Chapter 7
 Early Cultures
 Egypt
 Warriors trained
 Dancing was valued in religion
 China
 Only the military class valued physical development
 India
 Yoga, a system of meditation and regulated breathing
 Homeric Era
(prehistoric time to 776 B.C.)
 Homer’s Iliad — describes the funeral games in honor of Patroclus
 Homer’s Odyssey — includes the story of Odysseus on the island of the Phaeacians
 Aristocratic sports — warrior skills displayed in sports by noblemen
 Individual events only
 Informal
 Spontaneous
 Prizes given
 Events
 Chariot racing  Boxing
 Wrestling  Javelin
 Foot racing  Discus
 Development of the Greek Ideal
 Man of Action — sports skills and military prowess and
 Man of Wisdom — development of mind and philosophical abilities

 Emulated the Greek gods who were believed to have superior intellect and physical
capabilities
 Spartan Era
(776 B.C. to 371 B.C.)
 Early years they had freedoms and cultural activities
 Man of Action later took over with an emphasis on military supremacy
 State controlled life and education
 Girls were trained at home in gymnastics to bear healthy children
 Boys
 Raised at home until age seven and trained by mothers
 Between ages 7-20 males stayed in barracks training for military; were in companies of 64
boys with one leader and later in 4 companies or a troop; discipline was severe
 Between ages 20-30 males were in the military
 At 30 years, males became citizens and married
 Between ages 30-50, males trained boys in barracks
 Narrow-minded society (conquering); at one time, 9,000 Spartans to 250,000 captives
 In the early years, the Olympic Games were dominated by the Spartans (46 of 81 victories)
 Early Athenian Era
(776 B.C. to 480 B.C.)
 Developed into a liberal, progressive, and democratic city-state
 Greek Ideal of the unity of the Man of Action and the Man of Wisdom
 Athenian education
 Moral (character) training at home for both girls and boys
 Girls at home got no intellectual and practically no physical training
 Boys
 Raised at home until seven, but sometimes went with fathers to the gymnasiums

 If could afford formal education
 Palaestra — place for physical training, sometimes called a wrestling school
(the teacher was called a paidotribe)
 Didascaleum — place for intellectual training, sometimes called a music school
 Males became citizens at 18 years
 Between ages 18-20 males were subject to military service (always had to be ready for war)
 Citizens — physical work-outs and intellectual (philosophical) discussions at the state-
furnished gymnasiums
 Late Athenian Era
(480 B.C. to 404 B.C.)
 Military successes in the Persian Wars led to freedoms, individualism, and self-confidence
 “Golden Age” (443 B.C. to 429 B.C.) — cultural explosion as Man of Wisdom was stressed and
Man of Action ignored
 Loss of interest in physical development
 Intellectualism
 Decline of Athenian military interest and involvement (no longer soldiers)
 Replacement of citizens by mercenaries
 Hellenistic Period
(323 B.C. to 146 B.C.)
 Under Alexander the Great — all Greek city-states united
 Diffused Greek culture throughout his empire
 Olympic Information
 www.perseus.tufts.edu/Olympics/
 http://www.museum.upenn.edu/new/olympics/olympicorigins.shtml
 Pan Hellenic Festivals

Greek Athletic (Crown) Festivals
Festival
Olympic
Pythian
Isthmian
Place
Olympia
Delphi
Isthmia
Honored
Zeus
Apollo
Poseidon
Wreath olive bay pine
Interval
4
4
2
Founded
776 B.C.
582 B.C.
582 B.C.
Nemean Nemea Zeus
 Ideals Depicted through Greek Athletics wild celery
 Appreciation of the aesthetics of beauty of movement
 Beautiful body matched with beautiful deeds
 Respect for courage and endurance
2
 Reverence for the gods
 Emphasized honor, modesty, and fair play
 Opposed one-sided development
 Love of competition — man against man for superiority, not for records
 Olympic Games
(776 B.C. to about 400 A.D.)
573 B.C.
 Held every four years in honor of Zeus and the Olympic Council of gods
 Cultural interaction between city-states
 Competitors and spectators (up to 40,000) were guaranteed safe passage (truce) through
warring city-states
 No women at Olympic Games except for those who were in charge of the sacrifices
 Competitor Regulations
 Required to be a Greek citizen
 Could be from any social class
 Required to train 10 months

 Required to train the last month at Olympia under the supervision of judges
 Pledged an oath of fair play
 Competed in the nude
 Events
 Footraces — how started; turning post
 Stade — the length of the stadium or about 200 meters
 Diaulos — 2 stades
 Dolichos — 24 stades
 Wrestling — standing; the winner must throw his opponent to the ground three times before
being thrown three times
 Pentathlon—All-around athlete
 Race of 1 or 2 stades
 Javelin — 8-10 feet to test both distance and form (with leather thong)
 Long jump using halteres
 Discus — using 1-foot diameter and 4-5 pound stone thrown from a fixed position
 Wrestling — always the deciding event
 Other Events
 Boxing — with leather thongs on hands
 Confined blows to the head
 No weight classifications
 Loser had to give up
 Chariot racing— 12 laps around 500-meter hippodrome
 Horse racing— (1-6 laps)
 Pancratium — combination of boxing and wrestling (loser had to give up)
 Boys’ events
 Races in armor

 Professionalism and specialization in athletics (citizens became spectators instead of
participants)
 Athletes sold their services to city-states and winners received cash, pensions, statues, and
triumphal processions at city-states
 Gymnasiums became pleasure resorts and places for philosophical discussions instead of
activity-filled centers; only professional athletes trained physically
Ending the Games: “The conquest of the Greeks by the Romans had a bad influence on the Pan-
Hellenic Games. Unable to value gymnastics as a means of attaining beauty, symmetry of body, grace, complete development and harmony of body and soul, the conquerors hastened the decay of the games which had already begun under the Later Greeks. Professionalism was encouraged, the more brutal and exciting sports came to be and bribery followed. The games ceased to have any connection
with general education; the moral values to be derived from friendly competitions disappeared.”
 Heraean Games
“Every fourth year there is woven for Hera a robe by the sixteen women, and the same also hold games called Heraea. The games consist of footraces for maidens. These are not all of the same age.
The first to run are the youngest; after them come the next in age, and last to run are the oldest of the maidens. They run in the following way: their hair hangs down, a tunic reaches to a little above the knee and they bare the right shoulder as far as the breast. These too have the Olympic stadium reserved for their games, but the course of the stadium is shortened for them by about one-sixth of its length. To the winning maidens they give crowns of olive and a portion of the cow sacrificed to Hera.
They may also dedicate statues with their names inscribed upon them.”
 Roman Republic
(@500 B.C. to 27 B.C.)
 Freedoms for people under aristocratic oligarchy; more democratic
 Moral and military training — superior to intellectual attainment
 Goal was to become a citizen-soldier
 Campus Martius and military camps —training for military (running; jumping; swimming;
javelin; fencing; archery; riding; marching)
 Ages 17-47 — could be drafted for war
 When not training or fighting, males and many females were spectators at festivals
 Roman Empire
(27 B.C. to 476 A.D.)

