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Cold Episode of December 2013
Value of anomalies for situational awareness
By
Richard H. Grumm
National Weather Service State College, PA
Contributions by
Elyse Colbert
National Weather Service State College, PA
Trevor Alcott
National Weather Service, Salt Lake City UT
1. Overview
A period of cold weather affected much of North America during the first two weeks of
December 2013. During the peak of the event, over 100 daily low temperature records
were broken or tied (Fig. 1). The relative cold in North America and the western United
States was the result of a large ridge over the Gulf of Alaska (Fig. 2) with +2 to +3 500
hPa height anomalies and a downstream trough. During this time there was a persistent
ridge over the eastern Gulf of Mexico and western Atlantic.
The 850 hPa temperatures showed a surge of cold air into the western United States in
early December with -2 to -3 temperature anomalies over the region from 5 to 9
December 2013. The cold air slowly moved to the east, impinging on a region of
relatively warm air which initially extended from Texas to Quebec (Fig. 3a) but was
slowly displaced eastward as the cold air advanced ahead of strong surface anticyclone
(Fig. 4). A series of disturbances developed along the frontal boundary (Fig. 4) bringing
snow and ice to the southern plains, snow to the Midwest and a series of weak precipitation
events to the eastern United States on 6, 8, and 10 December 2013. The Philadelphia
Eagles bested the Detroit Lions in the “snowbowl” which produced nearly 8 inches of
snow during the game in Philadelphia on 9 December 2013 (AP 2013).
Standardized anomalies (Hart and Grumm 2001) can aid in identifying patterns associated
with extremes. When used with model data (Grumm and Hart 2001; Stuart and Grumm
2006; Junker et al. 2008) they can aid in predicting extreme events and identify when
forecast systems are predicting potentially extreme events, relative to a base climatology. It
is immaterial whether the climatology is re-analysis based (R-Climate) or model or
ensemble prediction system based (M-Climate).
This paper will document the cold episode of 4-12 December 2013. The focus is on how to
use standardized anomalies to characterize and identify; in this case; cold episodes. Some
limitations in using anomalies are presented and why return periods can aid in identifying
some extreme events better than standard deviations. The concept of using return periods
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and percentiles to compliment standardized anomalies is employed as a means to assess the
potential of a HIWE.
2. Data and Methods
The large scale pattern was reconstructed using the 00-hour forecast of the NCEP Global
Forecast System (GFS) as a first guess at the verifying pattern. The standardized anomalies were
computed in Hart and Grumm (2001). All data were displayed using GrADS (Doty and Kinter
1995). The standardized anomalies and the probability distribution functions are based on the reanalysis climate (R-Climate). Though not shown here, they could be produce from internal
model system climatologies (M-Climate).
The traditional standardized anomalies were produced from the GFS 00-hour forecast using
Climate Forecast System based means and standard deviations. The climatology spans a 30 year
period. This 30-year period was used in the situational awareness (SA) tables to show the return
period of the anomalies.
The forecasts in the SA tables were derived from the 42 member North American Ensemble
Forecast System (NAEFS). These data are displayed using the NAEFS mean fields relative to the
climate. In addition to standardized anomalies, the return period and interval of the anomalies are
produced relative to the 21-day centered values. The return period is in years such that a 30-year
return period represents the extreme in the climatological data set. The percentile data represent
where along the climatological probability distribution the current NAEFS forecast lies.
Extremes in the tails would be in the 97th to 100th percentile (MAX) or in the 3rd to 0th percentile
(MIN). In addition to finding the MAX and MIN relative to the time, the MAX and MIN are
computed using the 4 climatological times of 00, 06, 12, and 18 UTC. This provides the ability
to estimate the MAX (MIN) at the specified time or for all 4 times in the same 21-day centered
climatological window.
Temperature records were obtained from the National Climatic Data Center (NCDC). Stories
related to the cold and winter precipitation events were obtained from both NWS and media
sources.
3. Observed weather
i.
western United States
The number of record low and record low-high temperatures set during the event was displayed
in Figure 1. The corresponding tabular form of the data (Tables 1 & 2) showed the daily records
based on NCDC data. As indicated by the 850 hPa temperature anomalies (Fig. 3) and 500 hPa
height anomalies (Fig. 2) the coldest and most anomalous air affected western North America
and the West Coast. Thus during the early phases of the event the records were primarily set in
the western United States.
