Longitudinal ethnographic study on the factors
surrounding the socio-economic empowerment of
(former) street girls in Tshangu District
War Child –UK / Kinshasa, République
Démocratique du Congo
Support and Protection of Vulnerable Girls and young Women living and Working on the
streets of Tshangu District, Kinshasa, DRC - phase II (march 2014/15).
Democratic Republic of the Congo
OSEPER
1
Data sheet
Editors Frederic Baele – www.fbaconsult.com
Data collected by the educators and social workers of Anuarite Shelter.
Survey supervisors: Jean Jacques Kabanga, Iyav Muhunga, Justyne Hejman
Data entered by Frederic Baele
Photo credits
©Frederic Baele
Harare, February 2015
2
Acknowledgements
The team responsible for compiling this report would like to thank all of the social and health
workers, technical staff, managers, vulnerable girls and women, staff from OSEPER, Centre Anuarite,
War Child, REEJER, in these territories for helping us carry out our surveys in the field. This report
was produced with the help of funding from the DFID in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
This research report and its contents are the consultant’s own views and do not represent the views
of War Child, OSEPER, Centre Anuarite or DFID.
3
4
Executive Summary
The city of Kinshasa has experienced an unprecedented period of demographic and spatial growth
over the last fifty years. This rapid urban expansion, combined with political tensions and an increase
in social inequalities in a liberalized society, has led to the pauperization and marginalization of vast
segment of the population.
This assessment aimed to provide more information about the social representation of Vulnerable
Girls and Young Women living in the street of Tshangu’s district, the socio-economic situation
experienced by them, the conditions for improving their integration and lastly their relation with
social services.
The first part of the report contains a social and anthropological analysis of the representation of
the target population (Vulnerable Girls and Young Women living in the street). It studies street
trajectories, access to adulthood and relations VGYW have with mainstream society.
Children access adulthood differently depending on their sex. Men access adulthood when they are
financially autonomous. Women when they marry. The relation to sexuality is very different for men
or women. It is socially accepted for men to have polygamist relations if he can provide whilst it is
unacceptable for woman to have polyandrous relations. Gender relations are changing with the
need for women to access economic spaces traditionally related to men.
The broader context of Kinshasa’ society shows characteristics of important changes in values. The
poverty combined with an insufficient response from the government and with value relating
success to individual behaviours are nurturing a system creating competition between individuals.
In the competition for wealth, women are seen as using their charms to gain advantages (jobs,
promotions, money and grades).
Children are more vulnerable and at risk of being neglected or held responsible for difficulties the
family unit has. In a context of competition, the weakest are more often held responsible for the
shortcomings of the others. Poverty and responsabilization of children seem to be the main factor
for girls to run away from home or to be kicked out of their family.
The society has given birth to a particular street-based system where individuals are gathering in
groups called Ecuries. The Ecuries are providing the VGYW with security and a feeling of belonging.
They respond to the need of the girls and bring a certain balance in their life. Girls in Ecuries are
involved in commercial sex. The entrance in the Ecuries and the involvement in commercial sex
enable the VGYW to change their relation to their sexuality. In that context, prostitution is an
income generating activity, but also has to be seen in its ecosystem: as a factor of integration with a
group of peer and with the mainstream society.
5
VGYW are developing strong bonds with their boyfriend (they call Love). The relationship respects
the mainstream gender responsibilities and divide. Although the VGYW continues her night
activities, she has an exclusive relation with her boyfriend. She will join his Ecurie the same way she
would have joined his family, and as a couple they will slowly loosen their relation to the Ecuries. As
a young adult VGYW will aim to build her own home.
Girls and young women living in the street cannot be seen as part of groups and subcultures that
are unrelated to mainstream society. They are fully integrated and the interaction between
mainstream society and street-based groups and activities are constant.
The second chapter reveals the current socio-economic situation of the VGYW, the economy of
prostitution and their support groups. As a main support group, the Ecuries1 play a role of
integration and inclusion for the VGYW. Their organisation is relatively loose, with a weak
hierarchical system. VGYW are not forced into those gangs and there are possible for them to easily
move in, out, and change groups. The bond between the members is based on their similar lifestyle,
experiences, a sense of solidarity and kinship. Ecuries are replacing the supportive environment a
family should provide. In that way, Ecuries are a base of strength for the VGYW. Ecuries should be
considered as a key environment in which to base the process of change and better integration.
Within the Ecuries girls are autonomous. They are free to share their resources to buy food and
other essentials together, to reduce costs. If the members of the Ecuries can look after each other in
specific circumstances, every member is expected to provide for itself. Girls are developing different
IGA. Some have day-jobs (selling, begging, cleaning/serving in restaurants,…), and all are involved in
commercial sex at night. The resources brought by commercial sex enable to provide enough for
their lifestyle.
The third chapter analyses alternatives to their current socio-economic integration. It presents a
market study done with 28 income generating activities that have been identified as alternatives to
commercial sex and the limitations of the potential success of reintegration with an IGA.
Two keys elements have been identified in the market study: Firstly, women are not developing IGA
by will/passion but by necessity. The same applies to prostitution. Both women have the same type
of dreams and ideal profession. These IGA are generally seen as a step towards change and their
dreams. Secondly, IGA are seldom providing enough resources for the women to sustain a decent
lifestyle. Women have a decent lifestyle because they live in a family and its different members are
contributing to the different costs. Economic balance is found combining the resources of all the
members. This is also what is seen in street-based systems: in Ecuries or in the way couples are
working. The estimation of resources gained by prostitution is also superior to the income generated
by IGA: they are made in less time, are more important and can bring important extra-money when
combined with theft. IGA are an important tool to change the dynamic of the integration of VGYW.
In the context of a family multiple IGA are combined to provide enough resources. IGA are also to be
seen as a step for change. Ecurie-based economic empowerment should be considered as the
default-option instead of conditioning the reintegration of the VGYW to her exit from a street-based
system. Their system of organization is loose and make it possible to develop interventions aiming at
changing the dynamic of integration of the VGYW within, mainly reducing their vulnerability, risks
and involvement in commercial sex.
The response system is explored in the fourth part of this report, and analyses the reintegration
successes in regard to the relations between VGYW and the social services. The mandate social
workers have, the way social services understand their target group and the results that project
managers need to obtain are having an important impact on services given and on the satisfaction of
1
An Ecurie is the word used by the VGYW to describe the street-based group of socialization. It is the local denomination
for a gang.
6
the VGYW. Project management techniques, focusing on responding with a set of activities to preidentified problems are not adapted to the specificities of human relationships and change of
behaviours.
Either social workers can explain the issues faced by the target group through individual
characteristics. Girls are seen as victims, deviants or marginal. The role of the social workers is to
provide responses to compensate and bring the girls to “normality”.
Or social workers look at the interaction between the mainstream group and the target group. Their
role is to lead change and build new ways to lessen the risks and discrimination faced by the VGYW.
In order to lead changes (at the community level and at the individual level) social workers have to
be in a work environment that enables them to adapt and create, not only focusing on “solving
problems” but on improving the relation.
Management tools are pertinent for obtaining results that depend on series of specific activities that
need to be consistent. They are not appropriate to work on change for a person. The focus should be
on the goal, not on the way to get there (actions). Social worker need a certain freedom of action to
be able to work with the girls. The way to manage the teams changes accordingly, focusing on
professional support and collective leadership.
As long as the VGYW are seen through their shortcomings and problems, the task given to the
social workers is never ending, augment the risks of motivation loss which have a negative effect
in reaching the results. The focus needs to shift from trying to resolve problems to working from
the girls’ strengths and aiming for change. A strong stabilizing element of the girls’ life are the
Ecuries. Street base work should be promoted and complement a strategy to take the girls off the
street.
Lastly, the final part of this report provides a series of recommendations in three axis:
a) Improving the Socio-Economic Integration of the VGYW
 Empowering the VGYW within their groups: Develop street-based work with the Ecuries
including group and individual methods (girl empowerment, leading change, group and
individual projects of change, IGA, Literacy, …).
 Helping the VGYW in improving their communication and relations with their
family/kin.
b) Strengthening of the social workers and Human Resource/project management
 Strengthening of project managers and coordinators with capacitation and tools to
support social workers. This includes the use of a more collective leadership techniques
in the design and support to the interventions, and projects that are based on the theory
of change techniques.
 Supervision and professional support to workers: Including the introduction of stress
management and monitoring of the wellbeing of the social workers.
c) Advocacy and social change.
 Prevention and improving the systems to respond quickly to first arrival of the girls in
the street. Child protection systems (prevention and rehabilitation) cannot respond to
all children in need in Kinshasa. The system has to identify the risk levels and craft its
responses by priorities and feasibility. Out-of-street strategies work best for children
that have not yet socialize in the street. They should be identified quicker and taken out
with priority.
 Advocacy at the community and political level: child protection, poverty reduction,
girl’s empowerment and gender relations. Values and behaviour change at the level of
the society takes time. Addressing the issue of street children and more particularly the
sex work VGYW are involved into when in the street demands to look at the
7
underpinned values linked to solidarity, gender relation and family support in the urban
environment.
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Contents
Data sheet........................................................................................................................................... 2
Executive Summary ............................................................................................................................ 5
Contents ............................................................................................................................................. 9
Acronyms .......................................................................................................................................... 11
Glossary ............................................................................................................................................ 12
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 15
1- War Child’s project with vulnerable girls and women of the Tshangu District .................... 15
2- Goals of the Research ........................................................................................................... 16
3- Implementation schedule and key stages ............................................................................ 17
Methodology .................................................................................................................................... 19
1- Socio-anthropological approach: qualitative survey via focus groups ................................. 22
2- Questionnaire-based quantitative survey ............................................................................ 23
Characteristics of the context........................................................................................................... 24
1- A changing urban environment ............................................................................................ 24
2- The spiritual world ................................................................................................................ 26
3- Social norms and urban values ............................................................................................. 27
4- Interaction between poverty, social exclusion and child protection ................................... 29
1 Chapter............................................................................................................................................... 31
Social representation of Children living in the streets (Shegues) ......................................................... 31
1- Access to adulthood, social standards and ideal .................................................................. 31
2- Experience of Childhood ....................................................................................................... 32
3- When things go wrong .......................................................................................................... 32
4- The responsibility of the child ............................................................................................... 34
5- Popular beliefs have a profound formative effect on group representations...................... 35
6- Trajectories in the street....................................................................................................... 36
2 Chapter............................................................................................................................................... 42
Socio-economic situation of street- based girls.................................................................................... 42
1- Domestic economy of street-based girls .............................................................................. 42
2- The Ecuries ............................................................................................................................ 46
3 Chapter............................................................................................................................................... 51
Market study on income-generating activities ..................................................................................... 51
1- Income generating activities and gender.............................................................................. 51
2- Poverty .................................................................................................................................. 53
3- Improving economic integration........................................................................................... 53
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4- Dreams and project to change ............................................................................................. 54
4 Chapter............................................................................................................................................... 56
Social services and reintegration projects ............................................................................................ 56
1- Human needs and social inclusion ........................................................................................ 56
5- Services to girls living in the street ....................................................................................... 59
6- Reintegration ........................................................................................................................ 62
7- Social workforce .................................................................................................................... 69
Recommendations for improving the socio-economic integration of Vulnerable Girls and Young
Women ............................................................................................................................................. 73
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................... 77
Annexes ............................................................................................................................................ 80
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Acronyms
AGR / IGA
ARV
DIVAS
EpE / CtC
ESR
IO
M&E
OSEPER
RAP
DRC
STD / STI
SWOT
ToR
VGYW
VIH/SIDA
WCUK
Activités Génératrices de Revenu / Income Generating Activities
Anti-Retro-Viral
Division des Affaires Sociales
Enfant pour Enfant / Child to Child
Enfant en Situation de Rue
International Organization
Monitoring and Evaluation
Œuvre de Suivi, Education, Protection des Enfants de la Rue
Recherche Action Participative, Participative Action Research
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Sexually transmitted diseases / Sexually Transmitted Infections
Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats
Terms of Reference
Vulnerable Girls and Young Women
Virus d’Immunodéficience Humaine (VIH) / Syndrome d’Immuno
Déficience acquise
War Child United Kingdom
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Glossary
Prostitution2: the business or practice of engaging in sexual relations in exchange for payment or
some other benefit. A person who works in this field is called a prostitute. Prostitution is one of the
branches of the sex industry. The legal status of prostitution varies from country to country
(sometimes from region to region within a given country), ranging from being permissible but
unregulated, to an enforced or unenforced crime, or a regulated profession. In the DRC prostitution
is illegal but to buy the services of a prostitute is tolerated.
Most sex worker activists groups reject the word prostitute and since the late 1970s have used the
term sex worker instead. However, sex worker can also mean anyone who works within the sex
industry or whose work is of a sexual nature and is not limited solely to prostitutes.
Commercial sex / sex work3: The terms 'sex work' and 'sex worker' have been coined by sex
workers themselves to redefine commercial sex, not as the social or psychological characteristic of a
class of women, but as an income-generating activity or form of employment for women and men...
The Network of Sex Work Projects proposes the following definition of sex work:
Negotiation and performance of sexual services for remuneration
 with or without intervention by a third party