 Loss of individual freedoms; lessened emphasis on military prowess; hired mercenaries after
Romans had established the Empire; accompanied by a decay of morals
 Games and festivals (maybe as frequently as 250 days of the year)
 Staged for spectator entertainment for political purposes
 Professional athletes and gladiators competed for lucrative prizes
 Roman Empire (27 B.C. to 476 A.D.)
 Chariot races — usually 7 laps for a 3-mile event; the more brutal, the more popular; took
place at the circuses; the Circus Maximus had a capacity of 260,000 people
 Thermae or bathes — contrast baths with minimal exercise (except for the training of
professional athletes and gladiators); cultural centers; dining areas
 Middle Ages (11th to 16th centuries, especially 1250-1350)
 Chivalry — moral and social code for noblemen (to serve God, lord, and lady)
 Feudalism — protection and government
 Manoralism — economics
 Knightly training
 Until 7 years — training at home
 Page (7-14 years) — under the lady of another castle for general training
 Squire (14-21 years) — under the direction of the knight or lord for physical training
 21 years — could become a knight
 Middle Ages (11th to 16th centuries especially 1250-1350)
 Activities of the squire
 Attended the knight or lord of the castle as a valet and bodyguard
 Served his meals
 Assisted him in battle
 Cleaned his armor
 Learned knightly arts of riding; swimming; archery; climbing; jousting; wrestling;
fencing; courtly manners

 Learned responsibilities of knighthood
 Modern Pentathlon
 Shooting—fire 20 shots within 40 seconds each from a 10-meter distance using a 10-meter air
pistol and stationary targets
 Fencing—series of one-touch bouts with each competitor using epee swords with a single
touch deciding each match
 Swimming—a 200-meter free-style race
 Riding (equestrian show jumping)—involves jumping 12 hurdles (15 jumps) with over a length
of 350 to 450 meters
 Running—a cross-country race over uneven terrain and a distance of 3,000 meters
 Middle Ages (11th to 16th centuries especially 1250-1350)
 Tournaments — favorite amusements of the people
 Joust — combat between two armed horsemen with blunt weapons
 Grand tourney or melee —similarities to war with many men fighting with real
weapons
 Crusades — interrelationship between the physical and spiritual (1095-1200s)
 Renaissance (1400-1600)
 Artists depicted the human body as a revelation of beauty
 Health stressed to overcome epidemics
 Embraced the classical ideal of “a sound mind in a sound body”
 Reformation (1500s)
 Protestant sects relegated physical education to an inferior position and endeavored to curb
worldly pleasures
 Martin Luther and John Calvin were leaders in this movement
 Exercise was okay for health — in order to serve God better
 Protestant work ethic affected the United States


 Timeline: Middle Ages Enlightenment <-------------------------------> Reformation
<------Dark Ages------------------------------><---------------------------><-------------
476<------->1095<---------->1200s<-----------1400--------->1600<-------1700s
Crusades Renaissance
 The Enlightenment (1700s)
 John Locke
 Knightly activities for British gentlemen
 “A sound mind in a sound body” in 1693 in Some Thoughts Concerning Education
 The Enlightenment (1700s)
 Vittorino da Feltre (1378-1446), stressed the importance of intellectual, moral, and physical development, elevating physical education to a place of prominence. In his curriculum, he
used archery, fencing, riding, and martial exercises to help create the complete citizen.
 Francois Rabelais (1490-1553), help bridge the Humanist and Realist, he believed that physical
education should focus on teaching skills to prepare young gentlemen for war.
 Michel de Montaigne (1533-1592), held that the body and soul are equal, so the mind and body are to be educated simultaneously. He stressed thinking, learning by doing, developing
the whole person, and preparing students for life.
 The Enlightenment (1700s)
 John Comenius (1592-1670), a body-mind dualist, like John Locke, regarded play as essential
for children’s development, especially for ensuring healthy, vigorous bodies.
 Johann Pestalozzi’s (1746-1827), stressed the progression of learning from simple to the complex, importance of developmental readiness to learn, and use of children’s interest as an indicator of ability to understand. Daily physical exercise aided his students in achieving full
unity.
 Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852), believed in play as the highest phase of child development.
 Educational Naturalism (1700s)
 Jean-Jacques Rousseau
 Wrote Emile as a philosophical model
 Stressed “everything according to nature”

 Training of the body preceded formal intellectual training — best if both could
develop together naturally
 Stressed recreational, vigorous activity for children (natural activities)
 Readiness was the key concept
 German Gymnastics
 Johann Basedow — Philanthropinum — 1774
 Based on naturalistic principles from Rousseau
 Program — 1 hour in morning; 2 hours in afternoon; 2 hours of manual labor
 Fencing; dancing; riding; vaulting — Basedow
 Running; jumping; throwing; wrestling — Simon
 Johann Friedrich Simon — first physical education teacher
 German Gymnastics
 C.G. Salzmann (teacher at Philanthropinum) Schnepfenthal Institute—1785
 Patterned after the Philanthropinum and naturalism
 Program — daily for 3 hours
 Natural activities — running; jumping
 Greek-type activities — wrestling; throwing
 Knightly activities — swimming; climbing
 Military exercises — marching; swordsmanship
 Manual labor — carpentry; gardening
 German Gymnastics
 Johann Friedrich GutsMuths — 1786-1835
 Gymnastics for the Young — 1792 — foundation for physical education
 Games — 1796 — 105 games classified with skills
 German Gymnastics
 Friedrich Ludwig Jahn

 Half-holiday excursions in natural settings — based on GutMuths’ ideas
 1810 — Turnplatz (outdoor exercising ground) with vaulting bucks; parallel bars;
climbing ladders and ropes; balance beams; running track; wrestling ring
 Physical education was a means, not an end — the hope of German freedom lay in the
development of strong, sturdy, fearless youth for national regeneration
 German Gymnastics
 Common uniform to make all social classes equal (gray canvas smock and trousers)
 Working classes and lower middle classes predominately
 Initially open only in July and August; later open year round
 Individualized under Jahn
 Vorturners trained younger boys
 1819 — illegal (underground)
 1840 — legal
 1848 — illegal (underground)
 Adolph Spiess—German School Gymnastics (late 1840s)
 Stressed the essentially of physical education within schools
 Required exercise hall
 Trained instructors — established a normal school to train them
 Offered one class period per day
 Made physical education equal to other subjects by giving grades
 Adapted to age levels
 Provided for boys and girls
 Adolph Spiess—German School Gymnastics (late 1840s)
 Program
 Free exercise with music
 Marching with music and stressed discipline

 Little formalism in sports, games, and dancing
 Manual of gymnastics for schools
 Danish Gymnastics — Franz Nachtegall
 1799 — Established his private gymnasium based on the ideas of GutsMuths
 1804 — Director of the Military Gymnastic Institute — government financed and the first
normal school for physical education
 Theme — nationalism
 Formalized exercise on command with no individual expression allowed
 Equipment — rope ladders; climbing masts and poles; balance beams; vaulting horse (like
GutsMuths)
 Swedish Gymnastics
 Per Henrik Ling — founder of Swedish gymnastics
 1814 — Royal Gymnastics Central Institute — established by the government for military
purposes with Ling as director
 Four areas of gymnastics
 Military — national preparedness
 Medical — therapeutic healing
 Pedagogical — educational
 Aesthetics — expression of feelings
 Swedish Gymnastics
 Program — used to achieve an already established objective
 Posture correcting — rigidly held positions
 Movement on command into positions (no freedom of movement)
 Apparatus — stall bars; vaulting boxes; climbing poles and ropes; oblique ropes;
Swedish boom
 Swedish Gymnastics
 Hjalmar Ling — leader for the educational segment of the RGCI in 1840s

 Developed Swedish school gymnastics — based on Per Henrik Ling's principles
 Program
 Day's order — progressive, precise execution of movements on command (for
11 body parts)
 Adapted to age and ability levels
 Adapted to both sexes
 Adapted apparatus to children
 English Sports
 English sports movement in the public schools — for upper-class boys
 Students worked toward (and were) the highest ideal of British sportsmanship
 Influenced amateur sport worldwide and especially in the United States
 The best sportsman makes the best citizen
 Sports included rugby, association football, cricket, track and field, and rowing
 Attitudes toward Sports Held by Students in the Public Schools
 A "public-school" type boy was more a product of sports and games than of books and
scholastic training
 Physical fitness was not valued; instead, if one engages in sports, he will be fit; sports are just
a part of life
 Sports were played by those less specialized, therefore, the level of expertise will be lower
 Skills are seldom practiced because sports skills will be learned by playing
 Attitudes toward Sports Held by Students in the Public Schools
 Sports were mostly played between the houses with few spectators, although sometimes
interschool matches were held.
 Masters, out of school loyalty, acted as coaches.
 Upper-class males believed in “playing the game for the game's sake.”
 Sports were believed to teach socialization skills, leadership, loyalty, cooperation,
sportsmanship, self-discipline, and initiative.