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The cold affected citrus growers and avocado growers in California (AP 2013) on 5-6 December
when temperatures fell into the 20s in crop growing regions. Temperatures in the lower 20s and
upper teens can cause critical damage to citrus and avocado trees. News stories indicated
growers spent over 24 million dollars combating the cold.
The push of cold air into the western United States began on 3 December (Fig. 5) and the cold air
moved southward with negative 850 hPa (Fig. 5) and 700 hPa temperature anomalies pushing
into the Baja of California by 5 December 2013. The cold air remained in place through 10
December but clearly began to loosen its grip over the region (Fig. 6) as the cold air moved east.
ii.
central United States
The surge of cold air in the southern Plains (Fig. 7) was associated with 850 hPa temperatures in
the 0 to -26C range and temperature anomalies on the order of -2 to -4. A plume of warm moist
air was present ahead of the cold front. This warm moist air served as a focus for several wintry
precipitation events to include snow, ice and rapid temperature changes in the southern plains.
The cold air was accompanied by a strong surface anticyclone (Fig. 8), and by 7 December
pressure anomalies of 1 to 3 above normal dominated the region (Fig. 8f).
Surface ridging behind the cold air (Fig. 8a-c) implied strong northerly flow and the 850 hPa
winds showed strong northerly flow (Fig. 9) often associated with a “blue norther” (AMS 2011)
in the southern plains. The impact of the strong front impinging on the cold air resulted in
dramatic temperature changes. High temperatures in Texas and Oklahoma ranged from the 70 to
80s on 3-4 December and only reached the low 30s in southern Oklahoma on 6 December (Fig.
10). Dallas, TX saw temperature of 52F at 0200 UTC 5 December and was reporting rain and ice
pellets at 33F at 2000Z 5 December. As temperatures fell into the 20s, a prolonged period of
sleet, freezing rain and gusty northerly winds settled over the region from roughly 05/2100
through 07/0100 UTC (Observations in Appendix).
As the cold air settled southward, easterly flow developed over the Mississippi and Ohio Valleys
on 5-6 December. On the cold side of the boundary and with no distinct ‘storm’ or cyclone, areas
of snow developed over southern Illinois and Indiana late on the 5th and early on the 6th of
December. Radar imagery is shown of the snow bands near their peak (Fig. 11). Figures 7-9
show that the snow fell on the cold side of the baroclinic zone in the northeasterly flow
associated with the strong surface anticyclone.
iii.
eastern United States
The cold air began to affect the eastern United States on 6 December with 3 precipitation events
along and over the shallow frontal boundary. Each of these events had distinct predictability
issues associated with QPF, timing of the onset of precipitation, and the precipitation types. All
of these issues lead to difficult predictions for three successive wintry precipitation events. The
focus here is on the snow in southeastern Pennsylvania and New Jersey during the “snowbowl”.
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The 850 hPa temperatures (Fig. 12) showed the cold air over the eastern United States and a
surge of warm air directed toward the frontal boundary. The 850 hPa winds (Fig.13) showed
easterly wind anomalies over the eastern United States. The surface pressure field showed a large
anticyclone to the northwest and enhanced cold air damming, with ridging down the coastal plain
(Fig. 14c-d). The snow fell during the period of intense frontogenesis and the low-level cold air
damming.
The strong frontogenesis snow bands developed over the area of cold air damming (Fig. 15).
This was the third significant winter precipitation event in 4 days with no significant surface
cyclone or “storm”.
The series of frontogenetic events left two distinct stripes of snow over the eastern United States
(Fig. 16). The satellite imagery was taken 12 December 2013.
4. NAEFS Forecasts
The forecast aspects of the event presented here focus on the larger scale pattern and the
potential for a cold episode. It is beyond the scope of this paper to cover the nuisances of the
forecasts associated with the winter weather events, each of which had serious issues related to
precipitation type and amounts. A follow-on study may address two of these events in further
detail.
The NAEFS anomalies and return periods of the anomalies for critical forecast fields over the
western United States are shown in Figure 17. These data show that the NAEFS predicted a
prolonged cold period over the western United States from 3 to 11 December 2013. During the
peak of the cold episode, the NAEFS indicated the return period for the anomalies in the
temperature and height fields was on the order of 30 years. The largest thermal anomalies of 4.5 appeared about 1800 UTC 7 December.
