocations are under review).
Information reported in logbooks show that incidental interactions often occur with small numbers
of fish. On occasion larger numbers have also been caught. For example, the November 2009
monitoring report noted that 600 kg of Grey Mackerel were caught in the purse seine. Low
numbers of Spanish Mackerel have also been caught on a number of occasions in the purse seine
and lift nets. High mortality is common in Mackerel bycatch and their capture is generally avoided if
possible due to the damage they cause to the fine mesh nets that have been used in the fishing
trials.
Some licence holders in the other managed fisheries, as noted above, are entitled to use restricted
bait nets to source their own bait (generally mullet and garfish). The impact on these fisheries is
likely to be low as they are required to use different gear, are limited to inshore fishing areas and
target different species. Demersal Fishery licence holders have previously indicated that they
would like to discuss the potential replacement of restricted bait net (which can only be used within
3nm of the coast) for the right to gather bait offshore using a small purse seine or lift net.
The Demersal Fishery operates offshore from 15nm to the AFZ and there are two zones in which
finfish trawl gear can be used. Operators using trawl gear interact with several of the same species
that have also been captured during recent fishing trials for squid and small pelagic fish,
particularly trevallies and scads. To date large, economically viable markets for these incidentally
caught species are not well developed and the majority are currently returned to the sea as
discards.
5.8.4. Indigenous Sector
Sea country is an important part of Indigenous culture, and it is understood to be regarded as sea
out to the horizon by traditional owners. Limited information exists on the harvest of small pelagic
fish species by Indigenous people. The offshore nature of the fishing activities to date and species
targeted make it unlikely that substantial catches are made by this sector but it does involve fishing
within sea country. Recently there has been interest in the development of an Indigenous small
pelagic fishery along the NT coast and in the Gulf of Carpentaria. This fishery is likely to target
different species such as mullet, garfish and whitebait and will use different gear but is likely to
target overlapping species to sell as bait. With the development of inshore fisheries and associated
processing facilities there may be opportunities to utilise shared processing facilities in indigenous
communities to assist commercial fishing operations in remote areas.
5.9.
Markets
There is an increasing demand coming from national and international markets for an ecologically
sustainable food-supply and many of the species caught in this fishery can be marketed for human
consumption. The demand for certified fish products is increasing and benefits of third party
accreditation can include continued/improved access to markets, product differentiation and market
segmentation and increased prices (UNEP 2000).
Other (less preferred) markets for small pelagic species beyond human consumption include bait
for commercial and recreational users and feed for primary industries. Ecological sustainable
harvest of the resource as well as consistent supply and quality at reasonable prices are all
important factors in the future harvest of small pelagic fish and squid.
Page 14 of 20
5.10.
Spread of aquatic and marine pests
Introduction of invasive aquatic animals and plants can have severe damaging effects to the
ecosystem and local fisheries and are almost impossible to eradicate. The latest Darwin Harbour
Marine Pest Monitoring survey found no species of invasive significance. While the greatest risk
may come from pests outside Australia, there is potential for pests from other States to be
unintentionally introduced or spread, particularly if operators are working in a number of fisheries
around Australia.
5.11.
Illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing
Illegal fishing is of high concern to all commercial fisheries and other fisheries sectors including
Indigenous, recreational and FTO. IUU fishing can not only threaten the sustainability of local fish
stocks but can also involve the targeting of TEPS and the use of unregulated gear. Custom and
Border Protection activities constantly monitor NT waters for illegal activity. Everyone is
encouraged to report any suspicious or illegal activities to the Fishwatch hotline.
6. Administrative Issues
6.1.
Funding
Resources, including adequate funding, are required for the effective administration of fishing
activities. Costs associated with fishing activities can include observer/monitoring trips, review,
processing and interpretation of data, research and compliance activities. Funding arrangements to
offset administrative, research and compliance costs will need to be considered in the future
harvest of small pelagic fish and squid.
6.2.