 English Sports in the Universities
 Believed in informal, casual, and non-intense sports involvement — playing at their games
 Usually students played several sports
 (exception was rowing)
 No paid coaches — undergraduate captains
 No faculty involvement and support
 Purchased own equipment; paid own travel
 Association football and (field) hockey paid for the upkeep of fields for other sports
 Winning the “blue” was very prestigious (Oxford-dark blue and Cambridge-light blue)
 British Amateur Sports Ideal
 Learned moral values such as sportsmanship and teamwork, through sports
 Showed an upper-class snobbishness toward competing against those who might violate the
amateur tradition
 Developed muscular Christianity
“Since games are regarded in Great Britain as essentially play rather than work, the line between the amateur, the man who plays at his games, and the professional, the man who works at sport for financial profit, is strictly drawn in most branches of athletics, nominally drawn in all. The whole force of public-school and university opinion tends to keep this distinction constantly charged with meaning. Very few people depend upon school, college, or university sport for their livelihood, and those who are thus dependent are regarded not as leaders, but as employees. No person depends upon victory for his living. These facts, supplementing the traditions of the public schools, stimulate a conscious effort to prevent the commercialization of school and university sport and of amateur sport in general. Thus, the phrases ‘play the game’ and ‘to play the game for the game’s sake,’ transcend the usual emptiness of such slogans, gather an almost mystical significance, and become the rallying
cries of British sportsmen.”

Chapter 8
 Native Americans’ Sports
 Sport was closely aligned with social, spiritual, and economic aspects of life
 Gambling was widespread
 Sports played varied by tribe
 Archery
 Baggataway (lacrosse)
 Canoeing
 Fishing
 Footraces
 Shinny
 Swimming
 Native Americans’ Sports
 Some of the most important factors characterizing traditional Native American sports include the following:
 Strong connection between sport and other social, spiritual, and economic aspects of daily life.
 Serious preparation of mind, body, and spirit of before participants.
 Strong allegiance to high standards of sportsmanship and fair play.
 The prominence of both male and females in sport activity.
 Special perspective on team membership, interaction, and leadership.
 Role of gambling as a widespread and vital component in all sports.
 The importance of art as an expression of identity and aesthetics.
 Physical Activities in the Colonies
 Early settlers — survived with hunting, fishing, and work-related recreation. Men hunted, fished and grew crops and women perform domestic chores. Relaxation was spent in work-

related recreation, such as barn raising, corn husking, or quilting bees, plus a occasional dance and games where practice.
 Puritans — forbid frivolous activities
 British influence — rounders; cricket;
 boxing; track and field
 Physical Activities in the Colonies
 Dutch — free from religious prohibitions, engaged in fun games such as pulling the goose
(pulling the head of a greased goose from riding a horse or standing in a boat), other games where skittles (like bowling but with nine pins or skittles, boating, fishing, hunting, horse racing and sleighing.
 Virginians - emerged as the leading southern colony, so the southern plantation owners enjoyed cockfighting, bowling, card playing, and horse racing. Fox hunting, hawking and watching boxing found many enthusiasts.
 Note: Benjamin Franklin, Noah Webster, and Thomas Jefferson were among those who supported physical activities for healthful benefits.
 Physical Activities in the Colonies
 In the 1800s, free public education for boys and girls consisted primarily of the three R’s
(these schools show very little interest in Physical Education). In 1853 Boston became the first city to require daily exercise for children. Private schools believe that physical activities contributed to health led children’s participation in sports.
 Sports for minority groups in this country could be described as either isolation or assimilation. Most blacks, enslaved or free valued their cultural heritage in music and dance but, due to prejudicial attitudes were excluded from participating.
 European immigrants engaged in dance, games, sports, and gymnastics brought from the homeland, they also played sports like baseball and boxing as a way to become more like their
American playmates.
 Early American Physical Education
 Introduction of German gymnastics
 1823-1833 — The Round Hill School (MA) where the first to scheduled time each day for sports and games.
 Daily sports and gymnastics

 1825-1830 — Round Hill School hired Charles Beck — turner and friend of Friedrich Jahn
 Established an outdoor gymnastics area
 German immigrants in 1820s, taught turner gymnastics to Harvard students and
Bostonians. Also they establish many turner societies throughout the country, but do to its regional nature and the emphasis on strength development and nationalism it failed to appeal to sports-minded Americans.
 However, during the late 1800s and early 1900s many schools and colleges incorporated exercises on German apparatus into their programs. Some of these apparatus such as the parallel bars, rings, and balance beam remains in the sport of gymnastics.
 Catharine Beecher
 Director of the Hartford Seminary for Girls (1824) and founder of the Western Female Institute
(1837)
 The first American to design a program of exercises for American children, tried to get daily physical activity into the public schools.
 Calisthenics — set aside 30 minutes per day not only for exercises but also to promote health and thus to secure beauty and strength
 No special room or apparatus
 For the whole family, but especially for females
 Catharine Beecher
 Principles from Per Henrik Ling's Swedish gymnastics
 One of the first to actively struggle to establish physical education as a part of the school curriculum on a daily basis
 Dioclesion Lewis
 Lewis borrowed from Beecher’s calisthenics. Light gymnastics or exercises with wands, rings, bean-bags, dumbbells, and Indian clubs along with music — teacher directed exercises
 Borrowed from Swedish gymnastics
 1861-1868 — Normal Institute for Physical Education in Boston — first teacher training school for physical education in the United States
 Note: Lewis believed in equity between the genders, cardiorespiratory conditioning, and conducting measurements to demonstrate success.

 Swedish Gymnastics
 Hartvig Nissen, a Norwegian, came to Washington, D.C. in 1883
 Taught at Harvard Summer School, Sargent Normal School, and Posse-Nissen School
 Baron Nils Posse after graduating from the Royal Gymnastics Central Institute in Sweden, came to Boston in 1885
 Taught at the Boston Normal School of Gymnastics (1889-1890)
 Established the Posse Normal School in 1890
 Boston Normal School of Gymnastics — 1889
 Founded by Mary Hemenway
 Directed by Amy Morris Homans
 Nils Posse was the first teacher
 Purpose was to train teachers in Swedish gymnastics
 Moved to Wellesley College as the Department of Hygiene and Physical Education in 1909
 Boston Conference on Physical Training — 1889
 Purpose was “to bring to the attention of the general public and the leaders in the field the
Swedish system.”
 Speakers also for the German system, the Sargent system, and Hitchcock's program
 Edward Hitchcock
 Edward Hitchcock — Amherst — (1861-1911)
 In 1860, was hired by American College (first to required college Physical Education program) who served as college physician.
 Students attended lectures on health.
 Students were required to attend 30-minute classes 4 times per week.
 Each class participated in 20 minutes of light gymnastics and marching.
 Students could spend 10 minutes on individual apparatus work or sports.
 Anthropometrics — find the average, ideal college male using age, weight, height, chest girth, arm girth, forearm girth, lung capacity, and pull-ups

 Dudley Sargent
 Dudley Sargent (physician)—Harvard — (1879-1919)
 Anthropometrics — to find the ideal student, but mostly to establish individualized goals and programs for each student (not a required program)
 Apparatus — chest weights; chest pulleys; chest developers; leg machines; rowing machines
— students used these machines in individualized programs
 No Swedish or German gymnastics
 Sports, such as boxing, rowing, and baseball, were promoted
 Dudley Sargent
 Sargent School for Physical Education — 1881 — initially taught women at Harvard Annex and later became a teacher training school for physical education
 Harvard Summer School (1887-1932) —advanced teacher training program
 Dudley Sargent
 1881- Dudley Sargent curriculum was based on a theoretical, scientific foundation, and activities of a practical nature.
 1891 at Harvard, Carl Fitz worked with Sargent in developing the first degree program in physical education (Bachelor of Science in Anatomy, Physiology, and Physical Training).
 Delphine Hanna — Oberlin — (1885-1920)
 1903 — Professor of physical education developed a program to train men to instruct their male classmates
 Anthropometrics of college women
 Instructed Luther Gulick, Thomas Wood, Jay Nash, and Jesse Williams
 Young Men’s Christian Association
 YMCA founded in 1844 in England by George Williams
 YMCA founded in 1851 in Boston
 YWCA founded in 1866 in Boston by Mrs. Henry Durant
 YMCA AND YWCA
 1885 — YMCA Training School in Springfield — to train YMCA directors