 where those services are advertised or generally recognised as available from a specific
location
 where the price of services reflects the pressures of supply and demand.
In this definition, 'negotiation' implies the rejection of specific clients or acts on an individual basis.
Indiscriminate acceptance by the worker of all proposed transactions is not presumed -- such
acceptance would indicate the presence of coercion.
Child: Biologically, a child is generally a human between the stages of birth and puberty4. The legal
definition of child refers to a minor, otherwise known as a person younger than the age of majority.
In the research the term child refers to the biological definition, whilst we will use the term girl/boy
and VGYW to refer to the target population without considering the age factor.
Society5: A human society is a group of people involved in persistent interpersonal relationships, or a
large social grouping sharing the same geographical or social territory, typically subject to the same
political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Human societies are characterized by
patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and
institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its
constituent members. In the social sciences, a larger society often evinces stratification or
dominance patterns in subgroups.
Community6: A community is a social unit of any size that shares common values. Although
embodied or face-to-face communities are usually small, larger or more extended communities such
as a national community, international community and virtual community are also studied.
2
Based on "Prostitution – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". Merriam-Webster.
The Network of Sex Work Projects and Jo Bindman, Former Information Officer with End Child Prostitution in Asian
Tourism (ECPAT), in the 1997 report "Redefining Prostitution as Sex Work on the International Agenda",
http://prostitution.procon.org/view.answers.php?questionID=000849 (nov 14)
4 Oxford University Press. Retrieved January 5, 2013
5 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society
6 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community
3
12
In human communities, intent, belief, resources, preferences, needs, risks, and a number of other
conditions may be present and common, affecting the identity of the participants and their degree
of cohesiveness.
The word "community" is derived from the Latin communitas, a broad term for fellowship or
organized society. One broad definition of community is "a group or network of persons who are
connected (objectively) to each other by relatively durable social relations that extend beyond
immediate genealogical ties, and who mutually define that relationship (subjectively) as important
to their social identity and social practice." 7
F. Tönnies distinguished two types of human association: Gemeinschaft (translated as "community")
and Gesellschaft ("society"). Gemeinschaft is perceived to be a tighter and more cohesive social
entity, due to the presence of a "unity of will." Family and kinship were the perfect expressions of
Gemeinschaft. Other shared characteristics, such as place (the street) or belief, could also result in
Gemeinschaft. 8
Group9 In the social sciences, a social group has been defined as two or more people who interact
with one another, share similar characteristics and collectively have a sense of unity. For the
research we are talking about groups in reference to the identity the individuals are identifying with,
so "a group is defined in terms of those who identify themselves as members of the group".
Regardless, social groups come in a myriad of sizes and varieties. For example, a society can be
viewed as a large social group.
Ecurie: An Ecurie is a group of people (children, young adults and adults) who have as a common
characteristic to be living in the street in Kinshasa.
Family10: a family is a group of people affiliated by consanguinity (by recognized birth), affinity (by
marriage), or co-residence and/or shared consumption (Nurture kinship). Members of the
immediate family may include a spouse, parent, brother, sister, son and/or daughter. Members of
the extended family may include grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, nephews, nieces and/or
siblings-in-law. Authors such as Durkheim and Mauss stated that families are to be considered
socially and not only as a biological configuration.
In Kinshasa the family is regarded as the principal institution for the socialization of children. As the
basic unit for raising children, anthropologists generally classify most family organization as
matrifocal (a mother and her children); conjugal (a husband, his wife, and children; also called the
nuclear family); avuncular (for example, a grandparent, a brother, his sister, and her children); or
extended (parents and children co-reside with other members of one parent's family).
Integration (Re-integration): Action to include a section into a whole11. For Parson, integration is
one of the main function of the social system, aiming at the functionality of the whole. Integration is
the movement by which individuals and groups are adopting values and behaviours of mainstream
society
Reintegration is to integrate again into an entity: restore to unity12.
In the context of the project, reintegration refers to the re-unification and return of the VGYW in her
family unit whilst integration refers to the relation the VGYW has with her groups of belonging,
community and mainstream society.
7
James, Paul (2006). Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism: Bringing Theory Back In —Volume 2 of Towards a Theory of
Abstract Community. London: Sage Publications.
8 Tönnies, F. 1887. Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft
9 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_group
10 M. Grawitz (2000), Lexiques des Sciences Sociales, ed. Dalloz, Paris
11 M. Grawitz (2000), Lexiques des Sciences Sociales, ed. Dalloz,
12 http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/reintegrate
13
Social Standards13 or norm is a group-held belief about how members should behave in a given
context. They are informal understandings that govern individuals' behavior in society or group. The
psychological definition emphasizes social norms' behavioral component, stating norms have two
dimensions: how much behavior is exhibited and how much the group approves of that behavior.
Local community – refers to a person’s local environment, including the population and all of the
different stakeholders (public and private), in a defined geographic location/area, with a shared
sense of belonging faced with the same limitations and benefiting from the same advantages.
Mainstream services - these services meet the basic needs of all individuals (education, health,
employment, social services and/or social security). They must be entirely accessible to ensure the
social participation, dignity and equal opportunities of citizens. VGYW have the same basic needs
and therefore the same right to access these services as other citizens.
Specialised services - these services are dedicated to a particular section of the population,
according to their specific needs (e.g.: specialised education, rehabilitation service, etc). These
services may be considered as an extension of mainstream services but must remain “open” to the
outside by establishing a maximum number of gateways to other types of services.
Support services - designed as individual complementary services, they enable each individual,
according to their needs and choices, to access mainstream services at the community level, like any
other person. A support service helps to ensure the effective mainstreaming of vulnerable girls and
women. For example, integration in the job market, accommodation, family contacts, etc.
13
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norm_%28social%29
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Introduction
Introduction to the local assessment
1- War Child’s project with vulnerable girls and women of
the Tshangu District
The Recherche Action Participative (RAP), comes after a first phase of WCUK’s project in support to
vulnerable girls and young women (VGYW) in the Tshangu District, in Kinshasa.
There is an estimation of over 20.000 children living in the street in Kinshasa, with 2’000 children
ending in the street every year14. An estimate of 45% of them are VGYW. The network REEJER,
Réseau des Educateurs pour Enfants et Jeunes de la Rue has identified over 160 organizations
working with children in street situation in Kinshasa (REEJER-AMADE).
There are many issues that help to explain the important number of children and youngsters living in
the street: the war, domestic labor, violence and abuse, urban immigration, new churches/sects and
the phenomenon of “witch-children”, street culture etc.
People living in the street are commonly called Shégués, and constitute a social group which has
been at the center of local politics for the past decade (eg. Their political involvement as militia for
Bemba and Tshisekedi, ostracism by the government etc.). Street children are the target population
for numerous NGO programs aiming at their re-integration or better insertion.
WCUK and partners develop short term assistance and long term rehabilitation programs with
vulnerable girls and young women living in the street:
a) Interventions in the street providing advice and health care (sexual health, mental
health and psycho-social support and general care).
b) Intervention of re-integration, through a transit centre, the Centre Anuarite. Reintegration and counselling are providing individual and family-based support. VGYW are
being offered complement in information, education and helped in finding income
generating activities (IGA).
The research aims at identifying the best practices for the socio-economic integration of the VGYW.
14
The guessed number varies between 20,000 and 40,000, depending on the sources. On the scale of the estimated
population of Kinshasa (8.5Mo), the percentage of children living in the street is between 0.24% of the population (est. of
20.000 children) and 0.98% of the population under 18 (est. of 40.000 children).
15
2- Goals of the Research
VGYW living and working in the street are the target group of this research. Past experience aiming
at their re-integration and social insertion have proven difficult with uneven results. Many VGYW in
the street are involved in activities that are not socially or morally accepted or promoted by
Kinshasa’s mainstream society (commercial sex, drug and substance abuse, etc.). Such activities are
seen as a threat to the social cohesion, and are being assimilated to problems (crime, sexual
diseases, promiscuity, evil, etc.). Often people living in the street are seen via problems identified by
people not living in the street: as victims, criminals, deviants, inadequate, etc.
Most organizations working with the target group are developing project of social re-integration,
considering life in the street as being outside the ideal and accepted social norms. Individuals living
in the street are considered as being non-integrated to the society. Social workers and the
government will develop intervention to “normalize” the street-based population by promoting
family or kin-reunification, formal education, training in a trade, and information/sensitization about
values, competences and life skills. In extreme cases governments will take measures to push out,
re-educate or physically eliminate non-fitting citizens.
The research aims at bringing an ethnographic study of the group, which involved understanding the
group sub-culture, its coherences and actual integration in the society.
Individual do not always make the choice of living/working in the street. Once in the street,
youngsters are quickly having to adapt to the street-based groups. Street-based culture has
particularities, rules and values that are providing a sense of belonging and security. The
understanding of the group organization and values is essential in any process aiming at changing
the social inclusion of individuals from one group to another.
The research is longitudinal and ethnographic. It aims at improving the socio-economic reintegration
of vulnerable girls and young women in one of Kinshasa’s municipality, the district of Tshangu.
 Longitudinal study: looking at the existing reintegration processes and analysing their
strengths and shortcomings. The participative action-research-based study enables to
implement changes according to knowledge gathered during the study.
 Participative research: The methodology is based on a constant questioning of the activities
and levels of knowledge that fundament our interventions. The stakeholders are involved in
the gathering of information, analysis of their interventions, the successes and difficulties
they experience. The involvement of the team working with the VGYW in gathering data and
leading the focus groups aims at opening the dialogue between “helpers” and “helped”.
 Ethnographic study: Looks at communities and the bonds between the individuals forming
groups. Individuals are part of groups sharing common characteristics: language, values,
habits, etc. An ethnographic study looks at the bond and shared characteristics in a group
rather than on the particularities of each cases (case management).
 Reintegration: A re-integration supposes the return of an individual within a group. The
person left the group for causes ranging from exclusion to personal decision.
 Improve: Implies that the current situation is not satisfactory.
 Socio-economic reintegration: the goal is for the VGYW to come back to acceptable
behaviours and activities by the standards of the mainstream society. The social aspect
refers to the relations between the VGYW and its family, community and society of
belonging. The economic refers to the market and ways to create and manage resources.
16
3- Implementation schedule and key stages
The research ran from July 2014 to January 2015. Its key stages were:
1- Documents review and contacts with experts. This has been a constant ongoing process.
2- Initial workshop (July 2014). The aim of the workshop was to set the bases of the
Participative action research in the four fields to be addressed:
a. Case management and individual support to VGYW currently in the process of reunification, autonomisation and reintegration.
b. Setting the bases for the market study
c. Setting the bases for the social integration study (relations between the subgroup
and the mainstream society, values, gender).
d. Assessing the values and lines of work of the team working with the VGYW.
3- First sets of questionnaires to the VGYW.
a. A first questionnaire has been given to 121 valid VGYW from 10 To 44 years old. The
questions gave broad indicators on their lives, values and occupations (sept 14).
b. The social workers then gave a second questionnaire to 80 valid VGYW from 12 to
39 years old addressing the specific topic of prostitution, its organisation and
resources (oct 14).
4- From the answers to the questionnaires three sets of questions were built to complement
the research:
a. A set of questions on the Ecuries, as organized sub-groups of integration. 38 Ecuries
have been identified. The sets of questions studied their hierarchy, organization,
relations with others, access, services given to members and activities (November
14)
b. A set of question on values and relationship for couples. 13 couples have been
interviewed (January 15)15
c. A set of questions on values and life skills in the street, given during six interactive
focus groups (methodology of a World Café) that gathered 25 VGYW (5 groups of 5)
5- A Questionnaire for the population of the District involved in income generating activities
pre-identified as possible options for the reintegration of VGYW. 28 different IGA have been
studied mainly in the service industry (hair-dresser, beautician, restaurants) and in
commerce (selling of goods in the informal and formal market). The market study did not
look at any work in agriculture, formal transformation industries and office work. The
market study looked at four components:
a. Characteristics of the IGA (incomes, hardship,…) and happiness of the person
b. Educational and life-skills identified to run the IGA successfully.
c. Support the person received to start the IGA (initial investment, access to capital,
network and goods) and to balance its present costs of living.
d. Economical skills needed to be successful (budgeting, finances…)
15
In the language used by the VGYW, the term “Love” (in English) is specifically referring to their boyfriend. VGYW will only
identify one boyfriend, or Love. In the text we’ll put the work in Italic with a Capital Letter to refer to the person
(boyfriend). The questionnaire was thus targeting these couples.
17
6- A workshop with the staff of the Centre Anuarite (November 14) based on collective
leadership and participation, giving a feedback on the research and drafting possible actions.
The workshop used and shared tools for project and knowledge management in designing
and leading interventions. The workshop closed with an activity in designing actions for
change, to improve the interventions with VGYW.
18
Methodology
The entire process of the longitudinal ethnographic research was action based. It aimed at
identifying the practices bringing the best result in changing a street-based situation that is seen
through its high risk, lack of safety and security.
The street-system has its own dynamics and habitus which serve as a base for any behavioral
change. Empowering the girls and aiming at improving their conditions will affect the entire system
and upset its present balance. There are strong resistance and difficulties linked to the target group
(children and youngster involved in a street system). The research aimed at developing activities that
are in tune with the particularities of the group.
The longitudinal action-research gathered knowledge to be integrated back in the intervention. The
research focused on three groups: the VGYW in the street (met in the street, in their couple, in the
shelter), the social workers and management staff and the mainstream society.
Strenghtening of the
individual (resilience and
social/family inclusion)
and acompaniement in
reaching the person's
dreams.
Strenghtening of a group
of peers (I am not alone),
and identification of the
caracteristics of the
group
Comunity integration of
the girls (how are they
included/ seen as
deviant) and comunity
ideal for girls and
women
Practical activities to lower the
risk, better the safety and
security of the girls (incl. socioeconomical empowerment,
income generating activities and
social inclusion
The research was action-led and participative.
The team of social workers led the interviews and questionnaires. The involvement of the same
team in charge of running the project interventions and the reflections (questionnaires and
knowledge management) aimed at creating a dynamic were social workers can take distance from
daily implementation and project management and start taking a role in analysing their work, the
impact on the VGYW and leading changes to respond better to the needs of VGYW. The design and
appropriation of the project and its activities by the social workers is essential in order not to
implement top-down project that are not responding to the reality and needs of both the VGYW and
the social workers.
Theory of change
The design of interventions were based on the theory of change and positive inquiry. The language
that we use as social worker has a direct impact on the relation we have with the target population.
Using a positive inquiry was interesting in order to create a new perspective and start a process of
change. It helps groups that are blocked in certainties (“this is how it is”) to move towards change
(“this is how it could be”). The methodology behind positive inquiry and theory of change (leading
19
innovations) is different from the one of problem-solving (management of situations) and better
adapted in the specific context of improving social and economic integration.