Monitoring, analysis and reporting
Monitoring and information gathering associated with fishing activities can include
observer/monitoring trips, mandatory catch and effort reporting, market returns, activity reports and
meetings with licence holders. This information can be collected by fishers, researchers or
managers, all of which then requires review, processing, interpretation and reporting. Monitoring,
analysis and reporting requirements need to be clearly defined and resourced for effective
management of fisheries resources.
6.3.
Recording and validation of data
The manual paper logbook system currently used by the Fisheries Division has a number of
limitations. Data is collected by licensees in the form of daily logbooks in which catch and effort is
recorded for each gear shot separately. These logbooks are required to be submitted monthly.
Incomplete and late returns are often an issue and considerable time and effort is required to follow
up with licensees, who may be ‘off-shift’ or have moved to other operations. Further to this there is
no method for verifying the accuracy of the data provided, for example, fishing locations cannot be
verified as vessels are not currently required to have fishing monitoring equipment on board.
Once received, recording of this data is a slow process due to the great amount of time required to
decipher and enter catch and effort data into an electronic database. Administrative costs are high.
There is often a significant time lag from when fishing is undertaken to when data is available for
analysis. Real time information is important for industry, managers and researchers to understand
the current status of the fishery.
7. Research Issues
7.1.
Scientific knowledge of small pelagic species
Small pelagic species form the basis of the marine food web, providing a critical food source to
larger fish, marine mammals and seabirds (Buxton et al 2012). The most comprehensive and
widely accepted guidelines for how small pelagic species should be managed have been set out by
the Lenfest Ocean Program (Pikitch et al 2012). The main recommendations are:
Page 15 of 20




fishing should be half the conventional rate or less and leave at least twice as many fish in
the ocean;
consider spatial and temporal management to avoid localised depletion;
tailor management to available information, establish tiers and reduce risk and uncertainty
with increased knowledge;
manage forage fish with predators in mind rather than focusing only on the target species.
Small pelagic fish and squid species currently have low exploitation rates in Northern Australia and
only limited (if any) research has been conducted on key biological indicators for management
including stock size, distribution, mortality rate and fecundity. Current knowledge of the small
pelagic species targeted in the NT is based on literature reviews, reported catch and effort data
and information gathered from a series of monitoring trips. There is a lack of dedicated research on
most species, and the known biological parameters are based on mean values from small data
sets or derived from similar species. This proves difficult in determining sustainable catch
estimates and TACC for species.
7.2.
Biological data collection and stock assessment
The collection of empirical data specific to the NT is important for developing valid stock structure
and potential harvest models that will minimise the impact on wildlife and ensure long term
sustainability. There is an obvious absence of data derived from the NT and broadly across
northern Australia. In general, there is not enough information from catch and effort data and
corresponding species biology to build meaningful stock structure models or to inform a daily egg
production model (DEPM) to estimate biomass. A DEPM is an important tool for the estimation of
biomass and hence for setting harvest rates and reducing the risk of significant impacts on the
ecosystem. A research plan has been developed to better inform the development of future
management arrangements.
8. Compliance Issues
Demands and conflicting priorities, combined with large geographical distances and limited staff
numbers, impinge on the current ability of the NT police to conduct regular checks of on-water
fishing activities. In addition, the offshore nature of fishing operations is likely to require regular
monitoring to ensure compliance with conditions of operations.
8.1.
Offloading of product outside of the NT
The offloading of product at intra- or inter-state ports may increase the potential for product to be
unloaded, undetected and unaccounted for through reduction in the opportunity for inspection
when unloading. During the fishing trials all product was unloaded in Darwin. For future fishing
activities, the nature of the vessels used and processing capabilities may result in offloading of
product to other ports within the NT, Queensland or Western Australia.
8.2.
Capacity to effectively monitor fishing activities
At-sea compliance checks can be costly and difficult. Fishers are often constantly in motion,
moving from area to area making both random and targeted compliance checks and vessel
surveys to verify catch, effort and appropriate gear usage almost impossible. Limited compliance
capacity, especially across fisheries and jurisdictions limits the effective and efficient validation of
data related to catch, effort, interactions and appropriate gear usage and the ability to enforce
fishing regulations.