 Purposes of the YMCA — to develop the all-around man (intellectual, physical, and spiritual)
 Central School of Hygiene and Physical Education was the YWCA training school
 William Anderson
 Brooklyn (Anderson) Normal School (1886-1953)
 Chautaugua Summer School of Physical Education (1886-1930s)
 The curricula focused on a generalized approach with theoretical and practical course work.
 Association for the Advancement of Physical Education — 1885
 Founded by William Anderson
 Major issues between 1885-1900
 Anthropometrics
 Battle of the Systems
 Association for the Advancement of Physical Education — 1885
 Anderson recognized all the diversity and the fact that few opportunities existed for the exchange of curricula and philosophical ideas among individuals interested in physical development. So he invited gymnastic teachers, ministers, journalists, principals, college presidents, and others, in 1885 to Adelphi Academy to discuss issues of the day. From this conference the American Association for the Advancement of Physical Education (AAAPE) today it is known as the American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, and
Dance (AAHPERD).
 Association for the Advancement of Physical Education — 1885
 In 1893, the AAAPE may contact with the National Education Association (NEA) and in 1895, the NEA established a permanent Department of Physical Education. (1924 became
Department of School Health and Physical Education.)
 Battle of the Systems
SYSTEM PURPOSE
 German gymnastics Developed individual abilities and healthy, strong youth for war using apparatus

 Swedish gymnastics Promoted health, correct expression, and beauty of performance using exact movement patterns
 Hitchcock’s system Emphasized health through required exercises with light apparatus
 Sargent’s system Advocated development of the body through individualized exercises
on apparatus
 Association gymnastics Contributed to the development of the all-around man
 Professional Preparation Institutions
1861 Lewis Normal Institute for Light gymnastics Physical Education
1866 Turners Normal School of German gymnastics North American Gymnastic Union
1881 Sargent: Sargent School for Theoretical and Physical Education practical curriculum
1885 YMCA: YMCA Training School Association gymnastics
1886 Anderson Chautauqua Summer Advanced theoretical School of Physical and practical
Education curriculum
 Professional Preparation Institutions
1886 Anderson Brooklyn (Anderson) Theoretical and Normal School practical curriculum
1887 Sargent Harvard Summer School Advance of Physical Education theoretical and practical
curriculum
1889 Hemenway
1890 Posse
Boston Normal School Swedish gymnastics and Homans of Gymnastics
Posse Normal School Swedish gymnastics

 Men's Amateur Athletics
 After the Civil War baseball became the national sport for men and for amateurs as well as professionals.
 Pierre de Coubertin established the modern Olympic Games and the spirit of amateurism
(mind, body and spirit). Held in Athens Greece in 1896, 241 males representing 14 countries competed in track and field (main event), cycling, fencing, gymnastics, lawn tennis, shooting, swimming, weightlifting, and wrestling.
 Men's Amateur Athletics
 Socially elite — horse racing, dancing, gambling, cards, and yachting
 Baseball (1744 — England; not 1839 in the United States)
 Cycling — late 1800s
 Tennis — 1874 from England
 Golf — Scotland
 Cricket and croquet clubs — late 1800s
 1891 — Basketball — James Naismith at the YMCA Training School (height of basket; cagers; the “key”)
 1896 — Volleyball — William Morgan at a YMCA
 Dr. James Naismith's
13 Original Rules of Basketball
 The ball may be thrown in any direction with one or both hands.
 The ball may be batted in any direction with one or both hands (never with the fist).
 A player cannot run with the ball. The player must throw it from the spot on which he catches it, allowance to be made for a man who catches the ball when running at a good speed if he tries to stop.
 The ball must be held in or between the hands; the arms or body must not be used for holding it.
 No shouldering, holding, pushing, tripping, or striking in any way the person of an opponent shall be allowed; the first infringement of this rule by any player shall count as a foul, the second shall disqualify him until the next goal is made, or, if there was evident intent to injure the person, for the whole of the game, no substitute allowed.

 A foul is striking at the ball with the fist, violation of Rules 3, 4, and such as described in Rule
5.
 If either side makes three consecutive fouls, it shall count a goal for the opponents
(consecutive means without the opponents in the mean time making a foul).
 A goal shall be made when the ball is thrown or batted from the grounds into the basket and stays there, providing those defending the goal do not touch or disturb the goal. If the ball rests on the edges, and the opponent moves the basket, it shall count as a goal.
 When the ball goes out of bounds, it shall be thrown into the field of play by the person first touching it. In case of a dispute, the umpire shall throw it straight into the field. The throwerin is allowed five seconds; if he holds it longer, it shall go to the opponent. If any side persists in delaying the game, the umpire shall call a foul on that side.
 The umpire shall be judge of the men and shall note the fouls and notify the referee when three consecutive fouls have been made. He shall have power to disqualify men according to
Rule 5.
 The referee shall be judge of the ball and shall decide when the ball is in play, in bounds, to which side it belongs, and shall keep the time. He shall decide when a goal has been made, and keep account of the goals with any other duties that are usually performed by a referee.
 The time shall be two 15-minute halves, with five minutes' rest between.
 The side making the most goals in that time shall be declared the winner. In case of a draw, the game may, by agreement of the captains, be continued until another goal is made.
 Early Intercollegiate and Amateur Sports
 Sports on college campuses were initially organized by students as extracurricular activities, to the displeasure of administrators and faculty, who viewed them as irrelevant to the mission of higher learning.
 College faculties paid little attention to sports until they began to infringe on students’ academic work. Missed classes, decreased academic performance, injuries, gambling, property damage on campus and nearby towns, playing against pro teams, commercialization and a general overemphasis on athletics compelled faculties to take action.
 Early Intercollegiate and Amateur Sports
 In 1882, Harvard faculty members recommended that a committee of three faculty members oversee athletics. In 1885, the committee expanded to include two students and one alumnus.
In 1888, it was expand to equal representation of three faculty, students and alumni.

 In 1895, the Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives (Big Ten) composed of one faculty member from each seven midwestern institutions, adopted rules requiring all players to be enrolled in college, all transfer students to wait six months before being eligible to play on a team, and all athletes to maintain the required academic standards to be eligible to play.
 Early Intercollegiate and Amateur Sports
 1852 — First intercollegiate sport for men (Harvard and Yale in rowing)
 1859 — First intercollegiate baseball game
 1869 — First intercollegiate football game Athletic clubs offered sport competitions for members (especially track and field)
 1896 — First intercollegiate sport for women in basketball between the University of
California and Stanford.
 Amateur Sports
 1879 — The New York Athletic Club Athletic, founded in1868, led the formation of the
Amateur Athletic Union (1888) —”check the evils of professionalism and promote amateur sport”
 1912 — there were 538 athletic clubs; the AAU had 19,000 members
 Competitions offered by the AAU in 40 sports, especially basketball, track and field, and boxing
 Women’s Sports
 Colonial period
 Horseback riding; dancing; fox hunting
 Next 100 years
 Riding; walking; dancing; calisthenics
 Late 1800s
 Croquet; cycling; hiking (with clothing restrictions)
 Tennis — 1874
 Gymnastics in bloomers

 Women’s Sports
 Following the lead of men, upper-class women began to compete nationally in archery (1879), tennis (1887), and golf (1896).
 Women eagerly adopted basketball but adapted and modified its rules to make the game less strenuous and rough. The Committee on Women’s Basketball was established by the AAAPE to standardize the rules.

Chapter 9
• 20 th Century Physical Education, Exercise Science, and Sport (New Physical Education and its
Leaders)
• By the ended of the 19 th century, no one gymnastics system had been adopted, it failed to appeal to a broad base of physical educators and their students, who were seeking activities that offered competition, fun, and more freedom of expression.
• The new physical education focused on developing the whole individual through participation in play, sports, games, and natural, outdoor activities.
• Stanley Hall, William James, Edward Thorndike, William Kilpatrick, and John Dewey, all psychologist, successfully integrated scientific education, educational developmentalism, and social education. This theory used children’s play and other natural activities for learning.
• Luther Gulick
• Luther Gulick
• YMCA Training School (1887-1900)
• Director of Physical Training for the New York City Public Schools (1903-1908)
• 1903 — Public Schools Athletic League in New York City
– Class athletics — track and field; basketball; baseball
– Athletic badge tests — dash (running); broad jump; pull-ups
– Helped designed the YMCA logo that represent body, mind and spirit.
• Luther Gulick
• Jesse Bancroft served as Assistant Director for Physical Training for the New York City Public
Schools
• Elizabeth Burchenal (His Wife)directed the Girls’ Branch of the Public Schools Athletic League, which featured folk dancing
• 1906 — Playground Association of America
• 1910 — Campfire Girls
• Play was the most important educational aspect.
• Thomas Wood

