“MIDDLE EAST 101” WORKSHOP, NOVEMBER 14, 2012
THE GREAT WAR AND THE MAKING OF THE MODERN MIDDLE EAST
OSAMA ABI-MERSHED
I.
A.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND, 1774-1875
Eastern Question
Russo-Ottoman War, 1768-1774. Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt, 1798-1801. Impact on Britain’s
strategic interests in the Eastern Mediterranean. Articulation of the Protocols of the Eastern
Question.
B.
1.
Era of Reforms
Central Reforms. (a) Traditionalism, 1792-1807: Military reforms aiming to supplant traditional
Ottoman institutions (devshirme, janissaries) with army of conscripts (nizam-i jedid=new organization);
(b) Tanzimat (re-organization) reforms, 1839-1878: Liberalization of Ottoman state; program of the
Young Ottomans; political and economic liberalism, constitutionalism and parliamentary
representation. Ottoman millets and status of Empire’s non-Muslim minorities. Noble Edict of the
Rose Chamber (Hatt-i Serif Gülhane), November 1839; Imperial Edict (Hatt-i Humayun) of 1856;
Ottoman Constitution of 1876.
2.
Provincial Reforms. (a) Literalism: Wahhabism (Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab) and the Al-Saud
clan; (b) Statism: Reforms of Mehmet Ali; modernization of Egypt’s ruling elites and institutions;
Construction of Suez Canal, 1858-1869.
C.
1.
Rise of Ethnic Nationalisms
Greek Revolt, 1821-1830. Janina Revolt, Philike Hetairia and Phanariots: Turco-Greek war of 18211824. Foreign interventions and the development of national solidarities; pan-Hellenism and
philhellenism. Egyptian invasion, Eastern Question, and Battle of Navarino, 1827. Egyptian
withdrawal and Greek independence. Treaty of Adrianople (1829) and Conference of London
(February 1830).
2.
Syrian Crisis, 1831-1841. Egyptian imperialism and the European balance of power. Egypt’s invasion
of Anatolia, and Anglo-Russian reaction. Treaty of Hünkâr İskelesi and Egyptian withdrawal from
Anatolia, 1833. Ottoman-Egyptian war of 1838-1839. British intervention and defeat of Mehmet Ali;
withdrawal from Syria and Palestine. London Straits Convention, 1840-1841.
3.
Crimean War, 1853-1857. European patronage (Capitulations) of religious minorities and ethnonationalist challenges to Ottoman rule. Contest between Russia (Orthodox), France (Catholic),
Britain (Protestant) for supreme administrative rights over sacred Christian shrines of Jerusalem.
French show of force in Black Sea and violation of London Straits Convention. Allied invasion of
the Crimea; Ottoman alliance with Allies and defeat of Russia: Treaty of Paris of 1856.
4.
Mount Lebanon, 1860-1861. Druse-Maronite conflict in Mount Lebanon, and Muslim-Christian war
in Syrian provinces. European intervention and establishment of autonomous Mount Lebanon with
special administration and confessional regime.
5.
Arabic Renaissance (Al-Nahda), 1860s-. Butros al-Bustani and the articulation of shared Arab
national (jinsiyya) and patriotic (wataniyya) heritage. Cultural interactions between Arab and European
Christians, and Arabic cultural renaissance. Establishment of Evangelical and Catholic universities in
Beirut: American Syrian Protestant College (later, American University of Beirut) in 1866 and
Université St. Joseph (French Jesuits) in 1875.
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II.
A.
Great Eastern Crisis, 1875-1881
Revolution, Nationalism and Imperialism
Eastern Question in wake of German unification (1864-1871) and post-Crimea Russian imperialism.
Russo-Ottoman War of 1877. Collapse of Ottoman economy, 1876-1877. Congress of Berlin, JuneJuly 1878. Territorial settlements and high tide of European imperialism. Reactionism of Sultan
Abdul Hamid II: suspension of Ottoman Parliament and Constitution; end of liberalization reforms
(Tanzimat); emphasis on pan-Islamic policies; clampdown on Arab nationalist groups and proEuropean elements, suspension of Arab press and schools.
B.
1.
Birth of Islamism
Accumulation of debt and bankruptcy of Egypt, 1876-1877. France, Britain and Public Debt
Commission (PDC). Popular discontent, constitutionalist movements, and uprising of “Egypt for
Egyptians” movement, 1879. Rise of Colonel Ahmad Urabi. Confrontation with Britain over PDC.
British bombardment and occupation of Alexandria, 1881. Defeat of Urabi at Tel el-Kebir, 13
September 1882. British occupation of Egypt.
2.
Ideological principles of Islamic Revivalism. (a) Jamal al-Din al-Afghani and Muhammad
Abduh. Salafism: Establishment of social order based on founding political principles of Islam, as
instituted and practiced by Prophet Muhammad and first converts (al-salaf). Emphasis on individual
reasoning (ijtihad) and communal or public interest (maslaha) in implementing Muslim law (shari‘ah)
and modernizing Muslim societies. (b) Rashid Rida’s counter-modernity: pitfalls and contradictions
of European universalism. Technology, modernity and purification of the Muslim faith. Break with
Abduh and splintering of Islamic Revivalist ideology.
III.
A.
Political Realignments, 1881-1914
Pax Britannica
Collapse of traditional politics of Eastern Question and Britain’s post-1882 eastern strategy. GermanOttoman rapprochement: Berlin-Baghdad Railway and German designs on Persian Gulf. Abdul
Hamid’s pan-Islamism and Hijaz Railway project. Conference of Berlin of 1884-1885. European
partitioning of Africa. Entente Cordiale, 1904.
B.