The corresponding NAEFS-BC forecasts of 500 hPa heights, 850 and 925 hPa temperatures and
mean-sea level pressure (Fig. 18) showed the large anticyclone over the central United States and
the mass of cold air over the western half of the United States at both 925 and 850 hPa. The 500
hPa heights showed the sharp ridge over Alaska and the deep trough over the western United
States. The +3 height anomalies over Alaska in a 4-day forecast imply a convergence of the
forecasts. The sharp ridge provided northerly flow over northwestern North America while
providing cross polar flow and the flow of cold air into central and southern North America.
Earlier and latter forecasts continued to show this trend for the cold air to penetrate most of the
United States, sparing Florida under a persistent positive height anomaly at 500 hPa over the
western Atlantic.
5. Summary
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A relatively well predicted pattern set up over North America which funneled cold air into the
United States from 4-12 December 2013. The cold air brought snow and freezing conditions to
the West Coast and produced crop loss issues in California. As the cold air moved eastward, it
brought cold air to the Plains, and as the cold air moved into the southern Plains, near record
warm weather in Texas and Oklahoma was rapidly replaced by cold and snow as a blue norther
swept into the region. As the arctic air continued to move eastward, it produced snow and cold in
the Ohio Valley 5-6 December. The cold air moved into the eastern United States on 6-7
December producing several wintry precipitation events. The Mid-Atlantic heavy snow of 8
December will likely be well remembered for its impact on the Philadelphia-Detroit “snowbowl”
in Philadelphia, PA.
The data shown here indicated that standardized anomalies can be useful in characterizing these
events. When used with forecast data, this also shows how standardized anomalies can help
forecast these events. The NAEFS data and the NAEFS-BC data did a credible job with the
pattern and evolution of the cold air mass over the United States.
Though not the focus of this paper, the individual snow events and the lack of a well-defined
surface cyclone during these events may have contributed to some issues related to predictability
with the QPF and precipitation types. Most of the events; including the southern plains, Ohio
Valley, and Mid-Atlantic events; were overrunning events which lacked a distinct surface
cyclone. Some aspects of these events were difficult to predict. Further confusion occurred due
to identifying “storms” during this period of time despite the lack of a surface cyclone which is
within the superset used to define a “storm”.
.
6. Acknowledgements
The Pennsylvania State University for gridded data access and the Mid-Atlantic River forecasts
and Trevor Alcott for return period data and images. Elyse Colbert for NCDC data extraction and
summations.
7. References
Associated Press, 2013a: LeSean McCoy runs for 217yards, Eagles beat Lions 34-20 in snow
storm. And similar stories. 8 December 2013
Associated Press, 2013b: California citrus growers fight off cold spell. And similar stories 6-8
December 2013.
Doty, B.E. and J.L. Kinter III, 1995: Geophysical Data Analysis and Visualization using GrADS.
Visualization Techniques in Space and Atmospheric Sciences, eds. E.P. Szuszczewicz and J.H.
Bredekamp, NASA, Washington, D.C., 209-219.
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Graham, R.A, T. Alcott, N. Hosenfeld, and R. Grumm, 2013: Anticipating a rare event utilizing
forecast anomalies and a situational awareness display: The Western Region US Storms of 18-23
January 2010, BAMS, 2013.
Graham, R A. and R. H. Grumm, 2010: Utilizing Normalized Anomalies to Assess Synoptic-Scale
Weather Events in the Western United States. Wea. Forecasting, 25, 428-445.
Grumm, R.H. and R. Hart. 2001: Standardized Anomalies Applied to Significant Cold Season
Weather Events: Preliminary Findings. Wea. and Fore., 16,736–754.
Grumm, Richard H., 2011a: The Central European and Russian Heat Event of July–August 2010.
Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 92, 1285–1296.
Grumm, R.H. (2011b) New England Record Maker rain event of 29-30 March 2010. NWA. Electronic
Journal of Operational Meteorology, EJ4 12: 1-31.
Hart, R. E., and R. H. Grumm, 2001: Using normalized climatological anomalies to rank synoptic
scale events objectively. Mon. Wea. Rev., 129, 2426–2442.
Junker, N.W, M.J.Brennan, F. Pereira,M.J.Bodner,and R.H. Grumm, 2009:Assessing the Potential
for Rare Precipitation Events with Standardized Anomalies and Ensemble Guidance at the
Hydrometeorological Prediction Center. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 4
Article: pp. 445–453.
Junker, N. W., R. H. Grumm, R. Hart, L. F. Bosart, K. M. Bell, and F. J. Pereira, 2008: Use of
standardized anomaly fields to anticipate extreme rainfall in the mountains of northern California.
Wea. Forecasting,23, 336–356.