• Thomas Wood
• 1891-1901 — Stanford University — physical education and health undergraduate curricula established
• 1901-1932 — Teachers College of Columbia University — physical education and health undergraduate and graduate curricula (1927 — moved into health education), establishment of the first master’s and doctor’s (1924) degree program in physical education. He was also instrumental in the development of health education as a separate field of study
• Emphasized educational goals through "natural activities" — sports, games, dances, aquatics, arts, and recreation
• 1927 — The New Physical Education with Rosalind Cassidy
• Clark Hetherington
• Clark Hetherington
• Stanford University under Wood (1893-1896 — student and instructor)
• Clark University under G. Stanley Hall — child-study and developmentalism
• 1900-1910 — University of Missouri — rid athletics of abuses (supported women's activities)
• 1923-1929 — New York University — physical education curriculum
• 1929-1938 — Stanford University
• Clark Hetherington
• Play was a child's chief business in life
• Stressed attainment of educational goals in physical activities
• 1910 — Four phases of the educational process
– Organic education
– Psychomotor education
– Character education
– Intellectual education
• Jay Nash
• Jay Nash

• New York University (1926-1953) One of the first graduates of New York’s University’s Ph.D in physical education
• Influenced by Hetherington
• Recreation — part of total life experiences for all ages
• Emphasis on carry-over sports or lifetime, sports to encourage people to adopt active lifestyles; that is, people should be educated for leisure.
• Jesse Williams
• Jesse Williams
• Teachers College of Columbia University (1919-1941)
• Expanded Wood's ideas of physical education as part of education (i.e., social education, unified whole, and living in a democratic society as advocated by John Dewey)
• “Education through the physical”
• Physical development is a means to an end (emphasized educational objectives)
• Williams stressed that physical education programs should be retained because only they of all school curricula contributed to the physical development of students as well as the education of the total child.
• Charles McCloy
• Charles McCloy
• YMCA — 22 years of service at home and abroad
• University of Iowa (1930-1954)
• Organic unity — physical dimension — the major aspect of the whole being
• “Education of the physical”
• Educational objectives — secondary to the development of the physical
• Measurement — to demonstrate the development of skill and strength
• Playground Movement
• Colonial amusements — Protestant work ethic
• First playgrounds in urban settings

– 1880s — Boston — sand boxes — later in schools
– 1890s — New York (Central Park), Boston, and Chicago provided green space for the upper class; opened playgrounds for others
– 1894 — Chicago — Jane Addams' Hull House — one of several settlement houses where play opportunities were provided for immigrant children
•
• South Park in Chicago — fields, gymnasium, and other activity spaces
• Sport was used as a means of social control and for the assimilation and socialization of immigrant youth into America
• Began with playgrounds for children and transitioned into recreation for all ages
– 1906 — Playground Association of America
– 1906 — Boys Clubs of America
• Playgrounds to Recreation
• 1910 — Boy Scouts of America
• 1911 — Playground and Recreation Association of America
• 1910 — Campfire Girls
• 1912 — Girl Scouts
• 1930 — National Recreation Association
• 1965 — National Recreation and Park Association
• Clark Hetherington — The Normal Course in Play — to train recreation workers
• Recreation Movement
• 1930s during the Depression — increased leisure time — softball and bowling
• 1940s—Industrial Recreation— facilities and equipment provided for leisure time usage by workers — softball, bowling, and basketball
• 1950s — beginning of outdoor education movement — hiking, camping, and backpacking
• Recreation Movement

• 1960s — Lifetime Sports Foundation (1965) — promoted carry-over sports of archery, badminton, bowling, golf, and tennis that could be played throughout life
• 1970s and 1980s — fitness boom — jogging; tennis; racquetball; aquatic sports
• 1990s — personal fitness programs; walking
• Youth Sports
• 1925 — American Legion baseball
• 1929 — Pop Warner Football — Joe Tomlin
• 1939 — Little League Baseball — Carl Stoltz
• 1950 — AAU age-group swimming; later wrestling, skiing, and track and field
• 1967 — AAU Junior Olympics
• Physical Fitness
• 1954 — Results of the Kraus-Weber Minimal Muscular Fitness Test: 58% of U.S. youth failed one or more items, while 9% of European youth failed (tested flexibility)
– On stomach — raise legs (10 seconds each)
– On stomach — raise upper body
– On back — raise legs
– Straight leg sit-up
– Bent-knee sit-up
– Touch toes
• Physical Fitness
• 1956 — President Eisenhower through an Executive Order established the President's Council on Youth Fitness as an outgrowth of the President's Conference on Physical Fitness
• 1963 — President Kennedy changed name to the President's Council on Physical Fitness
• Physical Fitness
• 1958 — AAHPER's National Research Council developed the AAHPER Youth Fitness Test
– Pull-ups (boys)
– Flexed-arm hang (girls)

– Shuttle run
– Standing broad jump
• 1958 — Results of the AAHPER Fitness Youth Test showed poor performance by 8,500 youth in grades 5-12
• 1965 — Retesting of youth with updated AAHPER Youth Fitness Test showed improvement in students' fitness levels
• 1968 — Aerobics (Kenneth Cooper)
– male = 30 points per week
– female = 24 points per week
• 1974 — Retesting of youth with AAHPER Youth Fitness Test showed no overall improvement in fitness levels since 1965
• 1980 — AAHPERD Health-Related Physical Fitness Test
– Body composition using skin-fold measures
– Function of heart and circulatory system using a 1.5 mile or 12-minute run
(cardiorespiratory endurance)
– Muscular strength and endurance using bent-knee sit-ups in 60 seconds (number done)
– Flexibility using straight leg with arm extension
• 1994 — Physical Best (AAHPERD’s educational materials) plus FITNESSGRAM developed by the
Cooper Institute in 1987
– Aerobic capacity in a one-mile walk/run or pacer for young children
– Body composition
– Muscular strength and endurance using curl-ups, push-ups, or alternatively pull-ups, modified pull-ups, or flexed-arm hand and trunk lift
– Flexibility using sit-and-reach
• Adapted Physical Education
Adapted physical education is for exceptional students who are so different in mental, physical, emotional, or behavioral characteristics that in the interest of quality of educational opportunity, special provisions must be made for their proper education.

• Physical limitations
• Deaf
• Blind
• Hard of hearing
• Orthopedically impaired
• Speech impaired
• Visually handicapped
• Injured
• Low skilled
• Mental limitations
• Mentally challenged
• Learning disabled
• Behavioral limitations
• Attention-deficit disorder
• Emotionally disturbed
• Interrelated (multiple handicaps)
• Historically
• Excused
• Corrective or remedial
• Individualized
• Mainstreaming
• Inclusion — integration of children with special needs with students in regular classes
• Least restrictive environment
• Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Section 504 — Individuals with Disabilities in Education

“No otherwise qualified handicapped person shall on the basis of handicap, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or otherwise be subjected to discrimination under any program which receives or benefits from Federal financial assistance.”
• Public Law 94-142
• The Education of all Handicapped Children Act of 1975
• Required the development of an Individualized Education Program (IEP) for every child with special needs, including specifically for physical education
• Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
Has fostered significant changes in the lives of children with special needs and their families and in the roles of schools and teachers in the education of children with special needs. The basic tenets of IDEA have remained intact since the original passage of the law in 1975. However, each set of amendments has strengthened the original law.
• Current performance levels
• Annual goals
• Special education and related services to be provided
• Participation with non-disabled children
• Participation in state and district-wide tests
• Dates and places for services (when; how often; where; how long)
• Transition service needs
• Measuring progress
• Men’s Intercollegiate Athletics
• Students promoted, financed, and controlled athletics — faculty and administrators did not want to be involved (no standard rules or eligibility regulations)
– Rowing — 1852 — Harvard over Yale College
– Baseball — 1859 — Amherst over Williams
– Football — 1869 (actually rugby) — Rutgers over Princeton
• Men’s Intercollegiate Athletics
• Social function