Resolving problems16
Assess what is not working (problem)
Analise causes
Propose and implement possible solutions
The present situation is seen as a problem that
need to be resolved.
Positive inquiry
Value and appreciate the best of the current
situation « what there is »
 Dream and visualize « what could be”
(objective of change)
 Dialogue on “what would be needed” (steps to
reach the change)
 Create “what will be”
The situation/ organisation is a mystery that has to
be accepted as such.

The core idea is to take the active decision to lead a supportive work based on the strengths, not on
the failures/obstacles, so to empower the target population. Project cycle management and initial
assessments based on the identification of problems tend to build activities on a hidden dichotomy
of good vs bad and pose the project staff with the responsibility of resolving problems of others
(beneficiaries of the intervention). To solely focus on the dysfunctions and problems of the target
population negate its strengths and the balance it finds in the street. The project increases the risk in
not addressing the target population in its wholeness and force change from outside, sometime not
welcome nor sustainable.
Practically, to address (re)-integration of the VGYW, social workers are confronted in responding to
multiple problems. Such problems are later identified as obstacles to explain the lack of satisfactory
results for the project. The situation is overwhelming for the social workers and led to feelings of
failure, lack of motivation and helplessness. The theory of change on which the action-research was
based promotes a different perspective:

16
17
Problems to be responded
Prostitution, nymphomania, theft, behavioural
problems, drug abuse, negative influences
from peers, mobility, poverty, illiteracy,
violence, abuse, easy money, cupidity, lack of
self -esteem, dysfunctional families, influence
of the churches, social discrimination, gender
inequality, lack of information, lack of interest
from the families, the Love17, Ecuries, The way
the
government/society/family/church
consider the VGYW…





Positive inquiry
What is your dream ?
What are your strengths? Your qualities?
What do your friends like about you?
How can you reach your dream? What would
be the steps?
Who are your friends? Who helps you when in
difficulty?
Do you foresee any obstacles in reaching your
dream? How to respond to them?
Adapted from the Art of Hosting workshop, Navigating Uncertainties, Harare, 2014
Love as Boyfriend
20
Four dimensions of the Participative Action Research
The Research developed activities on four dimensions:
Case Management
Social Integration
Individual support and case management includes :
 Working on listening and hearing stories and
personal experiences
 Working on case management procedures.
 Recognizing dreams of change and supporting
the set-up of life-projects
 Life-skills building and girl-empowerment
 Identifying skills and capital (social, relational,
economical, educational)
Social integration includes :
 The identification of trajectories
 The inclusion of girls in supportive groups
 The study of social models and urban
family.
 The integration of VGYW within the childstreet system.
 The relations of inclusion of the childstreet system within Kinshasa urban
society.
 Study options to strengthen the
integration of VGYW within the
possibilities of the mainstream society.
 Bringing the social work to consider the
needs of the VGYW, their strengths and
focusing on leading change rather than on
problem solving.
Economic Market and Niches for Women
A market study presents:
 The gender division (domestic and professional)
 Recognized professional niches for women.
 Changes in the gender division of the
marketplace and in the position of women.
 Street-based economy, and prostitution.
 Access to services and support of economic
development (banks, credit…)
 Showing the openness and permeability of the
market to women and the viable integration
options for the VGYW.
 Presenting the relations between
groups : the mainstream society (Urban
Kinshasa) and a subgroup composed of
the VGYW.
Support to social workers as resilience tutors.
The research looks at social workers who have the
mandate to help the girls :
 Professional support to the social
workers.
 Personal motivations and experiences and
how they have an impact on their work.
 Stress management
 Intra-vision and individual and collective
supervision
 Support in case management
 Social workers are at the core of the
interventions. Their attitudes, skills,
personal experience and the support
they receive is key to the success in
helping the VGYW.
Using a participatory approach, we set out to consult key social groups and stakeholders in the area
studied. They included social workers, project managers, experts, girls in the street, girls in shelter,
girls after their reintegration, economic stakeholders, Loves18, leaders of street-based groups
(Ecuries).
18
Loves are the common name used by the VGYW to refer to their boyfriend.
21
1- Socio-anthropological approach: qualitative survey via
focus groups
To gain a better understanding of the social representation of VGYW, we began by organising a
qualitative survey based on focus groups and work sessions with social workers and VGYW present
in the shelter.
The initial series of focus groups included a total of 18 members of the projects and 13 VGYW. The
workshop and focus groups aimed at setting the base for the research and highlighting the various
obstacle that are limiting the success of the current reintegration programmes.
Aside from the focus groups and work sessions (that included the use of visual representation and
group activities), we visited sites and met stakeholders and families.
The information collected during this qualitative survey was subsequently analysed to reveal the
system of representations, values and beliefs specific to the populations under study (social workers
and VGYW). This information was also fed back into the final stages of the field survey. These focus
groups provided a major lever for staff involvement, providing a starting point for a broader, more
in-depth analysis of VGYW issues and their socio-economic integration as a whole.
A latter series of focus groups were held, mainly with the team (18 participants), then led by the
team with partners and VGYW (six focus groups with 25 participants, working on values). The
specific methods were based on participative and collective leadership, using Art of Hosting tools
and techniques.
Reports of the focus groups were shared and included one part harvesting information and analysis
useful to the research, and another part presenting the tools with the justification and methodology
chosen.
22
2- Questionnaire-based quantitative survey
A series of questionnaires were shared with VGYW, reaching a total of 252 girls:
 121 in the initial questionnaire (Q1) about the experience of the street.
 80 in the second questionnaire about the organisation of prostitution
 38 questionnaires designed for Ecurie members
 13 in a last questionnaire about couple relationships and values.
An additional 800 questionnaires were distributed to various economic actors, analysing the state of
income generating activities held by women in the district. Ten questionnaires per trade were
analysed as the sampling method used with the distribution of the questionnaires did not give
additional value in analysing all the responses given.
d) Representativeness of the samples
The focus groups and staff involved was limited to the ones involved in the project. The VGYW
surveyed and interviewed were the ones the social team could meet during their work. The sampling
methods were not build to guarantee the scientific sample representativity of the group as a
statistically correct representation of all the VGYW. The sampling and questionnaire would consider
all information as additional values, as it is done to identify the various options existing. This enabled
to get a holistic understanding of the VGYW and their experiences but not to generalize the
observations to the whole group of VGYW.
e) Limitations of the research
The quantitative research and methodologies used were aiming at being simple and useable by the
social workers during the normal course of their activities. Therefore, a strict sampling methodology
could not be used. The sampling aimed at being practical and in gathering information about the
VGYW usually met by the social workers in order to feed their reflections and professional work.
Another obstacle that slowed the research and created the need to review the objectives and
activities was due to the respect of the line of communication and people in charge of the
implementation of the research in the field. Focal points in WCUK and Centre Anuarite have changed
during the course of the study, which led to delays. Further on we realized that intermediate results
and reports have not been shared by the direction to the social workers, nor had the management
implemented suggestions to improve staff meeting and professional support. This had a direct
impact on the follow up girls that were in the process of reintegration in July (13) and whose cases
have not been followed afterwards implementing the theory of change.
The delays and communication limits had an impact on the level of information gathered and follow
up of specific cases but are overall constructive in regard to the analysis of the dynamics of the social
team and their management.
23
Characteristics of the context
1- A changing urban environment
a) A context in which social groups are particularly vulnerable
The Democratic Republic of the Congo has known series of crisis since its independence. The
government has faced multiple unrests and is struggling to maintain its grasp on the country. As a
result, it fails to provide consistent and fair support to its population who is left to fend for itself.
The extreme liberalization of the economy and failure of the state is characterized by the injunction
of former president Mobuto when he told the population that they were on their own (“Débrouillezvous”!). His injunction led to the popular “D” sector (D standing for Débrouille) that seem to
characterize the general way most of the economy works.
The market economy, political unrest and the transformation of the urban economy (the
generalization of the informal economy, reposition of the female workforce, alterations to the
community structure, urban agriculture, etc.) gave rise to a series of new social phenomena which
profoundly altered the nature of urban social fabric. Urban anthropology reveals how, for a variety
of reasons, these phenomena collectively loosened the authority of the state, its local
representatives and the family over the individual, and reshapes groups of affiliation. The results of
this liberalization take multiple forms, including the splintering of the family unit, new relations
between gender, an increase in single-parent families, and a rise in the number of street children.
The enormous change brought fundamental changes in values. New groups of belonging were
formed around churches, musicians, political factions and local strong men. Traditions and culture,
colonial history and the political system in place gave a fertile terrain for the emergence of an urban
culture in which the individual relies on himself and on God to survive and strive to understand how
things work.
The wealth of the country are not shared equally among the entire population. The access to it
depends on organized system of cronyism and nepotism. Relations are important to succeed at any
levels. Aside from relations, God’s miracles seem to be the next best option for success. In the same
line of thought, if God can give, He can take away.
For the last thirty years family problems have been analysed by some churches as problems of
witchcraft needing cleansing. One of the particularity of the accusation of witchcraft in the region is
that they have included children as possible perpetrators.
Kinshasa has a population estimates at 8 million inhabitants (between 7.8 and 9 millions). The city
has an exploding demography and rose from Leopoldville, a colonial town of 40.000 inhabitants in
1945 to 400.000 ten years later to 8.5 millions today. The last global town planning (plan Decennal)
dates from the colonial time. The current Government has laid an ambitious plan to restructure the
city, whose main social modification are reinforcing the division between the elite and the masses.
The division between la ville (residential and business areas) and la cite (townships) was planned
during colonial times as a way to control the interactions between the white and the black
population (the system was copied and used in similar segregationist governments: Rhodesia,
Apartheid South Africa, Mozambique…).
After independence, the city exploded without urban planning. The townships developed
anarchically.
Around fifty percent of its population is under 18 years old, half of which are women. Before they
turn 18, it is guessed that a quarter of the girls and young women will have experienced sexual
abuse or violence.
24
REEJER estimates at 23.000 the amount of children living in the street, 40% of whom are girls
(estimated at 9'200 girls19).
The city, seemingly open to everyone, generates exclusion and social decay mechanisms that
marginalize vast segments of the disadvantaged population. They include the most vulnerable
groups, no longer able to rely on the support of a social framework offering adequate protection in a
weakened community - single women, isolated older people, isolated children, the unemployed, and
people with disabilities. In this context, 42% of the urban population of Kinshasa is estimated living
below poverty line.
19
A study from REEJER (2006) was estimating that street children were 13.800 on Kinshasa, 26% of whom were girls. In
2013 the network reviewed its estimation to 24.000 with 40% being girls.
25
2- The spiritual world
Individuals are in relation with
their community as much as
with the spiritual world. They
see both as connected. Social
Space/ Time/ Physical
integration of members of a
experience of the world
community is linked to their
relation with the spiritual
World/ Human group
world, the meanings of things,
protections etc. That relation is
Society (Congolese State,
an important factor for
Laws)
resilience as it helps to
Community (church,
understand phenomenon such
ethny, social group of
as death or luck and set the
belonging, social
standards)
person in the context of
History, his ancestors and the
Family Unit
world.
In DRC, since mid 1980, grew a
Child
social phenomenon which put
spiritual responsibility on
children of the problems and ailments that are hitting their families. Children could be accused of
witchcraft. This phenomenon seems to have grown in a fertile context where:
 There is a tradition and belief system that recognizes a spiritual world, and the
capacity of some people to have access to it. By their access they can master the
physical world (to cure, to bring rain, to change time…). When they use their
access to the spiritual world to bring negative forces in the physical world,
people will speak of witchcraft.
 There is a multiplication of religious groups and churches who are placing the
fight between good and evil at the core of their philosophies. They are claiming
to be competent in intervening on the spiritual world and on evil. They will
display miracles, cleansing rites etc.
 The globalisation of the society and multiplication of values system available
creates a loss of personal boundaries and benchmarks to understand the world
around. People will accept values and philosophies positively (I believe in) and
negatively (I am against). Changes in values are directly affecting social relations
within families and communities. Relations to children and obligations of adults
toward children are similarly changing. This is enhanced when children are not
living with their biological parents.
 Poverty and inequality increases, along with the intolerance towards losses
people feel avoidable (ex. theft, sickness…), and the fatality of their global
situation. On one side there is a system that seemingly cannot change (good vs
bad, rich vs poors, white vs black…) and establishes inequality and on the other
people that are seen as equals or inferiors are seen as competition and a threat.
In that context, children seem to have catalysed the need to find scapegoats for domestic problems.
Children have seen a general diminution of their family support and protective environment, directly
in relation to urbanization and nuclear family units. When accused of witchcraft, they socially cannot
talk to adults, to the contrary of pastors who are benefitting from impunity (divine mission) and
social recognition.
Spiritual world/ meanings,
History and relations to the
spirits/forces/energies...
26
Children accused of witchcraft will endure abuse, negligence and deprivation from role models
(church elders) and parents as a way to be cleaned from the evil. Many children found in the street
have been accused of witchcraft and are still seen as such by their community. Their behaviours and
survival skills in the street enforces the community in the belief that these children are abnormal.
3- Social norms and urban values
“Kinshasa is caught between an autochthonous ancestral past to which, for many urban dwellers, it
has often become very difficult to return in an unproblematic way, and a model of modernity (often
still inspired by former colonial models, images, and ideals) that has become as difficult to grasp and
seems to be located in a distant future that cannot easily be accessed or realized by a majority of
urban residents that remains encapsulated within an urban present that is itself punctuated by
breakdown, decay, paucity, and poverty”20.
Change in norms and multiple values
The progressive globalisation increased contacts between communities and value systems. The
population of the DRC has been defining its belongings according to communities and ethnic groups
for many years. The colonisation treated the different ethnic groups unequally and brought new
norms and values of civilization. New values were attached to Christianity (catholic or protestant),
some level of education and European behaviours. The “évolués”, gained rights and access to a type
of middle class, using models and references that were foreign.
Influence of new values and norms on the population has continued with the independence, the
explosion of Kinshasa, the political efforts to create a state of law, education and school systems, the
influence of NGO and IO, the internet, etc.
In a context of lack of respect and guidelines coming from the state (non-respect for the laws,
confusion in roles from those who should be exemplars –police, politicians, militaries…- ), the
multiple value system develops without limits. Daily social interactions get regulated by values that
may or may not be in direct opposition (family planning vs the will of God; education and profession
for women vs women as a mother at home; …).
One of the main actor of the change in community and family of the last fifty years is Christian-based
Churches. There has been an uprising and importation of religious movements that are focusing on
building new communities of believers. Such religious movements are linked to the neo-Pentecostal,
Evangelists, Zionists churches, or the Wahabism. They provide strong value models, rules and social
norms that are responding to the need of guidelines the population has, and the absence of those
coming from the government.
Especially popular in Kinshasa, neo-pentacostal churches (Eglises du Reveil) have encourage the
individualisation of success and relation (to the detriment of kin-support and family unions) and an
apocalyptic reading of the physical world, seen as a battle ground between forces of good and evil.
Individualisation
Neo-Pentecostal Movement.
Religious movements promoting social inclusion and a better distribution of wealth (ex. Theology of
Liberation) have been seen as opposition movements by governments and the elite. In the context
of the Cold War, these social movements have especially been seen as dangerous by the West. In
response to social movements, governments promoting Capitalism have encouraged religious
20
F.de Boek, the Sacred and the City: Modernity, Religion and the Urban Form in Central Africa. In J. Boddy & M. Lambek—
A Companion to the Anthropology of Religion, pp 529
27
movements that are reading success to the individuality and that are wary of social bonds. Neoevangelical and Pentecostal movements have gained support and politically promoted first in
Southern America, then in Africa and Asia. These churches are linking personal success (in terms of
wealth) to spiritual blessing in an understanding of a world seen as a battlefield between evil and
godly forces. The dichotomized reading of natural phenomenon, social and inter-personal relations
gave a fertile ground for :
 The destructuration of solidarity systems based on kinship: the family member
asking for help is seen as someone who does not work hard enough and is an
obstacle in personal success.
 The change in the relation between the spiritual world and the physical world.
Whilst they were seen as parallel worlds, they are now constantly interfering
and the term “Mystique” is used for anything that people cannot explain.
 The possibility to bring the explanation of “Evil” on anyone that is seen as an
obstacle for personal success or who shows behaviours that are socially
questionable. The raise in accusations of witchcraft can be seen in that regard.
 A general caution against any social change in values, behaviours and
questioning the balance of inequality. Those who are successful are blessed by
God, and by their work, a redistribution and social systems in favour of the
poorest are seen as interfering with the will of God.
In a context characterized by poverty, extreme liberalism and absence of the State, neo-Pentecostal
churches are successfully providing explanations about inequality and solutions to gain success: to
accept one’s present situation, to respect the laws of God, to pray, to work for oneself and to
consider suspiciously those that are not as successful.
Freedom and Autonomy of the Street
VGYW are speaking of the street as a place of freedom, liberty and autonomy, as opposed to the life
in their family that is seen as a place of chores, obligations and submission. The independence they
claim could be a post-arrival justification.
The decision to take the street for some was directly linked to them running away from a
dysfunctional house, and seeking independence could have been a pushing factor.
In the street, the girls are proclaiming to be autonomous, and somehow the organization of the
Ecuries and social interactions are accommodating for it. Groups are made of individuals.
In their words, liberty/ Freedom is said so often that it could as well be seen as a self-sufficient
mantra, overly repeated to gain conviction and satisfaction: Freedom gained in the street justifies
the hardship of street-based life, the violence, living conditions, uncertainties, rapes, prostitution
etc.
The paradox is that although they claim to seek freedom, they also look for integration in
mainstream society and the creation of a classic family unit, were roles are respected.
Looks and display
In a context of changing values and competition, indicators of success and social recognition tend to
be linked to economic success.
Education, social function, knowledge are still seen as important but are not valued the same way:
teachers have a low pay, people holding a university diploma are jobless, politicians and civil workers
are seen as corrupt, …
Access and display of material goods, brands is an indicator of success, but also of style and good
taste (culture). Popular singers are showing wealth in their videos the same way as girls living in the
street will display what they have. Men show how successful they are by the presents and the way
their wife/girlfriend are dressed and have tools. The sape, wearing new clothes, the look is very
important in Kinshasa’s society. This can be accompanied by references from trips done in Europe
28
(or northern America), still considered as a place where dreams can happen. Numerous bars, small
shops, malewas21 are named after European references (Petite Suisse, Petit Bruxelles…).
The way a person looks and the ability he/she has to display wealth is a strong valued social norm
that has an importance in interrelations between individuals.
A good marriage/ match for a young women will be with a man that can give her goods to display, or
invest in her looks. What commercial sex provides to women is an access to resources that can be
invested in their looks, so they can be socially valued. If commercial sex (sugar daddies, clients of
prostitutes, teachers and bosses who condition an advantage to an intercourse…) is not seen as a
respectful activity, and is disregarded, the alleged social benefits it can bring to a women –especially
poor- are important. She can look as someone that is looked after, has a higher value on the
marriage market.
Looks and display for a women both show that they are looked after by a man who has means, and
improve their identification with a middle class or the elite.
4- Interaction between poverty, social exclusion and child
protection
The environment of Urban Kinshasa shows a high demographic, a minimal control from the
authorities, an extreme liberalism and general poverty.
People are left to fend for themselves to reach a small elite and middle class. Inequalities and access
to resources between the elites and the mass of the population are enormous.
For the mass population (Population des cités), everyday life is characterized by competition to gain
enough resources to survive, live and invest. In that context priorities are given to men, then
women, then boys, then girls, then disabled…
For adults competition can be seen on the job market, in gender relations, in stereotypes and in the
various means used to get success.
Competition starts early, with middle class families investing a lot of resources to raise their children
(diapers, extra-lessons…) so they can be above the rest.
In the climate of competition and limited resources available, children who are born from a previous
marriage are a thread to the means allocated to the children from the new spouse. Foster children
living with uncles/ aunties as well. Discrimination, negligence and direct threats are common.
There is a strong correlation between poverty, social exclusion and child protection.
Access to resources are limited. Social norms linked to success value the display of goods, promote
individual success, link inequalities and individual success to the will of God and the spiritual world,
and reads social interactions in an apocalyptic dichotomy: few are elected, the world is divided
between Evil and Good.
The norms of the society are not promoting redistribution and inclusion. If kinship relations still play
a role in the redistribution of goods and services, the resources shared are minimal and given
directly, as opposed as given based on objective criteria. In urban settlement the idealized “African
Solidarity” is losing ground and is not replaced by compensatory mechanisms.
Poverty and individualistic social norms to succeed creates exclusion of the people seen as either
weaker competitors or obstacle to success: weaker family members, children from other marriages,
people with deficiency and children with an attitude are at risk of exclusion. The exclusion can take
different shapes: negligence, discrimination, violence, insults, accusation of theft, witchcraft, lies,…
the symbolic exclusion (“you are not part of my kinship/family/life”) precede the physical one, when
the child choose to leave or when the family exile the child.
21
Malewas are the name given to informal restaurants.
29
Poverty also increases the risks of vulnerability leading to abuse and an environment in which these
cannot be responded. Access to protection, isolation of the person, stress, absence from home,
stereotypes… are shaping an environment where children are having a lesser protective network.
Their protection system is under stress, can be less present and has a lower knowledge about better
reactions to take to respond to a child. The social norms also favour individual responsibility of the
individual in the situation they are in. “If it happen to you, it’s because you have been looking for it or
it’s the will of God”.
Lack of time, economic pressure, lower education, stress parents are constantly living have
repercussion in the way they relate to the children they are caring.
The context pushed individual responsibility on their success and problems. Society is not seen as
providing a needed compensatory system in order to better include and integrate its weaker
members.
Traditional systems of solidarity based on kinship, family and proximity are being replaced
progressively.
30
1
Chapter
Social representation of Children living in the
streets (Shegues)
1- Access to adulthood, social standards and ideal22
In the mainstream society, children access to adulthood differently depending on their sex. The legal
reference for majority is 18 years old but the social standards are different, people under 18 will be
considered as adults by fulfilling the social characteristics :
Access to adulthood
For men :