9. Conclusion
This paper, and subsequent feedback, is intended to assist DPIF identify the issues that will need
to be addressed in the development of management arrangements for the harvest of small pelagic
fish and squid. The issues that are raised are not exhaustive and the public consultation period is
intended to provide stakeholders with the opportunity to provide input to the development of the
management framework.
Page 16 of 20
No decisions have been made on the future management for the harvest of small pelagic fish and
squid. This paper aims to promote discussion and feedback on areas that may be important for
future management arrangements. Comment is open to all members of the public who are
interested in contributing to the fishery development process. DPIF welcomes written submissions
on the issues canvassed in this issues paper or other relevant matters.
Please be aware that submissions provided on matters outside the scope of the fishery
development process are welcome, but may not be considered in this initial phase of work. Not all
issues raised will necessarily be addressed in any new policy.
Page 17 of 20
10. References
Alder, J., Campbell, B., Karpouzi, V., Kaschner, K and Pauly, D. (2008). Forage Fish: From
Ecosystems to Markets, Annual Reviews in Environment and Resources 33:153-166.
Aslin, H, J. and Byron, I.G. (2003) Community perceptions of fishing: implications for industry
image, marketing and sustainability, Project No. 2001/309, Canberra, Australia.
Barwick (2011) Northern Prawn Fishery Data Summary 2012.NPF Industry Pty Ltd, Australia.
Buxton, Begg, Lyle, Ward, Sainsbury, Smith and Smith (2012). The Commonwealth Small Pelagic
Fishery: General background to the scientific issues, Australian Fisheries Management Authority
(AFMA) Website, viewed 29 April 2013.
Coleman, A. P. M. (2004). The National Recreational Fishing Survey: The Northern Territory.
Department of Business, Industry and Resource Development Fishery Report 72.
DAFF (2013). Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (DAFF) Website, viewed 17 June
2013.
FAO (2013) Fishing Gear Types, Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) Website, viewed 20
June 2013.
DEWR (2007). Guidelines for the ecologically sustainable management of fisheries – 2007,
Department of Environment and Water Resources, Canberra, Australia.
Fletcher, W.J., Chesson, J., Fisher M., Sainsbury, K.J., Hundloe, T., Smith, A.D.M. and B.
Whitworth (2002) National ESD Reporting Framework for Australian Fisheries: The 'How To' Guide
for Wild Capture Fisheries. FRDC Project 2000/145, Canberra, Australia.
Freon, P., Cury, P., Shannon, L. and Roy, C. (2005) Sustainable exploitation of small pelagic fish
stocks challenged by environmental and ecosystem changes: a review. Bulletin of Marine Science,
76(2):385-462.
Johnson, G. (2012). Small Pelagic Development Fishery NT Fisheries Monitoring Report – Final
Observer Report May 2009 – May 2012.
Kelleher, K. (2005). Discards in the World’s Marine Fisheries, An update. FAO Fisheries Technical
Paper 470, Rome.
NTG (1995).Arrangement between the Commonwealth and Northern Territory in relation to the
fishery for fish and other aquatic life resources in waters relevant to the Northern Territory, The
Northern Territory Government Gazette No. 57, 1 February 1995.
NTG (2012). Fishery Status Reports 2011. Northern Territory Government Department of
Resources, Fishery Report No. 111.
Pikitch, E., Boersma, P.D., Boyd, I.L., Conover, D.O., Cury, P., Essington, T., Heppell, S.S.,
Houde, E.D., Mangel, M., Pauly, D., Plagányi, É., Sainsbury, K., and Steneck, R.S. (2012). Little
Fish, Big Impact: Managing a Crucial Link in Ocean Food Webs. Lenfest Ocean Program.
Washington, DC. 108 pp.