• Newspaper coverage
• Recruiting
• Winning = fans=money = winning = fans = money
• Graduate managers
• Professional coaches
• Walter Camp controlled the collegiate football rules committee
(1879-1925)
• Problems — injuries; property damage; class absences; rule confusion; gambling; drunkenness; professionalism; commercialism; loss of values
• Benefits — improved health; taught values such as fair play and teamwork; diminished use of tobacco and alcohol; reduced rowdyism; improved discipline; enhanced school spirit
• Late 1800s — students unified various rules of sports
• Harvard faculty attempted to control class absences and to regulate athletic abuses
– 1882 — Harvard model with three faculty
– 1885 — added two students and one alumnus
– 1888 — three faculty; three students; three alumni
• 1895 — Midwestern colleges (Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives — today’s
Big Ten)
» Required to be students
» Six months residence for transfers
» Must remain eligible academically
• Representatives from 13 colleges attended the initial meeting in December, 1905, called by
President McCracken of New York University to investigate the future of football due to deaths and injuries
• In January, 1906, a second meeting with representatives from 28 colleges led to the establishment of the National Collegiate Athletic Association and the reform of football to prevent injuries and deaths; legalized the forward pass
• 1929 — Carnegie Foundation’s study of college athletics found problems as reported in
American College Athletics

– Commercialism
– Loss of educational values
• Faculty control — institutional or home rule
• Conferences — save money; fewer classes missed; equal philosophy and size; rivalry
• No seasonal coaches — in departments of physical education to gain faculty status
• Rules of sports standardized and to provide national tournaments (track and field — 1921)
• Sanity Code (1948-1951) banned scholarships, but its failure led to the establishment of recruitment and scholarship policies
• Following the national acceptance of athletic grant-in-aid in1952, the role of the NCAA changed dramatically as institutions became willing to relinquish some of its independence to the NCAA to ensure that other institutions would comply with the regulations governing grants-in-aid and recruiting.
• A second development began with the first negotiation of a T.V. contract in1951, thus providing the NCAA with enforcement leverage. NCAA could penalize an institution economically by disallowing T.V. appearance. With a budget of hundreds of millions
(basketball), NCAA has become the most powerful amateur sports organization in the USA and possibly the world.
• The last quarter of the 20 th century, NCAA changed again. Division III programs, students without grants-in-aid continued to compete for the love of the sport. Division II students received grants-in-aid, but most realized that their talents were limited and therefore focused more on the educational opportunities. Division I sports emerged as a highly commercialized product. Corporate sponsorships, donations by fans, and T.V. contacts became essential to funding the multimillion-dollar budgets needed to support athletic programs. Note: Athletic
Administrators finally admitted to being in the entertainment rather the education business.
Athletes received an educational opportunity that was too often not pursued successfully.
• Several issues have threatened the integrity of intercollegiate athletic for men (Division I):
» Scandals in basketball in the 1950’s and has continue whenever gamblers have been able to entice athletes to affect the point spread.
» Commercialization of intercollegiate athletics is illustrated by athletic administrators who eagerly seek corporate dollars as they sell logos on uniforms and signage in stadiums and arenas.
» Despite mandatory testing, drug use and abuse by college athletes threatens to undermine equity between competitors.

» Unwarranted influence of T.V., which determines dates, start times, and sometimes locations, is a disruption to the educational pursuits of the athletes.
» Academic and recruiting issues are the two biggest problems that intercollegiate sports persistent: Academic - preferential admissions, athletes not attending classes, athletic personnel writing athletes’ papers, athletes receiving grades that have not been earned, changing of grades to maintain the eligibility of athletes, lack of progress toward degrees and failure of athletes to graduate. Recruiting – someone else taken SAT/ACT test, too many contacts with prospects, giving money or other benefits to prospects/family, and providing sex/alcohol during recruiting trips.
• National Junior College Athletic Association — 1938
• National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics — 1940 (only basketball until 1952)
• Activities among participants “within the walls” of an institution
• Begun in 1913 at the University of Michigan under Elmer Mitchell
• Initially organized and funded by athletics
• Later administered through departments of physical education
• Today, comprehensive campus recreation opportunities are provided within student affairs
• Constructive use of leisure time
• Opportunity to experience success
• Physical fitness
• Mental and emotional health
• Social interaction and contacts
• Esprit de corps — team spirit
• Promote permanent participant interest
• Practice skills learned in physical education classes
• Training ground for future varsity athletes

• Traditional intramurals — competitions in traditional team and individual sports; usually a fairly narrow offering of activities; league competition is well structured and organized; requires a solid commitment from participants
• Campus recreation includes non-athletic activities (games, crafts, dances, movies, etc.); special programs and workshops; open recreation; club sports; free play; faculty-staff programs; and co-recreation
• Club sports — groups of students, faculty, and staff who get together to share a mutual interest in a particular sport or activity; European concept that spread to this country, clubs are self-organized, administered, funded, coached, and otherwise maintained
• Funding
– State appropriations (within physical education)
– Student fees
• History of Women’s Sports
• 1892 — Smith College (Senda Berenson)
• 1896 — Stanford defeated California in the first intercollegiate game
• 1899 — Standardized rules
– No snatching the ball
– Could hold the ball only three seconds
– Could bounce the ball only three times
– Divided court into three areas to limit exertion
• History of Women’s Sports
• Basketball
– 1938 — two-division game
– 1949 — rover game in AAU; 1962 in colleges
– 1970 — full court game in colleges
• Colleges — track and field; field hockey; archery; rowing; golf
• History of Women’s Sports
• Preferred events by physical education teachers

– Field Day — interclass play within a school
– Play Day — mixed teams competed with a social emphasis
– Sports Day — within own team, competition with a social emphasis
– Telegraphic Meet — send scores to a central location (to eliminate competition and pressure to win)
• History of Women’s Sports
• Philosophical justifications for the opposition toward competitive sports for females
– Competition might be physically and emotionally harmful
– Undesirable examples from men's programs
– Philosophy of mass participation
– Societal belief of women as homemakers, not athletes
• Participation rather than competition in 1909 — about half of the colleges had intercollegiate competition, especially in the West and Midwest
• Allowed if these conditions met:
» Women officials and coaches
» Audience by invitation only
» College-financed only
» No "win-at-all costs” attitude — for fun and social interaction
• Outside colleges — Amateur Athletic Union sponsored leagues and tournaments
• History of Women’s Sports
• High schools followed the colleges — but problems arose:
– Males coached
– Used boys' rules
– Spectators allowed
– Newspaper covered games
– Competition was intense

– All the above meant pressure to win
• History of Women’s Sports
• 1917 — APEA Committee on Women's Athletics — set standards and rules of sports
• 1917 — Athletic Conference of American College Women
– Opposed intercollegiate competition
– Emphasis on participation by all
– Aligned with physical education departments and teachers
• History of Women’s Sports
• 1923 — Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation
– Opposed international competition
– Favored play days for girls and women
– “A sport for every girl, and every girl in a sport” — National Section on Women's
Athletics
• History of Women’s Sports
• 1941 — National Tournament in golf — opposed by the National Section on Women’s
Athletics
• Industrial recreation and All-American Girls’ Professional Baseball League
• History of Women’s Sports
• Increased Competition
– Olympic development thrust after defeat by Russians in 1956 and 1960 Olympic
Games
– U. S. Olympic Development Committee in 1961 — “to broaden the base of participation for girls and women in Olympic sports and to provide better experiences for the skilled athlete”
– 1963-1969 — National Institutes on Girls’ Sports — to train teachers and coaches
• History of Women’s Sports
• 1966-1967 — Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics for Women — set up by the Division of
Girls and Women in Sport

– Encourage and govern intercollegiate competition for women at all levels
– Sanction intercollegiate events
– Hold national tournaments — first national tournaments in track and field and in gymnastics
• History of Women’s Sports
• 1971 — Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women
– Members were colleges
– Educational goals and purposes
• Set standards and policies for women's athletics
– NAGWS (National Association for Girls and Women in Sports) game rules
– Separated from NAGWS in 1979
– 42 championships in 19 sports
• Ended June, 1982
• Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972
"No person shall on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, be treated differently from another person or otherwise be discriminated against in any interscholastic, intercollegiate, club or intramural athletics offered by a recipient, or no recipient shall provide athletics separately on such basis."
• Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972
• Initially NCAA opposed Title IX, stating that equal opportunity would adversely affect men’s sports. NCAA lobbied the Department of Health Education and Welfare for exclusion from
Title IX and also lobbied the Senate and the courts arguing the inapplicability of Title IX to athletics on constitutional grounds, it all failed.
• Claiming that Title IX mandated that the NCAA govern both men and women’s athletics, the
NCAA began in1981 to offer championships for women. Even though AIAW (Association for
Intercollegiate Athletics for Women) had grown to 960 members and sponsored 42 championships at three divisions in 19 sports, it could not match the NCAA financial base.
Despite AIAW’s designed to avoid the problems with commercialized male sports, AIAW ceased to exist in June 1982.