Arabian Peninsula and Persian Gulf
Anglo-Russian stand-off in Persian Gulf and Iran. (a) Iran: Foreign concessions and Tobacco
Protest of 1891. Revolution of 1905 and establishment of constituent assembly (majlis). Fundamental
Laws of 1907. Discovery of petroleum reserves in Abadan, 1908. Anglo-Russian intervention,
counter-revolution and restoration, 1908-1909. Occupation and partitioning of Iran. (b) Arabia:
Britain’s alliance with Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud. Wahhabi conquest of province of Hasa, 1913. Province
of Basra and Ottoman access to Persian Gulf. Expansion of Kuwait into southern Iraq.
C.
1.
Birth of Political Zionism
European Jewry and the nation-state. Status of Jews in post-Enlightenment Europe: individual vs.
communal rights. Anti-Jewish pogroms and emergence of Zionist movement: redefinition of Jewish
populations as political entity; constitution of territorially-defined nation-state; sponsorship of largescale Jewish immigration to Palestine (alya). Publication of Theodor Herzl’s Der Judenstaat. First
Congress of World Zionist Organization (Basel, 1897).
2.
Local Reactions to Zionism. Arab intellectuals on Zionism. Second alya (1910s), suspension of use
of Palestinian laborers, and first Palestinian-Zionist confrontations. Creation of socialist economic
collectives and development of kibbutzim. Young Turk opposition to Zionist immigration.
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IV.
A.
1.
THE GREAT WAR, 1914-1919
Theaters of Military and Political Operations
British Reversals, 1915-1916. Ottoman failure in Egypt (Suez Canal); British surrender in Iraq (Kut
al-Amara, April 1916). Assault on Straits of the Dardanelles, defeat at Gallipoli and withdrawal.
Russian counter-offensive. Armenian massacre. October Revolution of 1917. Treaty of BrestLitovsk. Young Turks (Enver Pasha, Jamal Pasha, Talaat Pasha) and Arab nationalists.
2.
Caucasus Front and Armenian Massacre
Annihilation of Ottoman Third Army (Enver Pasha), January 1915. Russian advances in Anatolian
heartland, May 1915. Proclamation of independent Armenian Republic of Van. Expulsion and
transfer of Armenians communities of eastern Anatolia to northern Syria. Terror campaign, massacre
of civilians. October Revolution of 1917; Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (April 1918); restoration of
Russian-Ottoman borders of 1876.
3.
Political Repression of Arab Nationalists
CUP clampdown on Arab secret societies al-Fatat and al-Qahtaniyya. Jemal Pasha’s round-up of SyroLebanese notables. Elimination of political leadership of Syria and Lebanon. Re-orientation of British
anti-Ottoman efforts towards the Hijaz. Arab Revolt, 1916-1918.
B.
1.
Political and Diplomatic Maneuvers
Husayn-MacMahon Correspondence, 1915-1916. Secret correspondence between British High
Commissioner in Egypt and Sharif Husayn. Ambiguities of terns and engagements.
2.
Sykes-Picot Accord and Arab Revolt. Faysal ibn Husayn and T.E. Lawrence. Details of secret
agreement between France, Britain, and Russia; development of plans for partitioning Ottoman
Empire.
3.
Balfour Declaration, November 1917. Britain’s official sponsorship of a Jewish national homeland
in Palestine.
4.
Faysal-Weizmann Accords, 1919. Absence of Arab delegations to Paris. Britain’s brokered
agreement between Faysal and Chaim Weizmann (Dec. 1918). Ambiguities in definition of Jewish
national homeland. Large-scale anti-British demonstrations in Palestine.
5.
King-Crane Commission, 1920. Dispatch of fact-finding commission under Henry King and
Charles Crane to ascertain local political demands in former Ottoman provinces. Results of petitions.
Withdrawal of US from Peace Conference. Ratification of Treaties of Versailles and beginning of
partitioning of Ottoman Empire by France, Britain, Italy, and Greece.
V.
A.
SPOILS OF WAR: PARTITIONING OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE, 1919-1924
France and the Arab Kingdom
British evacuation and French occupation of Lebanon. Declaration of independent Kingdom of Syria
under Faysal. French ultimatum and invasion of Syria. Battle of Maysalun and capture of Damascus,
July 1920. End of Arab Kingdom: creation of Greater Lebanon, 1923 and partition of Syria.
B.
New British Imperialism: Iraq and Palestine
Transfer of Faysal to Baghdad and appointment as King of the British mandate Iraq: composed of
Vilayet of Mosul (Sunni Kurds), Vilayet of Baghdad (Sunni Arab), and Vilayet of Basra (Shiite Arab).
Creation of Kingdom of Transjordan under Abdallah. Question of Palestine not resolved.
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C.
Treaty of Sèvres
De facto recognition of military occupation of Anatolia by signatories to Sykes-Picot. November 1918,
Allied forces and Greece move into Anatolia to establish zones of control: French and British forces
occupy Istanbul, French in Cilicia, Italians in Antalya, Greeks in western Thrace and Smyrna.
Independent Armenian state and autonomous Kurdish province in eastern Anatolia. Treaty of
Moscow with Bolsheviks. Greco-Turkish War: victory of Turkish forces under Mustafa Kemal,
retreat of Allied power, and defeat of Greece. Transfer of populations, massive deportations, and
forceful resettlement of Greeks and Turks. November 1922: Mustafa Kemal, Ataturk, abolishes
Ottoman Sultanate and establishes Turkish Republic in Ankara. International recognition of new
borders with Treaty of Lausanne (24 July 1923). Turkey renounces claims to former Ottoman
territories outside new boundaries and guarantees rights of minorities within its state.
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