Stuart, N.A and R.H. Grumm 2006: Using Wind Anomalies to Forecast East Coast Winter Storms.
Wea. and Forecasting,21,952-968.
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Date
Broken Records
Ties
Sum
Cumulative
Total
Locations
Sum
Possible
12/4/2013
49
10
59
59
5456
West
12/5/2013
142
31
173
232
5429
West
12/6/2013
244
55
299
531
5255
West and Central
12/7/2013
273
57
330
861
4898
West and Central
12/8/2013
250
37
287
1148
4913
West, South, and Central
12/9/2013
47
18
65
1213
4641
West and South
Table 1. List of dates and records of record low high temperatures set for the periods of 4 December and 9
December 2013. Data from NCDC. Return to text.
Date
Broken Records
Ties
Sum
Cumulative
Sum
12/4/2013
47
10
57
57
12/5/2013
161
23
184
241
12/6/2013
136
27
163
404
12/7/2013
152
30
182
586
12/8/2013
67
19
86
672
12/9/2013
17
5
22
694
Table. 2. As in Table 1 except low temperatures. Return to text.
Total
Possible
5439
5414
5252
4900
4878
4629
Locations
West
West
West
West and Central
West and Central
West
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Figure 1. Return to text.
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Figure 2. GFS 00-hour forecasts of 500 hPa heights and standardized anomalies in 24 hour increments from a) 1200 UTC 04 December 2013 through f)
1200 UTC 09 December 2013. Heights every 60 m and anomalies in standard deviations as in the color bar. Return to text.
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Figure 3. As in Figure 2 except for 850 hPa temperatures zoomed over the United States. Data show isotherms and the standardized anomalies. Return to
text.
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Figure 4. As in Figure 2 except for surface pressure (hPa) and pressure anomalies. Return to text.
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Figure 5. As in Figure 3 except for 850 hPa temperatures in the western United States from a) 1200 UTC 1 to f) 1200 UTC 6 December 2013. Return to text..
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Figure 6. As in Figure 5 except for a) 1200 UTC 7 December through f) 1200 UTC 12 December 2013. Return to text.
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Figure 7. As in Figure 3 except 850 hPa temperatures focused over the central United States from a) 1200 UTC 4 through f) 0000 UTC 7 December 2013.
Return to text.
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Figure 8. As in Figure 7 except for mean sea-level pressure. Return to text.
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Figure 9. As in Figure 7 except for 850 hPa winds and wind anomalies in 6-hour increments from a)1200 UTC 4 December through f) 1800 UTC 5 December
2013Return to text.
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Figure 10. High temperatures ( F) on 4 and 6 December 2013. From the PSU ewall website. Return to text.
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Figure 11. Composite radar in 3-hour increments from top) 2338 UTC 5 December
through bottom) 0538 UTC 6 December 2013. Return to text.
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Figure 12. As in Figure 3 except 850 hPa temperatures over the eastern United States from a) 0000 UTC 8 December through f) 0600 UTC 9 December 2013.
Return to text.
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Figure 13. As in Figure 11 except 850 hPa winds over the eastern United States from a) 0000 UTC 8 December through f) 0600 UTC 9 December 2013. Return
to text.
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Figure 14. As in Figure 3 except mean sea-level pressure over the eastern United States from a) 0000 UTC 8 December through f) 0600 UTC 9 December 2013.
Return to text.
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Figure 15. As in Figure 11 except focused on the eastern United States at top) 1436, 1636
and bottom) 1836 UTC 8 December 2013. Return to text.
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Figure 16. AWIPS display of visual satellite imagery showing the residual snow in the Ohio Valley and the snow in the MidAtlantic region from the series of storms from 5-10 December 2013. The image is from satellite data valid at 18Z 12 December
2013. Return to text.
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Figure 17. NAEFS based situational awareness tables of anomalies by variable. The anomalies by
standard deviations from normal are shown in the table on the left side and the right side shows
the return period for the largest, in a magnitude sense, anomaly for each variable shown. The
height, temperature, u,v, wind speed, and Q fields have several levels of data from 1000, 850, 700,
500 and 200 hPa. Only the largest anomaly at any level is depicted. Return to text.
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Figure 18. NAEFS bias corrected forecasts initialized at 0000 UTC 3 December 2013 showing the forecasts valid at 1800 UTC 7 December 2013 of 500
hPa heights, mean sea-level pressure, 850 hPa temperatures and 925 hPa temperatures. All fields are shown with the standardized anomalies. Return
to text.
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Appendix Dallas Observations screen capture image