• Title IX Timeline
• 1975 — Federal government published guidelines for Title IX
• 1976 — Schools and 1978 (colleges) required to be in full compliance with Title IX
• 1979 — Congress adopted Title IX policy interpretations for athletics
• 1984 — United States Supreme Court ruled in Grove City College v. Bell that Title IX was applicable only to educational programs directly receiving federal funding
• Final Policy Interpretations of 1979
• Financial assistance (scholarships) must be available on a substantially proportional basis
• Program areas so that males and females receive equivalent treatment, benefits, and opportunities, such as equipment and supplies and practice and competitive facilities
• Interests and abilities of male and female students are equally effectively accommodated
• Title IX Timeline
• 1988 — Congress passed (over presidential veto) the Civil Rights Restoration Act, which stated that Title IX applied on an institution-wide basis, including athletics
• 1992 — United States Supreme Court ruled in Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools that plaintiffs could sue for compensatory and punitive damages in cases alleging intentional discrimination
• Title IX Timeline
• 1993 — NCAA released the report of its Gender Equity Task Force report that showed that women comprised 35% of the varsity athletes; received 30% of the athletic grant-in-aid dollars; were allocated 17% of the recruiting dollars; received 23% of the operating budget dollars; had access to 37% of the athletic opportunities for participation
• 1996 — Females comprised 42% of the United States Olympic team competing in Atlanta; they won 38% of the medals awarded to athletes from the United States
• 1997 — United States Supreme Court refused to hear the appeal of Cohen v. Brown University, thus affirming schools and colleges must provide varsity athletic positions for males and females matching the overall percentage of the student body
• Title IX Timeline
• 2003 — Upheld the use of proportionality in the three-part test for access to participation opportunities

• 2005 — Permitted the use of a web survey to determine if there was sufficient interest to support an additional varsity team for the underrepresented sex; this creates a presumption of compliance with part three of the three-part test
Chapter 1
 What Is Dynamic about
 Physical education
 Exercise science
 Sports
 Physical Education
Is a process through which an individual obtains optimal physical, mental, and social skills and fitness through physical activity.
 Exercise Science
Is the scientific analysis of the human body in motion.
 Sports
Are physical activities governed by formal or informal rules that involve competition against an opponent or oneself and are engaged in for fun, recreation, or reward.
 Physical Activity describes repetitive movements by the skeletal muscles that require energy and produce health benefits.
 Physical Fitness is the body’s capacity to adapt and respond favorably to physical effort.
 Health, often defined as the absence of illness or disease, is a positive state of physiological function that includes physical fitness and the five dimensions of wellness.
Wellness includes the emotional, mental, physical, social, and spiritual factors that lead to an overall state of well-being, quality of life, and ability to contribute to society.
 Exercise involves physical movements that increase the rate of energy use of the body.
 Play refers to amusements engaged in freely, for fun, and devoid of constraints.

 Leisure is the freedom from work or responsibilities so that time may or may not be used for physical activity.
 Recreation refreshes or renews a person’s strength and spirit after work; a diversion that occurs during leisure hours.
 Athletics are organized, highly structured competitive activities in which skilled individuals participate.
 Games, usually implying winners and losers, can range from simple diversions to cooperative activities to competitions with significant outcomes governed by rules.
Health-related fitness is the level of positive well-being associated with heart, muscle, and joint functions that improve healthfulness of life.
Skill-related fitness refers to achieving levels of ability to perform physical movements that are efficient and effective.
 Components of Health-Related Physical Fitness
 Cardiorespiratory endurance — The ability of the lungs, heart, and blood vessels to deliver adequate amounts of oxygen to the cells to meet the demands of prolonged physical activity
 Muscular strength — The ability to exert maximum force against resistance
 Muscular endurance — The ability of muscles to exert sub-maximal force repeatedly over a period of time
 Flexibility — The ability of a joint to move freely through its full range of motion
 Body composition — Percent body fat or lean body mass
 Components of Skill-Related Physical Fitness
 Agility — ability to change directions rapidly and accurately
 Balance — ability to maintain equilibrium while stationary or moving
 Coordination — ability to perform motor tasks smoothly and accurately
 Power — ability to exert force rapidly through a combination of strength and speed
 Reaction time — ability to respond or react quickly to a stimulus
 Speed — ability to quickly perform a movement
 FITT Principles
 Frequency — how often a person should train

 Intensity — how hard a person should exercise
 Time — how long or the duration a person should exercise
 Type — kind or mode of exercise performed
 Principles of Training
 Progression — increasing gradually the stress on the muscles so the body can adapt
 Regularity — number of times exercising per week
 Overload — placing increasing amounts of stress on the body to cause adaptations that improve fitness
 Variety — changing equipment, exercises, and activities to avoid boredom, reduce risk of overuse injuries, and increase motivation or adherence
 Individualism — knowing capabilities and limitations so a person can maintain strength and work on weaknesses
 Principles of Training
 Realism — setting achievable training plans and goals to help maintain a program
 Recovery — ensuring optimal amount of rest and sleep to allow for rebuilding tissues and replenishing stored energy
 Reversibility — fitness improvements are lost when demands on the body are lowered
 Balance — focusing on all of the health-related components of physical fitness, including the push and pull movements of each joint and between the upper- and lower-body
 Specificity — training exact areas of muscles, energy systems, and ranges of motion to improve fitness
 Benefits of Physical Activity
 Help maintain weight
 Increase muscular strength and endurance
 Improve cardiorespiratory (aerobic) fitness
 Build bone mass
 Control blood pressure
 Reduce anxiety and stress

 Purpose is to optimize quality of life through a long-term commitment to enjoyable physical activity and sport experiences that will meet varied needs in a changing world.
 National Association for Sport and Physical Education
 The National Association for Sport and Physical Education published its National Standards; each person has learned:
 Skills necessary to perform a variety of physical activities.
 Physically fit.
 Participate regularly in physical activity.
 Knows the implications of and the benefits from involvement in physical activities.
 Values physical activity and its contribution to a health lifestyle, pursue a lifetime of healthful physical activity.
 National Association for Sport and Physical Education 2004
 Demonstrates competency in motor skills and movement patterns to perform a variety of physical activities.
 Demonstrates understanding of movement concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as they apply to the learning and performance of physical activities.
 Participates regularly in physical activity.
 Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing level of physical fitness.
 Exhibits responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.
 Values physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression and/or social interaction.
 Educational Objectives Met through Physical Education
 Physical — such as improvements in health, fitness, heart functioning, strength, fundamental movement skills, and sport skills
 Mental — such as enhancements in academic performance, learning ability, and motivation

 Psychological and social — such as increases in self-confidence, stress management, and positive interactions with people
 Cognitive Objectives
Focus on learning about and using knowledge of body functioning, health, growth and development, motor learning, game rules, skills, strategies, and safety
 Evaluation
 Application
 Synthesis
 Analysis
 Comprehension
 Acquisition
 Affective Objectives
Emphasize the development of attitudes, appreciations, and values (includes social and emotional dimensions), such as self-confidence, affiliation, value judgments, character development, communication skills, courtesy, fair play, self-control, self-discipline, fun, tension release, selfexpression, and learning how to win and lose
 Psychomotor Objectives
Emphasize the learning of fundamental movements, motor skills, and sports skills, including manipulative skills, perceptual-motor skills, fundamental game skills, cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, flexibility, body composition, agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time, and speed
 Surgeon General's Report on Physical Activity and Health (1996)
 Hypokinetic Disease: Diseases and health problems associated with physical inactivity and sedentary, such as, Coronary Heart disease, High Blood Pressure, Stress, Ulcers, Diabetes,
Obesity, and Low Back pain.
 Surgeon General's Report on Physical Activity and Health (1996)
 Males and females of all ages benefit from regular physical activity.
 Significant health benefits can be obtained by including a moderate amount (minimum of 30 minutes) of physical activity on most, if not all, days of the week.
 Surgeon General's Report on Physical Activity and Health (1996)