To build a house or pay rent.
To be autonomous, have an income
and a trade.
To be able to live outside the house of
his parents.
To be able to provide for his family.
Access to manhood is not related to
sexuality for a man. Even after
marriage it is socially acceptable for a
man to have other relationships
(deuxième bureau).
Adulthood comes when the boy can
provide for himself and do not depend
on his parents.
For women





To get married (girls as young as 14 can access
womanhood through their wedding).
Access to womanhood for women is mainly linked to
their marital status. However, age and professional
role will also be taken in consideration (ex. a nun, etc.)
A girl does not access womanhood by being
economically autonomous. If she is working and
remain single, she will be considered suspiciously.
Once a woman give birth to her first child, she will be
referred as the mother of the child (“maman XXX”).
A married women will legally depend on her husband.
Access to womanhood is directly related to the
control of her sexuality by a man: she moves from
her parents to her husband. It is unacceptable for a
women to multiply relationships.
With changes of values, education, economic
hardships etc, the gender divide and roles are
changing. In urban settlement there are more women
working and living alone.
Marriage can take place before the woman reaches 18. It is seen as the expected destiny for a girl,
and as such is the social ideal for a women. During the traditional wedding, the groom send goods to
the family of the bride. The value of the goods depend on the girl, her level of education, social
status etc. A women who has given birth outside of wedlock or who has a bad reputation (including
of sexual promiscuity) has a lower “dowry value”. Socially, once the women is married, she will live
in her husband’s family, and her husband has to look after her.
22
Based on the data collected with the social team and VGYW, Anuarite, July 2014, and document review (L. Davies, 2014)
31
Some trades and lines of work are acceptable for women:
working the land, trading goods or develop small scale
businesses referred as income generating activities. Women
doing office work or holding traditionally male roles are seen
suspiciously. In a context of high competition, rarity of jobs and
clientelism, women who succeed in education or on the
workplace will be seen by men as having reached there by giving
sexual favours. As such expressions such as NST (notes
Workshop1: from birth to being an adult
sexuellement transmissible/sexually transmitted grades),
promotion canapé (sofa promotion) and general sexualisation of
women success are mainstream.
2- Experience of Childhood
Although the social standards are defined, and representations of what an ideal family should look
and be like exists, no two experiences of childhood are similar, even for siblings or twins. Each
individual will experience life, relations, childhood in a unique way.
Children need to feel secured, loved, valued and protected. Their sense of security help build their
resilience and their capacity to respond and overcome difficulties.
The experience of childhood has got two main implications on the professional process of social
integration of the VGYW:
 Every child has its own experience. Even when situations seem to be similar, the experience
of the situation by children is different. There is therefore no “one model fits all”. A child
does not decide without reasons to leave his family. Only the child can tell about the
reasons.
 Every social worker has got its personal motivations and background. These consists of
personal experiences, values, survival skills, ideals and frustrations, and overall an ideal of
what a happy childhood should be like. When helping a child, the child waits to be heard in
his/her personal experience. The social worker should avoid to transfer his own experience
and ideal on the child’s. Our personal experience, if unrecognized, can limit our ability to
respond to the child in need. Solutions that can have worked for us might not work for them.
This is especially important when dealing with behaviours and issues that are unspoken,
taboos or bring anxiety, such as topics related to sexuality, religion/beliefs, ...
3- When things go wrong
VGYW living in the street have all experienced a crisis with their family and community of origin.
Their protective environment could not respond to the crisis and the child either was rejected or
took the decision to leave. They have the experience of abuse, negligence, accusation of witchcraft,
discrimination, poverty, violence…
They come to the street because they do not have another option. Some had friends in the street
that acted as pull factors in their decisions to run away, but not all.
It is impossible to know how many girls have run out of their family to go with a relative, to measure
how many girls found themselves in the street and found employment as a domestic worker. The
only girls and trajectory that is measured was the one where, after a crisis, a girls finds herself
staying in the street, starts her integration in that environment and inclusion to its groups.
The story of the crisis is important for prevention purposes and in the work of re-unification or
mediation, but not a priority for the work of socio-economic integration.
Once in the street girls have to ensure their safety and survival in an unknown environment.
32
33
4- The responsibility of the child23
Children learn by observing, they can be seen but not heard
Popular education principles in the mainstream society do not give the child the right to confront
adults or participate in adult conversations. Adults are not explaining situations that the child will
live without understanding fully: death of parents, illness, poverty, discrimination, adult
relationships etc. They will read and react to these situations according to their frames of
understanding and built resilience. Some will react strongly with behaviours indicating emotional
and/or physical distress.
Family units are losing strength
Urban communities recreate social links between people outside the extended family unit: followers
of a church, colleagues from work, neighbours,… Established control system from the family,
community, ethnic leaders are fading in competition with the new values from these urban subgroups. As a result, individuals are torn between multiple sub-cultures and references.
Family units are stressed, as there are more options available to address a situation than to respond
to it within the family. The role of families and their members are changing.
Poverty increase stress and competition
Poverty, urban migration, sickness, extra-marital relations are factors that are adding stress on the
family unit working both on distending relations and creating new situations of competition and
risks. In the context of poverty and débrouille, the members of recomposed family units with the
weakest network are particularly vulnerable: children from previous marriages, girls, children with
deficiency,…
Child protection system and control mechanism over children in Kinshasa’s urban context is low, as
the families are distended, resources are scarce and there is a strong competition between
individuals for survival. When the child feels neglected or victim of abuse, he/she has little right to
raise concern and confront adults. Where possibilities could have existed in a context were
uncles/aunties or grandparents were accessible to children to raise concern, such systems are no
longer as functional in the present environment. Children raising concern are met with suspicion,
seen rebellious and adults will prefer to believe that the child is lying than to believe that the adults
incriminated are wrong. Negligence and abuse against children can continue unaddressed. Children
react to it by choosing to leave their family. They are seen responsible for the tensions (incriminating
adults), bad behaviours and pressure on adults (costs of living…).
The high stress and competition citizen are living, along with the feeling that they are not directly
responsible for changes (access to jobs, money, resources…) but are depending on relations, God’s
miracle or an outsider, push people to be open to opportunities and seek explanations for their
problems at their level. Miracle and promise makers are welcome, whether from religious sects,
established churches, traditional spirits, mediums etc. People are seeking the spiritual world to
interfere with their physical lives. Spiritual healings, nights of prayers, witchcraft are not uncommon.
Children have been a target for some sects (Eglises du Réveil) that are seeking responsibilities for the
problems an individual encounters, blaming witchcraft and the doing of the Evil. Facing accusation
without the right to contest, children are held responsible.
Children are increasingly held responsible when their presence highlights the limits, weaknesses and
wrongdoings of adults. As such girls will be seen as promiscuous, lying and nymphomaniacs when a
23
For further readings, cfr L.Davies (2014), F. De Boek (?, 2013, 2005), A. Marie (1997), F.Baele (2001), A. Rukata (?), C.
Dugrand (2013)
34
teacher/parent/neighbour has (forced) sex with them, a child will be seen as rude (gâté) when
he/she asks for something, children will be first accused when something is missing.
Adults consider that they are not totally responsible for their lives and that an intervention from the
spiritual world has got as much influence on their life as what they do/decide. On the other hand,
adult will hold children and individuals of a lower status (poorer, from a different community,
females…) as completely responsible for their behaviours and attitude to life. More so, in the
context of competition, they will see people of a lower status as jealous and willing to take their
place.
In that context, VGYW living in the street are seen as mainly responsible for their situations. Social
intervention will focus on working on their attitudes, habits and skills in order to be a better person,
believing that changing the girl is in itself enough for her reintegration. Working on the
dysfunctionality of her home environment is not seen with the same importance. In the same line,
prostitution is seen as a personal trait, not in context with the situation. The responsibility of the
clients (adult male) in the prostitution system is not seen as a fundamental factor.
5- Popular beliefs have a profound formative effect on
group representations
Community beliefs are dominated by a misunderstanding of the causes and stereotypes, often
opening the way to other forms of interpretation rooted in traditional and Christian culture.
The popular understanding of the reason why children are in the street is mainly based on the
alleged bad behaviour of the child. These beliefs have as a function to strengthen the community
and isolate some individuals. To isolate individuals guarantee the stability of the society as a whole
and gives explanations and acceptance to the general situation of poverty, lack and difficulties. On
one side some elected individuals can rise and gather wealth (they are “elected”), on the other side
those who contest can be marginalized. The main difference between the few individuals that are
monopolizing the riches and representing the ideal of the society and the others that are
representing the worst of the society lays in the relation with the invisible. The first ones are seen as
having got to the top thanks to their remarkable skills and spiritual powers. Their direct
responsibility is lessen and forgiven. On the other side of the spectrum, the most vulnerable and
weakest are seen as directly responsible for their fate, behaviours and situations. The spiritual world
seems to only interfere with them when some “evil power” takes possession of them. They are held
responsible for harm caused to others.
Children living in the street, and especially VGYW – a more vulnerable group within the society- are
stigmatized at an individual level (each child is held responsible) and at a group level (with a stigma
related to the poverty, lack of family relation and a stigma related to their activities).
35
6- Trajectories in the street24
a) Sex, prostitution and street-life
Experience of adult sexuality by children
The experience of sexuality by pre-adults is either consensual or non-consensual. Consensual sex
refers to having willing sexual relation with a partner: a boyfriend/girlfriend, when the sexual
relation is primarily motivated by love, desire and envy to have children or a client in the case of
commercial sex. Commercial sex includes any sexual relation that is primarily leading to advantages,
whether in monies or in kind (this includes relations with sugar daddies). Non consensual sex refers
to any sexual relation imposed or forced on the child. These include different forms of sexual abuse,
harassment and rape. Non consensual sex can also lead to payment and retribution in monies of
kind.
With little exceptions, girls, once in the street, have a history and experience of non-consensual sex.
Some of these experiences happened in their community of origin (rape, incest, sexual abuse,
harassment, accusations of sexual misbehaviours, promiscuity etc.) and might have triggered the
crisis leading to the street. Once in the street children are likely to be abused (boys and girls alike).
Most of their sexual experiences when new in the street are non-consensual and negative, especially
before puberty.
Any non-consensual sex is experienced as a strong violence, with a direct impact on self-esteem and
relations with the opposite sex. Children need to be recognized in their experience of that violence.
Once in the street, they find themselves in an insecure environment with high risks of physical and
sexual abuse. Although they do not want to join a street-based group at first (Ecurie), they soon
understand that their integration to an Ecurie is improving their security and safety.
Joining an Ecurie, girls are operating a shift in their relation to their sexuality. This is shown by their
work in prostitution and –sometime- by the violent sexual intercourses they will go through during
their initiation, even if many say that these do not happen in their Ecurie.
The initiation (bâptème).
The initiation consist of the things a girl must do in order to be recognized as member and integrated
in a group (Ecurie). Such initiation exists in different forms in most communities and cultures.
Christians will be baptised, Jews have the Bar Mitsva, new recruits in the army go thru hazing,
Ndebele access to manhood after a time spend in the bush etc. Initiation represent a symbolic
passage from one personality to another. It is accompanied by teachings (advises), ceremonies
(gathering of the community), physical changes (circumcision), experience of hardship (bizutage),
and lead to the integration within a new group and its rules.
In the Ecuries the bâptème has the same function, and the rites are to be seen as such:
 The giving of presents (whiskey, beer, cannabis, money) shows the respect and the
weight of the demand the girl make to the group.
 The shaving of the head / distribution of the clothes and belongings show that the
previous life is left behind and the girl is reborn within the group.
 The physical violence, to be beaten by the members of the group teaches the girl about
the hardship of the life in the street, and the core values of strength, endurance and
acceptance she will have to embrace.
24
Based on the Questionnaires 1 (General), 2 (Economy of prostitution) and 3 (Ecuries) and the conversations held with
VGYW and Couples.
36