Sands, A., Summerson, R., Stobutzki, I. and Williams, R. (2009). Estimating catches of small
pelagic species in eastern Australian fisheries, Australian Government Bureau of Rural Sciences.
SEWPaC (2012). Marine bioregional plan for the North Marine Region, Commonwealth of Australia
2012.
SEWPaC (2013a). North Commonwealth Marine Reserves Network Department of Sustainability,
Environment, Water, Population and Communities (SEWPaC) Website, viewed 6 May 2013.
SEWPaC (2013b). Wildlife Trade Operations SEWPaC Wildlife Trade Operations, viewed 19 June
2013.
Smith, Anthony D. M., Brown, Christopher J., Bulman, Catherine M., Fulton, Elizabeth A.,
Johnson, Penny, Kaplan, Isaac C., Lozano-Montes, Hector, Mackinson, Steven, Marzloff, Martin,
Shannon, Lynne J., Shin, Yunne-Jai and Tam, Jorge. (2011) Impacts of Fishing Low–Trophic Level
Species on Marine Ecosystems, Science Vol. 333, 26 August 2011.
Page 18 of 20
West, L. D., Lyle, J. M., Matthews, S. R., Stark, K. E. and Steffe, A. S. (2012). Survey of
Recreational Fishing in the Northern Territory, 2009-10. Northern Territory Government, Australia.
Fishery Report No. 109.
Zeller, D. and Pauly D. (2005). Good news, bad news: global fisheries discards are declining, but
so are total catches. Fish and Fisheries, 2005, 6, 156-159.
Page 19 of 20
Appendix A
Small pelagic fish and squid species identified from DPIF monitoring trips (2009-2012)
Species
Scientific Name
CAAB
Code
Primary species
Herrings, sardines,
anchovies etc.
Mackerel
Spotted Sardine (Northern Pilchard)
Amblygaster sirm
37085006
Smallspotted Herring
Herklotsichthys lippa
37085008
Goldstripe Sardinella
Sardinella gibbosa
37085013
Slender Sardine
Dussumieria elopsoides
37085010
Ditchelee
Pellona ditchela
37085009
Mouth Mackerel
Rastrelliger kanagurta
37441012
Loligo spp.
23617907
Frigate Mackerel
Auxis thazard
37441009
Mackerel Tuna
Euthynnus affinis
37441010
Herring undifferentiated
Clupeidae, Pristigasteridae undifferentiated
37085000
Dorab Wolf Herring
Chirocentrus dorab
37087001
Hairfin Anchovy
Setipinna tenuifilis
37086008
Longjaw Thryssa
Thryssa setirostris
37086004
Indian Anchovy
Stolephorus indicus
37086006
Oxeye Scad
Selar boops
37337008
Finny Scad
Megalaspis cordyla
37337028
Barred Yellowtail Scad
Atule mate
37337024
Fringefin Trevally
Pantolabus radiatus
37337047
Black Pomfret2
Parastromateus niger
37337072
Pickhandle Barracuda
Sphyraena jello
37382004
Striped Barracuda
Sphyraena pinguis
37382001
Yellowtail Barracuda
Sphyraena obtusata
37382007
Great Barracuda
Sphyraena barracuda
37382008
Oxeye Herring
Megalops cyprinoides
37054001
Razor Moonfish
Mene maculata
37340001
Toothed Ponyfish
Gazza minuta
37341007
Milkfish
Chanos chanos
37142001
Spinycheek Grunter
Terapon puta
37321006
Barred Longtom
Ablennes hians
37235001
Flying Fish undifferentiated
Exocetidae
37233000
Squid
Squid
Bycatch / byproduct species
Mackerels and tunas
Herrings, sardines,
anchovies etc
Scads, pompanos,
jacks, trevallies etc
Barracudas
Others e.g. tarpons,
moonfish
2
These species are bycatch species under OCS arrangements for tuna and tuna like species with a trip limit for NT
concession holders of no more than 10 fish.
Page 20 of 20