 Strength-developing exercises should be completed at least twice per week for adults in order to improve musculoskeletal health, maintain independence in performing the activities of daily life, and reduce the risk of falling.
 Many of the beneficial effects of exercise training from both endurance and resistance activities diminish within two weeks if physical activity is substantially reduced, and benefits disappear within two to eight months if physical activity is not resumed.
 Surgeon General's Report on Physical Activity and Health (1996)
 Regular physical activity is necessary for maintaining normal muscle strength, joint structure, and joint function.
 Low levels of activity, resulting in fewer kilocalories used than consumed, contribute to the high prevalence of obesity in the United States.
 Physical activity appears to relieve symptoms of depression and anxiety and improve mood.
 National Physical Activity Goals
 Healthy People 2010
 Goal 1: Increase Quality and Years of Healthy Life
Help individuals of all ages increase life expectancy and improve their quality of life.
 Goal 2: Eliminate Health Disparities
Eliminate health disparities among different segments of the population. These include differences that occur by gender, race or ethnicity, education or income, disability, living in rural localities, or sexual orientation.
 Objective 22 — Physical Activity and Fitness
 Reduce the proportion of adults who engage in no leisure-time physical activity.
 Increase the proportion of adults who engage regularly, preferably daily, in moderate physical activity for at least 30 minutes per day.
 Objective 22 — Physical Activity and Fitness
 Increase the proportion of adults who engage in vigorous physical activity that promotes the development and maintenance of cardiorespiratory fitness 3 or more days per week for 20 or more minutes per occasion.
 Increase the proportion of adults who perform physical activities that enhance and maintain muscular strength and endurance.

 Objective 22 — Physical Activity and Fitness
 Increase the proportion of adults who perform physical activities that enhance and maintain flexibility.
 Increase the proportion of adolescents who engage in moderate physical activity for at least
30 minutes on 5 or more of the previous 7 days.
 Objective 22 — Physical Activity and Fitness
 Increase the proportion of adolescents who engage in vigorous physical activity that promotes cardiorespiratory fitness 3 or more days per week for 20 or more minutes per occasion.
 Increase the proportion of the nation’s public and private schools that require daily physical education for all students.
 Objective 22 — Physical Activity and Fitness
 Increase the proportion of adolescents who participate in daily school physical education.
 Increase the proportion of adolescents who spend at least 50 percent of school physical education class time being physically active.
Chapter 2
 Academic Discipline
• A formal body of knowledge discovered, developed, and disseminated through scholarly research and inquiry
• Physical educators have discovered and reported information that is of value to researchers and practitioners in other fields. For example, effects of drugs on physical performance, the importance of feedback to learning, and the role of sports in developing cultures.
 Academic Discipline
 Early physical educators held medical degrees and viewed themselves primarily as practitioners; in the 1930’s physical education aligned itself closely with educational goals.
 The exercise and sport science focused on researching, conceptualizing, and theorizing. Those who emphasized that the broadening field of physical education must defend itself through scholarly writing and publications.

 Characteristics of an Academic Discipline
 A body of knowledge
 A conceptual framework
 Scholarly procedures and methods of inquiry
 Both the process of discovery and the end result
 The Research Process
 Identify the topics, themes, concepts, terms, or keywords (broadly, then narrow as appropriate) — may use a search engine like Google to begin but do not use this exclusively http://www.google.com
 When using web sites, you must differentiate between scholarly, professional organizations, governmental, wikis, plogs, commercial, etc.
 http://scholar.google.com
 http://www.acsm.org
 http://www.nih.gov/
 http://www.caate.net
 Format of information — books, professional (peer reviewed) journal articles popular articles, other
 Databases http://www.lib.ku.edu/
 Sport Discus
 ABI/INFORM
 Natural, Physical, and Social Sciences
 Numerous disciplines provide the content and methods of scientific inquiry used by researchers in the exercise and sport sciences
 Anatomy
 Biochemistry
 Biology
 Chemistry

 History
 Philosophy
 Physics
 Physiology
 Psychology
 Sociology
 Exercise Physiology
 The study of the causes and consequences of bodily functioning and changes occurring due to physical activity
 Based on an understanding of the anatomic and physiological bases of human movement
 Investigates the biochemical reactions that supply muscles with energy
 Examines changes in the cardiovascular system and other physiological parameters
 Athletic Training
 The study and application of the prevention, diagnosis, treatment, and rehabilitation of sports injuries
 Design and help implement conditioning programs
 Assess injuries and needs for immediate first aid
 Provide preventive taping and treatment modalities
 Work with physicians to help athletes regain their abilities to perform
 Motor Development
 The maturation and changes in motor behavior throughout life and the factors that affect them
 Performance of motor skills is influenced by genetic, environmental, and developmental factors
 Throughout life, individuals progress from unskilled movements to the learning of complex motor patterns
 Perceptual-motor skills are especially important to the learning of sport skills

 Motor Learning
 The study of the internal processes associated with movement or repetitive actions that result in changes in response or performance
 Important to the learning of motor skills are
 Relationship of movements to prior knowledge and skills
 Transfer of learning
 Involvement of cognitive processes
 Types of practice sessions
 Feedback
 Building on the neuro-muscular pathways learned through motor control, motor learning adds knowledge of results, feedback, and optimal practice methods
 Motor Behavior
 Motor Behavior grew out of areas of psychology dealing with human performance and behavior. These professionals ask questions like:
 What type of feedback should be provided to enhance motor skill?
 How does a person’s reaction time influence the learning of motor skills?
 How does the aging process affect motor control and motor learning?
 Sport Biomechanics
 The study of the effects of anatomical and physiological effects of natural laws and internal and external forces acting on the human body during movement
 Factors that influence human movement include
 Force of muscular contractions
 Flexion, extension, pronation, and supination of muscles
 Composition of muscle fibers
 Equilibrium, center of gravity, and base of support
 Transfer of momentum
 Force absorption

 Leverage
 Biomechanical analyses examine acceleration, energy, mass, power, torque, and velocity
 Sport History
 The descriptive and analytical examination of significant people, events, organizations, and trends that shaped the past
 Descriptive history explains
 Events
 Individuals’ contributions
 Pivotal happenings
 Analytical history explains
 The significance of historical occurrences
 Interpretations within the societal context
 Sport Management
 The study of the theoretical and applied aspects of leading, planning, organizing, staffing, funding, and conducting sporting events
 Includes these management functions: planning, organizing, directing, and evaluating
 Involves business components of marketing, accounting, economics, finance, and law
 Sport Management
 Sport management ask questions like:
 How can private health and fitness clubs attract and retain members?
 What recreational and leisure-time activities are of most interest to individuals of all ages?
 What are the cost and benefits of awarding naming rights to a stadium or an arena?
 Sport Philosophy
 The study of the beliefs and values of humans as displayed within sport and an analysis of their meaning and significance

 Examines the beautiful and ugly and the good and bad in sport
 Seeks an understanding of how and why people play and engage in sport
 Sport Philosophy
 Sport philosopher seeks truth and understanding by investigating questions like:
 What is the meaning of competition to the athlete?
 Why do sports fans become so avid in their support of an athletic team?
 Why is “taking out an opponent” considered ethical by some athletes?
 What is beautiful about sport?
 If sportsmanship is considered integral to sport, why do so many unsportsmanlike actions occur?
 Sport And Exercise Psychology
 The study of human behavior in sport, including an understanding of the mental processes that interact with motor skill performance
 Includes a study of the theories of learning, importance of reinforcement, and linkages of perceptual and motor factors
 Involves a understanding of achievement motivation, arousal, attribution, and personality development
 Sport Sociology
 The study of the sport as a social phenomenon and an examination of the social structures, processes, and groups within the sporting context
 Seeking to understand why people play and how their involvement with sports influences them
 Examines concepts such as social mobility, class and gender stratification, racial and ethnic discrimination, team dynamics, and social consciousness and values
 Sport Sociology
 Sport sociologist ask questions like:
 Why are so few Blacks hired to coach professional and college sports teams?
 Why do over half of all the children drop out of organized sports by age 12?

 How are males and females socialized differently in and through sport?
 Does sport mirror society, or does society mirror sport?
 Technology
 Incorporates the use of computer software as a tool to achieve physical education, exercise science, and sport goals — Name several examples.
 Exercise and sport scientists use technology to help in the analysis of human movement, to measure the effectiveness of exercise programs on bodily functions, and for data collection and analysis.
 Databases with the help of search engines provide online access to professional journals and other information.