The sexual violence (gang-rape, forced prostitution, abuse), is, in the words of a VGYW,
to empty the body (être vidée). In the context were sexual experiences girls had were
mostly non-consensual and are lived violently, the sexual aspect of the initiation is key to
a new identity. The girl is willing to be in the group and initiated, and accepts the sexual
aspect of the rite. Doing so she transforms her relation to sexuality: from being a victim,
to gaining control. The group recognizes the past experiences of the girl and reshape
normality (as girls living in the street).
After the initiation, girls are acknowledging three distinct sexual experiences:
 Non-consensual, forced sexual intercourse: rape, abuse,… those are said to happen with
policemen, soldiers, neighbourhood leaders, strong men and enemies from another
Ecurie. Their Ecurie’s main purpose is to lower the risk of non-consensual sex and
physical abuse.
 Sex with their Love (boyfriend). Their relation to their Love is respecting the same
gender roles and social standards as in mainstream society (will to build a family,
domestic role for women, providing role for man, acceptance of polygamy, …).
 Commercial sex (job). Sexual intercourses are negotiated against payment. If the client
does not pay or abuses the girl, it is lived as a forced intercourse and the girls will seek
assistance from their Ecurie, love or the police. Girls and their boyfriend are making a
clear distinction between commercial sex, seen as a job that is not hidden from their
boyfriend, and “deuxième bureau”, were the relation is hidden from the partner and
involves lies and deception.
In this regard, commercial sex is to be considered as:
 A job: bringing between 5000 FrC25 and 10.000 FrC per day (estimation of 3 to 5 clients
paying 2000 FrC each). They are starting at 7-8pm and will work between 4 and 7 hours.
Girls don’t only work in commercial sex. Some also have day-jobs, vending water, bags
(sachets), working in restaurants (malewas) or selling on the informal market. If a girl
has a Love that looks after her and provides, she will not work (neither in commercial sex
nor as a seller, helper…).
 A way for VGYW to be part of a group (integration). The Ecuries are gathering girls who
end up doing the same trade. Prostitution is creating a bond between the girls in that
regard. The hierarchy and obligations within an Ecurie are relatively loose, but the
similarity of income generating activity is one of the link between its female members.
 A statement of the mastery of their sexuality. The organisation of prostitution does not
seem to be coercive. The girls met, even the temporary migrants from the Equateur
province, have spoken openly and there were no indicators of trafficking or organized
exploitation. Commercial sex is considered very differently from love-sex or nonconsensual sex. Girls are looking for men / money. They are in charge of their sexual
relations with men (Power). In a society where gender-related standards promote the
control of women’s sexuality by someone else (family, husband), the VGYW who are
involved in commercial sex are creating anxiety.
 A normality for men. Social standards for a respectable women is to stay at home. Her
social and professional activities are controlled and can be seen suspiciously. Their
presence in bars, restaurants and clubs is frowned upon. Girls that go to these places are
considered as looking for a sexual partner. This stereotype does not apply to men. The
presence of prostitutes is expected and seek. There are always less prostitutes than
clients. Moral condemnation or police operations (ex. Opération Likofi) did not curb the
offer nor the demand.
25
1000 Congolese Francs are more or less equivalent to 1 USD.
37
Prostitution for the VGYW in Tshangu is not a reflection of an inner tendency, psychological
condition (nymphomania), or evil. Prostitution needs to be considered as a strong survival strategy
that makes sense, help the girls to reconcile with themselves and their sexuality.
Their work in prostitution is neither something that they feel pride with nor see themselves in 10
years. In their present history the Ecurie and working in commercial sex respond the best to their
needs (physical: it provides food, security and safety, social: they belong to a group or peers and feel
accepted for who they are, emotional: they have a sense of freedom and mastery of their life,
cognitive: they learn to be street wise and grow in respect in their environment, spiritual: sharing a
common history and responding to it gives meaning to their personal histories and perspective). This
means that alternatives can be provided to support the girls in their dreams of change.
The Love, relationship in the street
The Love is the term used (in English) to identify their boyfriend. A Love is generally a boy (older)
living in the street. He will have activities as transporter (chargeur), motorbike man, thief, street
vendor etc.
The girl will behave as his wife. They see their relationship further than just having fun, rely on each
other, take traditional roles towards the other (the man will provide new clothes, pay the rent and
food, the women will be cooking, take care of domestic chores, look after the children) and
reproduce the gender stereotypes from mainstream society in their couple (tolerance for a
“deuxième bureau” for the man but not for the women). Sexually, they will allow themselves to fall
pregnant (sans préservatifs) but not from clients (relations préservatifs).
Girls will join the group/ Ecurie of their Love (the same way as a young women will join the family of
her husband), where VGYW, most of the times, will not have to do the initiation. The simple fact that
she is in relationship with one of its member is enough for her to be included in the group.
One of the paradox between the discourse of the VGYW and their aspiration can be found when
they justify their life in the street. On one hand the VGYW claim that they have freedom in the street
(être libre), opposed to being directed and controlled in a family. The freedom they claim is not
following the social ideal for a women.
On the other hand, in their couple and house they reproduce social habitus from mainstream society
and aspire to reach mainstream ideals of success.
Joining an Ecuries then growing out of it
When a girl first finds herself in the street, without guidelines, she will try working in markets or for
small businesses. It is difficult to have an estimation of the number of girls that are staying in the
street from those that at this stage will not remain street-based (find an employment as domestic
worker, or are hosted by a family).
Fresh in the street, girls are not willing to join an Ecurie, they are wary of the behaviour of Ecuries’
girls and sex work. They do not want to be involved with the girls from the Ecurie.
During their first days in the street they are faced with insecurity and problems related to safety in
places where they rest. They face a high risk of abuse, rape and violence. The security and safety
issue is the main one for a girl to start seeking protection. If social services and good-will individuals
are not responding to the girls, their best option is to gather to form their own group or join an
existing Ecurie.
Belonging to a group of peers, outside the family, is an important part of the construction of the
personality marking the transition between childhood (strong relation with the family unit) and
adulthood (creating one’s own family). One of the characteristic of adolescence is the importance of
the relations with a group of peers (whether of the same age group, or sharing the same interests/
activities…) and learning outside the family, learning independence and autonomy.
38
Ecuries are offering a practical solution for safety and the most appealing psycho-social environment
for growth at that age.
The interest of the girl to belong to an Ecurie will fade with age and street experience. As girls turn
into young adults, they are looking for more independence and to create their own family unit. The
relation they develop with their boyfriend (Love) is growing in that regard. The stability of that
relation is important, VGYW have lasting relationships with their Love.
VGYW will steadily be relating more to her Love and his group and less to her Ecurie.
The typical trajectory of girls in the street is thus:
Crisis
The girls faces situations in her family that have as a consequence the separation between the girl and the place
where she stayed. That can be due to negligence, abuse, accusation of whitchcraft, fear of repercussions,...
First Steps outside the house
Girls chose the street when they do not have any where else to go. The first weeks in the street, girls will look for
work (markets), might be moving in a family (domestic work) and are facing abuse and violence in the street.
Joining an Ecurie of PEERS (VGYW)
To respond to the abuse experienced in the street, they will look to improve their security and join a group or
peers (girls). Ecuries are seen negatively by girls who just got in the street. In the Ecuries, girls become sex-workers
Boyfriend Relationship
Girls meet boys when they socialize in the street. Girls-Ecuries have relations with boys-Ecuries. The girl will find a
boyfriend (Love). She will continue to work.
Joining the Ecurie of the Boyfriend
The Girl joins the Ecurie of her boyfriend (stays with him). She can still keep relations with her peer-group. She is
seen as the "wife" of the boy. Together they will behave as husband and wife in the mainstream society.
Loosing contact with the Ecuries, strengthening the couple
The thightening of the couple means that the girl does not need the Ecurie as much. Her couple provides the base
to build a new foundation of socialization and integration
Building a family
Having children with her Love and moving in their own home are signs that the couples has settled. they are
moving away from the street/ Ecurie. They can still keep relations with them. Girl doesn't stop sex work if no other
alternatives.
Three profiles can be seen in the street:
The independents:
39
o
o
o
The newly arrived. They are the younger, fresh in the street they are avoiding
the Ecuries fearing their negative influences. They are mainly working outside
sex work, they sleep in the market, are prone to abuse and violence.
The family unit: VGYW who got in the street with siblings or friends. They do not
need an Ecurie or other group of peers, their own unit is providing support and
safety.
The older ones (yaya). They are experienced and very influential but they are on
their way out of the Ecuries. They have their own clients and prefer to live alone
with their Love and children. They are stable in a zone. They gather in informal
groups of peers to work at night. They are the most protective about their work
space and are less tolerant towards newcomers. They fear that younger sex
workers will steal their Love.
The Members of Ecuries.
Ecuries are organized groups of Children and young adults sharing a similar history,
environment and activities. Some of the Ecuries are formed based on the origin (eg. Filles de
l’Equateur26), but most aren’t. They provide similar support and services as expected from a family
unit. Most girls appreciate to work at night in a group, but not all the groups are Ecuries.
Ecuries are mainly attracting adolescents and young adults (<25yo), responding to the specific social
needs of that age group. To belong to a group strengthen and build the personality by giving the
young adults a frame in which they can develop their individuality, identity and social relations. With
age young adults do not have the same need for a group and will prefer to be more independent and
autonomous.
Ecuries have a relatively loose organization and hierarchy. Their strength comes from services given
to their members (safety and security) and by responding to the social and emotional needs of their
members: being among peers, giving a feeling of family, friendship, solidarity and support. To join
and Ecurie VGYW are likely to go through a ceremony of integration called Baptême.
The in-between
They do not identify with Ecuries during the day, but will group at night in informal groups.
They are gathering to help each-other and for protection but there are no identified leader nor
integration ceremonies (baptême). May older young women are in the situation, moving out of the
ecuries. Most of the girls surveyed in that situation justify their independence by the fact that there
are too many internal conflicts and politics within Ecuries.
The ones in love
Their prime reference is their boyfriend (Love). They relate to the group/ Ecurie of their Love
as their own. They have moved in his group. The Love has a strong influence on their work place,
26
With only short conversations with the VGYW from the Equateur province, and other VGYW speaking about them, we
had the impression that the group of Filles de l’Equateur showed specificities and behaviours different from the other
VGYW:

They seem to come to Kinshasa on a temporary base to be sex-workers (3/4 months), mainly motivated by the
possible incomes.

They seem to have their mobility-route organized (information at the origin, organization of the transport and
group of integration in Kinshasa)
This could not be confirmed (not enough data gathered). It potentially shows another organization for the sex-work, and its
relation to the mainstream society (here the communities of origin of the Girls).
40
living space and ways they eat, etc. The Love is generally older than the VGYW (between 5 to 10
years), and is also street-based.
b) Exclusion and integration to the mainstream society when in the street.
Hypothesis worked on during the research were the following:
 VGYW living in the street and working in commercial sex can be considered as a subgroup integrated to Kinshasa mainstream urban society. There are not only to be seen as
individual stories (case management), but also as groups sharing common trajectories.
 Sub-groups respond positively to the needs of the VGYW. Feeling included in a group,
their experience of the street has got meaning and is comforting.
 The current process of re-integration is based on an individual logic (case management)
that can create fears and unknown for the girl. Once integrated to an Ecurie, they are
reluctant to enter the process, and will respond mainly when their bond to their subgroup is loosen.
Faced with the multiple forms of discrimination, VGYW are developing attitudes and behaviours of
defiance that are feeding the stereotypes and their exclusion from mainstream society. This process
comforts mainstream society in its values, models and justification of its inclusion/exclusion
practices. It also serves for the subgroup of VGYW to build their identity as a subgroup, in opposition
to the mainstream group (on selected values, practices and attitudes only).
Stigmatization and discrimination gives rise to numerous psychological disorders in the marginalized
individual, leading to the development of an inferiority complex, a lack of confidence in their own
abilities, and a sense of resignation. As a response, the inclusion in Ecuries strengthen the girls, gives
them a sense of belonging and of control on their sexuality, identity and individuality.
It is of the interest of VGYW to join sub-groups of children sharing the same stigmas and histories.
Such groups are called Ecurie in Kinshasa. The Ecuries are -as such- a body of integration, acceptable
for the mainstream society: in one hand they confirm the stereotype by engaging in behaviours that
are socially criticized (thus confirming that its members are outcasts and that the community was
right to exclude them) and on the other hand, the Ecuries enable the girls to develop normal
behaviours in the eyes of the society, and grow in a supportive group.
Street-based children and youths are integrated in Kinshasa’s urban society. Considered at the
margin of mainstream society, they are still recognized and not ostracized. Indicators of their
integration are found in their implication by politicians, recognition by popular musicians, job niches
they are holding (chargeurs, prostitution…)…
41
2
Chapter
Socio-economic situation of street- based girls
1- Domestic economy of street-based girls
a) The economics of prostitution
On the topic, eighty girls working in commercial sex have been interviewed by social workers, 52,5%
of which were under 18 years, with young women between 15 to 21 years as the main group
(between 25% and 75% of the sample).
Sex work is an income generating activity.
27

Commercial sex as the main income generating activity
Less than half the VGYW surveyed have an IGA during the day, most of whom seem to
be the youngest (<18yo). Identified daytime IGA are the sale of water, bags, work in
malewas (restaurants: dish-washing, cleaning…) and mainly begging. Older VGYW do not
seem to be involved in day-time IGA as much as younger ones. Their relation to clients
are also different. A hypothesis could be that older VGYW involved in commercial sex
have a steadier clientele and secured income, either via their Love or through their night
work. This hypothesis could not be confirmed.

Working together on sites
VGYW are gathering in the evenings to work together in specific sites. Some Ecuries are
enemies and girls cannot pass through the territory of their enemies.
Working together brings safety. Sex workers are prone to abuse by clients, competitor,
police/soldiers, etc. Working in a group lowers the potential incomes (potential clients
are shared between all) but improves the safety and the possibility from the group to
respond in case of problem.
New girls that are not part of the Ecuries are not welcome. New arrivals are taking
clients but also pose a threat to the balance existing in the VGYW-Love relationship.
Jealousy and competition for the boyfriends limit the access of new girls in places where
Ecuries are working from.

Clients and incomes27
The reference exchange rate used for 1 USD= 1000 FrC.
42
The majority of VGYW (55%) say that they will take between 5 and 8 clients a night. The
minimum is 3 clients and maximum 10. These figures are estimations, they vary
depending on the day of the week and location.
The average cost of a sexual service vary between 1’000 FrC (Passe Debout: a quick
intercourse standing up in the street) and 3’000 FrC. 80% of the VGYW are accepting less
than 2’000 FrC per average per client. Over 80% of the VGYW say that they had to work
for less than 1’500 FrC. When there are less clients (police clampdown) they will work
for as little as 500/700 FrC. Rape and abuse will not bring incomes. They happen with
clients or police/ military forces.
The maximum income are very variable, for VGYW are considering money that their
steal from the clients in the same line of income related to prostitution. 50% of the girls
said they received a maximum income inferior to 9’000 FrC, and 75% of a maximum
income inferior to 70’000FrC.
On an average, per day VGYW are earning between 6’000 to 10’000 FrC. Which is
between 3 to 5 clients a night paying 2’000 FrC
Lower middle quart :
25-50%
Mean 50%
Upper middle quart :
50-75%
Minimum
daily income
6’000 frc
Maximum
daily income
9’000 frc
8’000 frc
10’000 frc
10’000 frc
17’000 frc
VGYW had difficulties in estimating their weekly incomes. This is consistent with the
similar difficulty women involved in other IGA, surveyed by the market study, have. The
economy, whether sex-work related or not, is based on a series of daily incomes.
Principle of savings, investments and planning are difficult to implement in such a
context.
The estimated weekly income should be around 56’000 FrC (4 weekdays * 6’000 FrC + 3
WE days at 10’000 FrC).
Theyearly income from prostitution by VGYW28 would be:
N (Total number of VGYW) * X (weekly estimated income in USD) * 52.
With numbers available, we can have an estimation that would range between:
4,000(=40% of 10,000 children living in the street29) * 56 USD * 52= 11,648,000 usd
And
9,200 (=40% of 23,000 children living in the street30)* 56 USD * 52= 26,790,400 usd

Costs and spending
The main categories of spending are:
28
This estimation considers 100% of VGYW in the street as active sex-workers.
C.Dugrand (in Politique Africaine, 2014) estimate between 10,000 to 15,000 of Shegues in Kinshasa.
30 REEJER estimation for 2013 is that 23’000 Children are living in the street of Kinshasa, of which 40% are girls.
(http://jeunesausoleil.over-blog.com/pages/Synthese_du_recensement_des_enfants_de_la_rue_de_Kinshasa2924288.html). In 2006, UNICEF’s protection Officer gave an estimation of 20.000 Children in the street of the Capital
(http://gvnet.com/streetchildren/Congo.htm ). Other estimations suggest the number to have reached 40,000 Children in
the street of Kinshasa (http://africaaction.typepad.com/justafrica/2009/07/african-street-children-kinshasa-drc.html).
There seems to be no exact estimation. The only census made, by REEJER (08), identified 13,364 children but is seen as
outdated.
Human
right
Watch
estimates
that
the
number
doubles
in
10
years
(http://www.hrw.org/reports/2006/drc0406/6.htm). The number of street children in Kinshasa can be between 10.000 and
40.000.
29
43
-
-
Social and psychological needs, to feel good with themselves and be
appreciated: beauty, aesthetics, hairs, clothes…: 139 choices.
Physical needs (survival): alimentation, accommodation, health (night
ambulance, condoms, hospital…) and protection (paying the police)… : 123
choices
Social needs: leisure, family, children, dependents…: 74 choices
Cognitive needs: education for their children: 2 choices
Others, 10 choices.
Some categories of spending have not been identified by all the girls (alimentation,
accommodation…). This can be explained by the contribution and responsibility of the
Love. Traditional role for a man is to provide food, accommodation and gifts (clothes,
beauty items) to their woman. Relationships in the street are not different from
mainstream society in that regard.
VGYW all say that they are independent and autonomous in regard to the management
of their money. They do not have to pay taxes of have to bring a daily amount either to
the Leader of the Ecurie or to their boyfriend. Most say that they will get together with
the other girls of their Ecurie to share the costs of food, accommodation and drugs
(cannabis, drinks, tobacco)… if they want to. These are referred as cotisations. The girls
also feel responsible in keeping the necessary sum to pay the police when their Love is
arrested (la caution).

Variation of incomes and routines during the week
Places where VGYW are working during the week days can be different from places
where VGYW are working during the week-end. During the week the girls are generally
stable in their zones, working together. In the Ecuries, part of their individual income is
saved for drinks and partying by the WE. The Chef des diabots has the responsibility to
collect these subscriptions and organize going out.
They are more successful in getting clients during the week-ends. The extra incomes
VGYW are getting during WE can come from an increased amount of clients, better
prices or better opportunities to steal money.
Weekday routines generally start at 19h-20h and sex workers will end around 23h-00h
for lack of clients. On weekends they say that they can work up to 5-6 am. They average
daily work load is between 4 to 7 hours.
Girls are not working every day. They will work 3 to 6 nights a week.

Variation of settlement and routines over time
Age is a variable that has an impact on the behaviour of the VGYW in the street. Ecuries
are the main reference group for younger girls. With age the relation between VGYW
and the group loosen. They are not considering themselves as belonging to an Ecurie.
They will continue to gather between peers for work but their reference group will be
their Love or family. They say that they are more stable in a zone and more of them say
that they have a regular clientele. They are also more in relationship with a Love, with
children.

Leisure
VGYW identify three main activities they are doing during their leisure time:
- Spending time with their boyfriend (Love).
- Going out with friends, talking (provoking/insulting), drinking, dancing, etc.
- Walking and resting in parks (green spaces/ under trees).
44
Many VGYW do say that they do not have any leisure or spare time. They do not have
activities that are fun.
b) Prostitution and social inclusion.
Sex work and commercial sex is not specific for VGYW who are professionally involved in
prostitution. Social stereotypes and rumours are viewing sex work as a normal behaviour for
women if they are given the opportunity: for access to personal gain in kind, cash, for a
job/promotion or results (grades). Sex is seen as a natural way for women to use their charms to
succeed or gain benefits. The society and the moral code of the mainstream group is giving strong
guidelines to manage the sexuality of women by making them dependent to their man (father,
husband), and generalizing rumours of the direct link between sex and success for a women.
In a context of scarcity and competition, people will use all their assets and skills to survive. The
veracity and reality of rumours cannot be confirmed. The stereotype regarding sexual advantages
and strategies seem to be found unanimously in the population and in literature, without having
been confirmed scientifically.
Prostitution in Kinshasa’s urban context is seen as a moral misconduct of the VGYW that are
involved in it and a proof that the mainstream society’s value are efficient in keeping women in
control of their “natural” sexual tendencies. Girls involved in sex work are seen as
nymphomaniac, not in control of their libido, with loose moral values, etc. On the other hand, it is
socially accepted for men to have multiple sexual partners including exchanging goods, services
or money for a sexual relation (sugar daddies, deuxième bureau, promotions, grades, blessings,
prostitution…). The responsibility of the sexual behaviour is solely on the women, thus not seen
as a problem for men. It is seen as a natural deviance of women, which can only be controlled by
morality and a controlled environment (masculine). The socially accepted deviance for man
would be violence and physical harm (with society there to restrain it).
45
2- The Ecuries
During the research, 38 Ecuries have been identified31. Ecuries are not composed of many members
(generally under 20 members), and have a loose organisation and hierarchy.
Most of the Ecuries have been described by one or two members, their description of the group can
be partisan. However between the Ecuries, and the description of life in the street by the VGYW, the
main characteristics seem to be confirmed, whether the Ecuries are only composed of girls or are
mixed.
Main characteristic of the Ecuries:
Representation of the Ecuries by the homogeneity of their
members and organisation system
Heterogeneity/ Homogeneity of the group
10
8
Bana Propre;
X S/C Kinkole6
soso Npembe
Marché de Rebelle
4
Mirage
Somono Filles risquées
Match Kwata
2
Nianzo
X Sala Sala
0
-4
Fille de Balay
-2
0
2 De Risque
X Mangongele
-2
Ciseaux
-4
X Auditorat
Kata Mbongo
X Chapelle
X Electrique
X Matete
-6
4
6
Somo Trop
8
Auditorat
Francophonie
Etat Major
Mal à l'aise
-8
Loose / Rigid model of Organization
31
The description of the 38 Ecuries is in the work document “La connaissance des Ecuries”, WCUK-Anuarite, 2014
46
Rigid vs loose organisation (Libre/organisé) :
The axis gathered indicators measuring the level of formal organisation and characteristics of the
leadership system. Most Ecuries have an identified leader (called Maréchal, Général, Chef de base or
Djene) and sometime a formal hierarchy (gouverneur, major, cardinal, chef des diabots…). The style
of leadership is not characteristic of a centralized nor strong hierarchy. Leaders are not revered or
feared. They are respected. Members of Ecuries, in majority, confirm that personal resources and
income are not taken by the leaders or the group. Members maintain their financial independence
and freedom. In that sense an Ecurie is more like a gathering of free wills, mainly respond to:
- Security concerns: the member counts on the leaders to defend the group, then the group
will stand, then –if needed- allies (policemen, street leaders…)
- Create a collaborative and friendly environment that brings support and solidarity to its
members
- Organize parties: gathering the contribution from the members.
Gathering the contribution from the members to buy shared goods (food, cannabis, drinks,
cigarette)
- Organize accommodation (in mixed groups boys are paying for accommodation)
- To gather together for night work.
The names given to the hierarchy of Ecuries is also characteristic. They use terminologies referring to
prestigious military and religious roles, common in the context of the DRC: Maréchal, Général,
Major, Gouverneur, Djené, Cardinal...
The leadership traits are responding to three different qualities valued in the group:
 Physical strength, main characteristic for the chief. This trait is adequate to the primary
role of the chief which is to secure the defence and safety of the group and its members.
In that regard the leadership has a role of security before a role of group management.
Members remain independents and individual resources are not automatically shared in
the group. The physical aspect of the leadership is directly linked to the values
highlighted by the VGYW:
o You need to have a strong mind (il faut avoir l’esprit dur): the expression seems
to refer to the skill to survive difficulties (violence, physical harm, abuses, rape,
harassment…)
o You need to know how to fight: VGYW see their work as a daily fight for
survival. Theft, prostitution… are based on physical confrontations.
o You need to learn (how) to suffer: in the rites of passage and baptême, the girls
are physically harmed to learn to endure pain. The integration to Ecurie also
symbolically see the girl reborn in a life in the group.

The experience (years in the street), refers to the personal skill and knowledge of the
environment (equivalent to the cognitive skills and being street wise).

The art of speaking and negotiating: a leader needs to know how to speak. Ecuries are
integrated in Kinshasa’s society and are in relationship with many of its actors (formal
and informal). The leader will be in contact with the police, soldiers, businessmen etc.
The art of speaking and negotiating is a valued skill.
Individuals will access to the leadership either by winning by strength: they fight all the other
members and are victorious. The group is established around the physical strength. Or leaders are
self-proclaimed. The group recognize their experience and skills that can be different from their
physical strength.
Ecuries are maintaining close relations with Kinshasa’s society and control system.
47
A- There are regular relations with formal and informal authorities (police, neighbourhood
leaders, politicians, musicians…)
a. On one side the girls are complaining about being the victim of abuse from the
authorities (police operations, rape, unpaid sexual intercourses…). These operations
(ex. Opération Likofi) and repression are not decided at the local level.
b. On the other side, the role of the police or soldiers in responding to security threats
to Ecuries is appreciated and can be formal. This can happen by a direct intervention
from policemen or in the arrangement girls have with the local authorities to
prevent jail sentences (one of the role of the girls is to keep money to pay the police
for the liberation of their Love).
Police and armed forces are seen with that double hat: protectors and abusers (corruption, pressure
on clients…). A double role that is not widely different from the one experienced by the rest of the
population.
B- VGYW have got day activities and jobs that are socially accepted (working in restaurants,
selling in the street…). They combine these IGA with other activities that are not socially
accepted (theft and prostitution). The number of girls involved in commercial sex (as
professional sex workers or occasionally), the banalisation of the clients, the fact that sex
work is not hidden and the low cost of a sexual intercourse (a minimum of 500 FrC) are
indicators of a certain social tolerance of the activity (to be compared with male-prostitution
that is not accepted). Girls and sex workers are integrated in the society. Their integration is
reinforced by their belonging to Ecuries, which are taking the role of a family, a group of
peers and which are maintaining relationships with the authorities.
C- Girls who have a boyfriend are showing traditional types of relationships with their Love.
Social roles and gender divide are respected. Girls and their Love differentiate the sex work
from their relationship and from affairs (“deuxième bureau”). Their relationship with their
Love is protected and based on mutual inter-dependence. Girls are showing high level of
jealousy and will fight competitors.
Ecuries and their members are not functioning with rules that are totally different from mainstream
society. They are included, refer to similar values and rules to those of the mainstream society and
have roles that ease and strengthen social relations. Their involvement in support of politicians or
popular singers, their control of certain sectors and trade are indicators of inclusion in Kinshasa ‘s
society.
Homogeneity vs Heterogeneity
Criteria of homogeneity are based on the origin, sex, shared trade and the independence members
feel they have from the group.
Most of the Ecuries show models of a structured organisation (more than the sum of its individuals).
When the axis of homogeneity is observed, we can see two different profiles32:
a- Ecurie of girls. Girls can have their Love but that relation does not interfere with their
belonging to the group. Girls all share the same activities.
b- Ecuries of boys open to girls. Girls enter the Ecurie via their Love. The relation of their
boyfriend and his Ecurie is stronger than the relation between the girl and the Ecurie,
like it is in mainstream society where a women moves to her husband’s family. Some
Ecuries have baptêmes for the girls but these do not seem to be in all the Ecuries. When
mixed Ecurie have a rite of passage for the girl, it often include the fact that the girl has
to have sex with all the boys. Outside the baptême, girls do not seem to maintain
multiple sexual partners in the Ecurie.
32
Ecuries of boys only have been identified but not studied since they were not including VGYW.
48
The repartition of the Ecuries on that axis shows that the groups are not closed groups at the margin
of the society. They show continuity and integration. Personal freedom and choice remain important
and members can move from Ecuries, show attachment to more than one and leave without fearing
punishment. Ecuries hold a role of support and protection, the same roles families ideally have.
The two axis can help to improve the process of socio-economic integration, and in building exit
strategies to unwanted activities (prostitution and theft).
a- Members show to be independent and free. The strength of the group is not based on its
need to survive (ex. strength through number of members, control of geographical zones,
resources coming from criminal activities…). Its strength is based on the services and support
it provides to its members. Members are free to move out of the group. The group will not
resist to the exit of its members. However, the strength of the group rests on the willingness
of the girls to belong to it. Ecuries are providing the services and comfort they need to feel
better. Ecurie in that way are strengthening values, behaviours and essential strategies for
the girls’ survival in the street but also for their integration in Kinshasa’s society. The groups
are not in conflict with the urban social model. That social inclusion is a strong bond for the
girls.
In that regard, “re-integration” processes proposed by social workers have to offer better
and more attractive services and integration models that can guaranteed their
independence, safety and a supportive social network. There is little interest to leave the
comfort of an Ecurie otherwise. This is especially important to address if the girl is in a
relationship or if the reintegration offer will bring her back to a family which represent
rejection, unsafe environment, negligence and failed protective network.
- The sex work, which raises the main health and moral concern, lay at the core of the reason
for the interventions of the social workers. It is considered differently by the girls. Their core
concerns lay elsewhere.
o The Ecuries and sex-workers clearly differentiate commercial sex (their work) from
their love relationship (…and from non-consensual sex). There is no continuity
between the two. Integration rites and baptêmes aim at marking that difference:
Girls are pushed to multiple partners, having sex with <more than> 7 clients a night,
intercourses are there to “vider la fille” (empty the girl). The group aim at
strengthening their spirit and survival skills. In that way Ecuries play the role of
resilience tutor and help the girls to differentiate their emotional feelings from their
physical relations. That supportive role from the group is in direct relation to the
survival skills needed in the street.
o VGYW recognize the shame linked to their activities as sex work (moral value). They
are sharing the values, ideals and role models of mainstream society. They are in a
trade that demand them to separate their values from their activities. This
mechanism (actions following values that are opposed to one’s ideal) is not
exceptional nor deviant.
o Prostitution is a viable income generating activity. Less than half of the VGYW
interviewed need to do another IGA during the day. They earn between 5’000 to
10’000 FrC, every night and are supported by a group of peers that offers them
psychosocial support and help with resources.
o VGYW and boys in the Ecuries are displaying conservative behaviours and norms
similar to the ideals of the mainstream society. Gender relations, acceptance of
polygamy but not of polyandry, roles of the man/women in the house… are identical
in mainstream society as it is in the Ecuries. The sex work is however in contradiction
with the ideal exclusivity of the sexuality of a women to her husband. They justify it
49
by the fact that it is a job, and not hidden from their husband (as opposed to affairs
and “deuxième bureaux”).
With that understanding, « reintegration » process have to :
- Offer a better alternative of support, protection and inclusion than the one the ecuries is currently
providing.
- Offer IGA and economically more interesting work perspectives.
- Not to confuse the professional activities of the girls with moral values (good/bad), spiritual values
(sin) or psycho-social behaviours (deviance, nymphomania)… Sexuality and the relation girls have
with their body and men can be addressed but do not have to be the main objective of the relation
of help, nor sexuality control a condition for any other support on integration.
- Respect the freedom and independence of girls and of their decisions. Respect their groups, skills
and strenghts.
50
3
Chapter
Market study on income-generating activities
1- Income generating activities and gender
Access to adulthood for men depends on his capacity to be financially autonomous, leave his
parents’ house and provide for his family. Access to adulthood for a women comes with marriage,
when she leaves her family for the one of her husband.
In urban setting, roles are maintained, but with the economic situation most families have
difficulties to lead a decent life only with the income of the man. Women are more frequent
working.
Their presence in workspace is improving but they remain victim of suspicion and stereotype. The
high competition on the job market means that, when a person is hired, people will look for reasons
outside their skills, experience and competences to explain why the person was chosen. The reasons
given are of four categories: corruption (a lump sum paid to the recruiter, or a percentage of the
salary taken), relations (nepotism and contacts), prayers (divine intervention) or sexual favours.
Women competing on the job market with men are seen as having reached their position through
sexual favours33. Poor young men without relation feel that they can only count on prayer to get a
job and are disadvantaged against women.
Values given on consumerism and display of riches, behaviours of sugar daddies, practice of
polygamy and “deuxième bureau” are comforting men in their understanding of female sexual
practices for cash and kind. Women access to the workplace is linked to sexuality and stereotypes.
Respectable women are developing income generating activities in sectors that are limiting the risk
of dependence to a hierarchy, limiting contacts with men on leisure time (restaurants, bars, clubs) or
in activities that are “feminine”.
33
A research led by the ULG, ULB and UCL (Ethnocampus 1 & 2, belgium) between 1999-2003 about universities in French
Africa (Cotonou, Ouagadougou, Lumbumbashi) and the creation of Elites, showed similar stereotypes against women. The
study showed that girls are more prone to be taken out of secondary school (after puberty). Girls that are finishing high
school have already been surviving a tougher selection process and are showing better results than the average in their
class. They are more successful than most of the boys. Rumours of Notes Sexuellement Transmissibles are starting there.
Young women accessing university are coming from a higher social background. The marriage strategy of educated young
men is to find a women with a lower level of education. Young women enrolled in higher education are seen as looking for
a husband with a doctorate: a professor.
Young women are more successful in their studies because their selection process was harder, they have to work harder to
be considered and come from a more privileged background. Young men are engulfed in their competition for success and
explain the better results of their female colleagues by their alleged intimate relationships with professors, in accordance
to marriage strategies where a women has to keep a lower profile than her husband and in accordance to parallel
strategies to success (success cannot only come with hard work, but depends on relations, prayers, corruption and sex).
51
These activities are in
 services: beautician, hairdresser, seamstress, cooking (the three C: Coiffure, Couture
Cuisine)
 vendor in the market: clothes, jewellery, shoes, bread, cream, fruits, vegetables, spices,
 Small transformation and cooking: juices, waffles, donuts,…
For most women, the IGA they are running are not the profession of their dream. 84,8% of
interviewed women say they have to do
these out of necessity (72.6%) or as a step
to pay for studies. Women that are
working in services are more satisfied
about their job than the others.
57% of the women interviewed are saying
that the daily benefit they get from their
Income generating activities is lower than
6’666 FrC (after costs), and 75% have a
daily income lower that 10’000 FrC.
They are also 77.2% to say that the balance
of their family budget depends on
contributions from other members, and
that their quality of life depends on these
contributions (seen as essentials by 17%,
important by 45% and occasional by 19%).
Income generating activities women are developing are not guaranteeing their financial
independence and autonomy. They are necessary complements to balance their domestic economy.
They are 86% of them saying that they live with family or their partner.
The survey also questioned the women involved in IGA about their values and life-skills that are key
to success. Most identified personal qualities over the quality of the product, economical strategy or
expertise. To be kind, to work hard, to be honest and polite are seen as the key to success. On the
economical skills, knowledge of math, planning and budgeting are important.
They are 35.2% who have been helped to start their trade, 95.6% of which by a family member
(59.9%), their partner (28.6%) or a friend (10.7%). Banks, government programmes, charities and
churches are not having a relevant impact on IGA. That initial support is mainly in cash (<100 USD for
59.7% and under 1’000 USD for 87.3%)34.
Women interviewed are showing the importance of their network and relation (family and partner)
in their economical balance: family and partner have given the opportunity to join their business,
have financed or supported the IGA or are major contributors to balance the family budget.
34
Initial family support depends on the type of trade (sale of products, services…) and its organization (mobile, permanent
shop…). They generally cover the expenses to buy a chair, umbrella, table/stands and other specific tools (oven, platter,
stock…). Investment in a service-type IGA is often more expensive (over 500 USD with a maximum of 7000 usd) than initial
investment in sales (generally under 100 usd). Within sales, initial investments in clothes, shoes (bulk) or jewellery is higher
than the one needed for perishable. Within perishables, (ice) cream-makers need the highest initial investment.
52
The IGA, seen as alternatives to commercial sex, are not alone bringing financial autonomy to the
women who are developing them. They are done out of necessity and have to be considered in
within the budget of a family unit.
These Income Generating Activities planned as a way out of the street for the VGYM will not respond
to the needs of the VGYW if they are not living in a group (family, friends, couple…) in which
members are helping each other and contributing to cover the costs of living.
The integration process has to work simultaneously:
 In creating economic opportunities for the VGYM. IGA are important. Ideally VGYW
should pursue their dream and consider the IGA as a necessary step to finance and reach
their goal.
 In strengthening the network around the VGYW. Their autonomisation and economic
stability depends on their living environment and relations. If a family reunification is
difficult, alternative communities and family-units have to be considered.
 In responding to identified life-skills that are key to success: education and math,
financial and budget planning, attitude towards clients…
 In providing services and access to support to replace what family would have done:
micro-credit, initial support, advises…
The fact that VGYW are living outside their family unit has an impact on the organisation and
possible success to their IGA.
Sex work can be seen as an activity that brings consistent, above average resources that limit the
need of another source of income. Sex work also enable the VGYW to work in other trades during
the day, and complement their budget.
The lack of family support is mitigated by the Ecuries. Improving the integration of the VGYW needs
to take into consideration the failure of the VGYW’s family as a supportive environment for the
women.
2- Poverty
Poverty is identified by the VGYW as one of the main reason for the fact they are not living with their
family anymore. Economic poverty has direct consequences on health, family stability, access to
education, access to jobs, social behaviours and skills, networks, etc.
A reunification of the VGYW in their family, with a direct investment in an IGA for the family or for
the VGYW might not be enough to balance the family’s budget and create a safe environment for
the stabilisation of the VGYW. A combination of multiple IGA seem to be necessary in order to
respond to the necessary costs of living in the urban context.
3- Improving economic integration
Direct investments or technical training are not enough to succeed in a business. The combination of
four elements will define the success or failure of the IGA35 :
35
Graph adapted from G.Taylor and P. Pereznieto Review of evaluation approaches and methods used by interventions
on women and girls’ economic empowerment, odi.org, pg 35-45
53
•Strenghtening of the skills.
•Individual history/ context
•Objective of Change
•Social relations
•Gender and disability
•will and motivation
•Work and businness
•knowledge of economics
and management
•Entrepreneuship
Life Skills
Economical
Skills
Trainings
Services
•Business development
•Access to capital/ resources
•Technical support
•Support and protection
•Access to resources and
network
•Literacy, education
•Formal recognition
•Professional training
4- Dreams and project to change
The women interviewed during the market research, as well as the VGYW with whom we worked on
their dreams, have expressed similar professional dreams. They wish to hold professions that are
characterized by their autonomy, social recognition and independence. Girls, Young women and
women want to be: judge, lawyer, doctor, nurse, teacher, engineer, president, air-hostess, nun,
businesswomen, secretary, computer specialist, hairdresser, aesthetician,…
Dreams refers to the ideal situation the VGYW envision herself in/as. The Project of change refers to
the process and transformation she is taking in order to reach her dreams. It is the changes needed
to take place to transform her reality.
Workshop 1, How do I see myself in 10 years time
Sexualisation of the workplace and gender: barriers to projects of changes.
Sex work is seen as a necessity to earn an income, the same way as selling in the street or in the Dsector is seen as a necessity. They are the trades available for women and possible within the
context.
Selling in the street is socially acceptable for respectable women, it fulfil the financial needs of the
family without bringing moral concern.
54
Commercial sex is socially unacceptable for a respectable women but is seen as a trait of personality
for a professional women working in an office and holding responsibilities: women who study are
suspected to succeed thanks to sexual relations with professors, women who got a job are suspected
to have gained their job thanks to a sexual promotion.
More so, it is socially acceptable for men to be involved in sexual relationship with young women
(sugar daddies), have extra-marital affairs (deuxième bureau), be clients of prostitutes… Men are
condoning for themselves the same behaviours that are socially unacceptable for a respectable
women. Sexual harassment on the workplace and pressures are socially acceptable, and the
intercourse that are happening are comforting the stereotype and encouraging further pressures.
In that way men reinforce the system that prevents women from competing with them on the
marketplace.
Commercial sex is confirming the stereotype of sexual behaviours of women who are outside the
norms and the importance of keeping a strong moral and masculine control over them. Clients of
prostitutes are not concerned about the moral aspect of the trade. Its criminalization concern the
sex workers, the responsibility and morality as well.
Rationality of the projects of change
Project of change for VGYW can seem unrealistic, in the way that a girl, in the street, uneducated has
got very slim chances to become a doctor. However, that project can be a strong motivation and
help the VGYW taking steps to improve their education level, learn new skills, build other networks
and have access to different services.
The project of change can seem unreachable, the importance to build integration on it lay as much
in the motivating factor if bears than in its rationality. The steps to move towards the change are in
themselves going to improve the integration of the VGYW.
55
4
Chapter
Social services and reintegration projects
1- Human needs and social inclusion
Every individual has got needs to be responded in a satisfactory balance. The way the needs are
addressed creates feelings of satisfaction or frustration. Five needs are identified as essential36:
physical needs, social needs, psychological needs
(or emotional), cognitive needs and spiritual needs.
Physical needs
Each community has standards, values, ways to do,
ideals that are shaping the way needs are
addressed and responded. Laws, gender-based
relations, how to cook, access to adulthood, how to
Spiritual needs
Social needs
be beautiful, respected… are social standards
shaping the response to individual needs and their
satisfaction.
As a social being, each individual need to belong to
a group that gives them a feeling of being
appreciated and valued.
Cognitive
needs
Emotional/
psychological
needs
Our satisfaction or frustration, as an individual, are set in comparison to the ideals of our group of
belonging. As such what is considered “normal” in one society can be seen as “abnormal” for
another group.
No group is completely homogenous, within communities there are individuals that see themselves
as different, or promoting other ideals. They are seen as subgroups. Their “differences” are often
only linked to small changes. Over a long period of time, some of these changes may become
mainstream. Every group has got, from within, ways to integrate change and relate to its sub-groups.
Even strong behaviours of contestation or exclusion within a group are existing according to
“acceptable” standards within that group.
In that regard:
 A child grows in a group which has its sets of rules and standards
36
The 5-needs wheel model is used and promoted by the Regional Psycho Social Support Initiative (REPSSI). UNICEF
(Journey of Life) will add a need of Protection. REPSSI includes it within the 5 others. The model wheel brings a different
and more dynamic approach to Marslow’s hierarchy of needs, in the sense that the respond to the needs and feeling of
satisfaction depends on the context, the interaction between the individual and the group.
56
 A group has its social standards defining what is acceptable and not acceptable. There are
ideals and social models. Nobody within the group embodies perfection and ideal at every
level.
 Social standards change with time and context. No group is homogenous and social
standards are not rigid.
 Individuals within a group are experiencing the satisfaction of their needs differently. That
experience is unique and always in relation to the ideal of the group. Each group is
composed by individuals sharing most standards but not all. Individuals will sometime feel
closer to the ideal (carrying the standard) or at the periphery of the group (not agreeing with
the standard, seen as alternative, anti-social, deviant…).
 Some individuals are considered within the group as marginal or abnormal. Their “problems”
and the base of discrimination are only existing in regard to the ideal and standards of the
group.
 Working with people at the margin of the group demand to understand the social standards
of the group that are at the base of their exclusion.
o Ex. If a group has, as a social standard, an ideal for women to be housewives, the
group will consider suspiciously women living by themselves. This can have an
impact on the way working women are seen (social discrimination), will feel with
themselves (self-esteem, feeling of success…), are explaining why they are not
housewives (divine punishment, fatalism …), etc.
 Kinshasa society creates multiple subgroups (Shegues, Kulunas, Sapeurs, …) all of which are
part of the society. In that regard, the Ecuries are to be considered as a sub-group of
inclusion.
 VGYW living in the street, involved in commercial sex, are finding a balance in their subgroup. That balance brings them security, satisfaction and respond positively to all their
needs. VGYW may be interested in changing their lives but the change intended has to
happen in a supportive group. They have had the experience of a group/ family that led
them to the street and of a group that supported them in the street.
a) Resilience
Resilience is the capacity to manage and include crisis and move forward with life. A person builds its
resilience through experiences that enable him to respond to new situations with the comfort of
knowing that he will be safe. Certain people are playing a role of referent or resilience tutors,
because they help the child to strengthen its stability and a self-esteem. Resilience tutors have a
direct impact on the social and psychological needs of children, they help children to feel supported
and to have had the experience of strength and love. Resilience tutors can be:
 Parents. The main role of parents is to provide a safe environment to their children and
respond to their needs. They normally are the core tutors for they are helping children
to build the initial balance to their needs.
 Extended family, siblings: along with other people from the community, church and
friends.
 Role models within the community: social workers, elders, religious person,… these
have as a mandate to support and help people in need. Their role is to be present, to
listen, help with difficulties and strengthen the skills of children.
 Fiction heroes and role models: Soap opera heroes, musicians, politicians, religious
heroes,… models that do not have a personal relationship with the child but who are
influencing them with values, and ideals. Role models can also promote conflictual
ideals, based on values that are not in tune with the ones of the community of the child.
57

In the street, children will meet people that are going to be their tutors. They will have a
positive influence, strengthen their skills and provide meaningful response to their
needs, in the context of the street.
Outside the primary circle of resilience tutors (family), children will be encouraged to develop coping
strategies and find support within their environment (local role models). They acquire new skills
individually and as a group. They strengthen their integration within the group and the inclusion of
the group within the mainstream society.
The street is building and strengthening resilience for the child. His coping mechanism crafted by his
street environment are to be seen as strengths by anyone with an agenda to improve the living
conditions of the child. The child-street system and its experience provides comfort and respond to
the child’s needs. It is a balanced system. From the perspective of the child, anyone trying to change
the balance or take him out of his environment is more likely to bring chaos than to help.
Intending to help VGYW in the street demands to start working in the environment that provides
safety and balance to the child: her street, within her Ecurie, with her Love, on her terms and
conditions. The social worker has to earn respect and recognition as a tutor before they can start
working on change. The necessary time taken by social worker to integrate the street environment
will teach them about the strengths and weaknesses on which to build change.
58
5- Services to girls living in the street
a) Characteristics of social services in Kinshasa
Government social services struggle to respond to the needs of the population. The government is
facing multiple challenges and the VGYW are not benefitting from the adequate resources to provide
them with a consistent, pertinent and adapted service. The government does not lead and manage a
functional platform and network for private actors. The response to VGYW is trusted to private
stakeholders.
Private organisations are falling into three categories: faith-based, local organization or international
organization (NGO/OI).
Faith-based institutions (related to protestant or the Catholic Church) have been providing social and
health services for a long time, and have a history of continuity and complementarity to
governmental services. Faith-based organisation will relate their charity work with their spiritual
project (either directly related to proselytising or based on a missionary approach).
Local and international organizations are often dependent on resources only guaranteed on shortterm (<5 years), specific projects. Short term project cycles and the inconsistency of resources made
available has as a consequence that private organisations are focusing more on measurable activities
than on their project of change for the society.
In that context, services provided are generally based on limited projects with a higher control on
measurable results from activities than from its goals. Projects are mostly based on a problem
analysis and the identification of specific problem-related solutions.
This approach enable the use of precise project management tools. The target population is
addressed through failures and problems, and the main idea is that by resolving a series of
problems, the person/population will be better off, then the main objective will be reached. In that
regard, to provide help to VGYW, social workers have to address: The reason why they are in the
street, Drug abuse, sexual abuse, prostitution, theft, improper health, alimentation, behaviour,
economic empowerment, shelter, etc.
The target population is only seen by its shortcomings and problems, the social worker is working to
respond to problems. This approach is efficient for projects that need a strict implementation of
procedures to tackle well define issues (in engineering, medicine,…)
If short term solutions are important and needed from time to time, the approach is not the most
effective and efficient ways to address social phenomenon. Among the reasons the VGYW find
themselves in their present environment is because it is socially acceptable, and the barriers to their
re-integration in the mainstream society and in their family are bigger than the combined response
to defined problems.
The role of social services in this case are to support the VGYW to strengthen their lives, set personal
and group goals and identify the steps to reach them.
b) Existing response by OSEPER/Anuarite
Currently OSEPER and the Anuarite shelter are providing the following services :
 Health consultation and
advises (night ambulance).
 Distribution of condoms,
during the night, in the street
 Discussion and information
to the girls, during the night, in the street.
59










An educational component in literacy and numeracy, that
can open up to formal education.
Information and life skills (HIV, STD,…)
Night shelter for the girls.
Psycho-social support.
Reintegration and family reunification.
Income generating activities for families reintegrating their
girl.
Income generating activities for girls set autonomous.
Alimentation, in the shelter.
Activities (education, spiritual development, games…) for
girls, in the shelter.
Mediation and project-building for girls in the process of
reintegration.
c) Relation between the VGYW and social services
VGYW are responding positively to services that are directly meaningful to their lives:
 Health care
 Sexual health
 Security and protection
The response to reintegration programs is, however, less positive. Social workers will find interest
from the girls at tree main moments:
(1) When they first find themselves in the street and are not willing to stay,
(2) When they have problems in the street that jeopardize their inclusion and the security
provided by their Ecurie (relationship problem with their Love or the other girls) and
(3) When they need a type of safety the Ecuries cannot provide (pregnancy, care…).
These moments are moments of crisis where social workers can have a stronger influence on the
girls about changing their environment, and providing alternatives to the Ecurie/ street.
d) How social workers are seeing the VGYW
Social workers are currently
aiming at the reintegration of
the girls within mainstream
society and its social norms.
The ideal they aim for is for the
girls to grow into “respectable”
women (good daughter, good
morals, working then married
with a family). As a women to
Workshop 1, Where the Girl will be in 10 years time.
come back under the loving
control and care of their family
or a husband and develop income generating activities that are acceptable for a women.
The change they want the VGYW to aim
for is within the norms of the
mainstream society, maintaining the
power-relations and gender roles. For
the social workers, the VGYW need to be
respectable and therefor reunite with
60
Workshop 1 Where the Girls will be in 10 years time
their family, develop an income generating activity (within limits) and above all control their
behaviours, passions and attitudes.
On the other hand, when VGYW are asked to dream about their future, their aspirations are
different. They see themselves as strong professional women, independent. They dream of
becoming doctors, stewardess, teachers, nuns, judge, etc. None showed difficulty in expressing their
dream of change. Most were also clear about the steps they need to take in order to achieve their
dream: to get an education, being stable, go back to their family…
VGYW have a common history of crisis: they were either rejected or took the decision to run away
from their caregivers. The family-model did not respond to their needs, they had to be on their own.
Their dreams of change are showing strength and independence from the “ideal” path for a women.
Their vision is to be completely integrated to the mainstream society, but respected and heard, they
do not consider themselves as being outcasts by choice.
There are major differences between the goals of change social workers have for the girls and the
goal of change VGYW have for themselves. VGYW are expecting the social workers to support them
in their lives: to accompany them, listen to them and support them in reaching their goals.
The implemented process of re-integration as it stands is fully considering that the VGYW are not in
the environment they should be in, and are partially responsible for that. Social workers see
themselves as the guides and models for the VGYW, who will bring them back on the right track.
Doing so does not focus on the strengths and willingness to change of the girls (life-project/ future),
but stops on their past (re-uniting the girl, which create the need to solve the reasons of the crisis),
identifies the present mainly thru its negative side (need to get the girls out of their environment)
and pushes the VGYW into a social role they are not comfortable with.
None of the girls have dreams to stay in the street and maintain commercial sex as their main
economic activity. They have dreams to change their lives. But these dreams do not automatically
imply to reconcile with their past, family and community of departure. They are finding strengths
and a positive balance in the environment they are in. Social workers will gain in recognizing it, and
using theses strength as foundations for their future. Dreams VGYW have are their main motivation
for change, to take decision and to face obstacles. Social workers can support their dreams and
boost their self-esteems in engaging with their project and helping in identifying the steps to reach
it.
61
6- Reintegration
Using the term « reintegration » in social studies supposes that the VGYW are outside mainstream
society and should come back. As a fact, girls living in Ecuries or in the street are part of Kinshasa’s
society and thus integrated within the mainstream group. They are not fulfilling all the standards
and ideal of the mainstream group, and therefor can be seen as a sub-group, but are not to be
considered as fundamentally sharing different values, practices etc. In that way, the concept of
integration, rather than re-integration is preferable as it enables to work on existing strengths and
shared values/practices rather than on the perceived problems, stereotypes, differences.
PAST
PRESENT
FUTURE
My History
My story, our story, our life
My story as I dream it.
•Context
•Environment
•Problems that led to the
decision/exclusion and the
street-life
•Initial issues/problems
•Situation favourable to the
existence of children in street
situation: the way mainstream
society creates and allow
children living in the street.
•Current situations and issues
•Strenghts (skills and capital)
•Frustrations and obstacles
•Dreams of change
•Self-esteem, willingness ...
•Positive and negative
experiences of the street:
recognition of the globality of
the experience.
•Changes.
•Dreams, goals and stepts
towards my dreams
•Changes within the groups
(gender, childhood, social
standards...)
•Integration of the community/
families in the VCYW's projects.
•Context, possibilities and
support.
RE-INTEGRATION:
To return.
Need to fully respond and
find solutions to the context
that led the child to be in
the street.
INTEGRATION
New relations based on existing
experiences,
recognition
of
the
past/present as the foundations on which
the child builds her dreams and develops
relations with mainstream society.
VGYW living in the street, within Ecuries, considered as Shegues are belonging to a sub-group of
Kinshasa’s society. They have activities, language, habits and ways that are distinctive from the
mainstream society. However, amid these differences, they are fully included within the society.
On an individual level as well as on a group level, it is better to speak about inclusion/integration.
The groups of YGVW are in relation and belonging to Kinshasa’s society. They are socially and
economically included. The interventions of social workers aim at changing the ways girls are
included. They support them in improving their activities and life environment so that they match
the norms of acceptability. Interventions to improve the situation of the VGYW are all based on
change. Not all demand a return nor to face/respond to the reasons why the girls are marginalized.
VGYW need support to reach their dreams, and recognition of their survival skills, more than to
focus on past problems.
a) Theory of change
Social work aims at providing adequate interventions to help people confronted to obstacles to
overcome them.
62
The theory of change considers that an obstacle/problem a person is facing does not exists outside a
context and cannot be responded to on its own. The medical and managerial approach to social
problems limits the scope of intervention and is not looking at the ecosystem of the problems or
help avoiding similar obstacles. A problem-solving approach is pertinent when addressing issue of
physical needs and survival (alimentation, health, protection against harm,…) and formal cognitive
needs (training, education…). It will be too simplistic to address social, emotional and spiritual needs
which are feeding the visible and invisible environment in which problems arise (or not). Needs are
linked together and evolve depending to the environment and groups of belonging. When working
with humans, a holistic approach to the person is the only way to bring sustainable changes.
Theory of change brings an alternative to the problem management approach. It does not aim at
responding directly to problems. It starts with the identification by the individual / group of goals of
change. From there it see what are the strengths and obstacles in reaching these goals:
 Identify the long term objectives
 Have a clear idea of the hypothesis of action to reach them.
 Identify the current forces/ obstacles (friends/foes)
 Identify the resources (goods and capital)
 Identify potential risks and obstacles that can happen in the future.
History
•Capital
•Resources
•Relations
•Problems...
Present
•Present
situation
•Friends/
foes
•Skills
Future:
Short
term
•Obstacles
•strengths
•Short term
objectives
•Routine for
change
Future:
Long
term
•Dreams of
change
•Expected
Obstacles
•Who/what
can help
b) The Project of Change
The project of change, aiming at a better integration, combines interventions directed both to the
individual and on the system in which the person evolves:
a- Individual approach.
- Case management system (individual files, life-project, dream…)
- Individual support to each VGYW
- Advises, counselling and follow-up.
b- Group-based approach
- Social and economic project of change for the group
- Work on identity and integration.
- Work on inclusion mechanism of members of the group
- Work on social norms and values behind phenomenon of inclusion/exclusion (gender
divide, social changes, normality, access to resources, inequality, access to power,…)
- Profiling and identification of trajectories and subgroups.
In that regard, improving the integration of VGYW has to consider individual strengths and skills, the
environment and the change needed for a better integration37:
37
The following fig. Refers to VeneKlasen and Miller, 2002, in Review of evaluation approaches and methods used by
interventions on women and girls’ economic empowerment, G. Taylor and P. Pereznieto, ODI.org
63
POWER
PLACE
CHANGE
•Power within : self-esteem, self-confidence...
•Power to: capacity to make decisions
•Power over: access and control over resources and capital.
•Power With: capacity to get organised and work with others.
•Resources: pre-existing conditions.
•Agency: the process to organise things
•Outcomes: the achievements
•Individual change
•Change at the level of the group and institutions.
•Change at the political and legal level
•Change at the level of access to resources and economic opportunities.
c) Types of projects of change and their supportive environment.
At the individual level, support is given to help VGYW reach their dreams. They can envision
themselves in an ideal situation some years down the line, creating an ideal picture of their
relationships (network, family, couple…), ways to access resources (IGA, profession,…), etc.
These dreams act as motivations and positive goals of change. They are giving the direction for
individual support, the way a compass shows the direction of the north, as a straight line without
obstacles. To reach their life project they will be confronted with the reality, its opportunities and
obstacles. Working on individual goal of change enables to:
 Create a goal that will ground the motivation.
 Address the feasibility of the goal: build the steps, identify possible obstacles and
strengths.
 Identify the life skills the girls have: how they address obstacles, where they find
strength and self-esteem. Who give them support?
 If dreams are meant to be ideals, steps to reach their goal should be practical and
constructive. They cannot be based on an alternate reality: they start with the current
situation of the girls: living in the street, with a distinct support network, involved in IGA
that bring them a set amount of resources. Steps are anchored in an environment that
constrain the social and economic opportunities (access to market, gender related
inclusion/expulsion, level of education, networks, saturation/openness…). Each step
have to be decided by the girl (ex. a girl of 16 whose dream is to become a doctor and
identify education as a step to gain access to the profession have to join the formal
education system that will enable her to have access to university. If she cannot, she
need to take the decision to reassess her dream. She cannot be fooled in taking steps
that cannot lead her to her dream).
 Identify the different options for the most supportive environment for the girls :
o Their biological family
o In a project of autonomisation (a new start alone)
o In a group (a new start within a new supportive group of peers, shelter, host
family…)
64
o

In their current group, improving its conditions (within the existing group of
peers)
Obstacles that are identified are part of the context. Girls have voiced some specifics:
o Lack of financial resources to study
o Lack of support to push them.
o Negligence and lack of personal attention at home.
o Lack of will and motivation
o Lack of place where to live, nowhere to go, being unwelcome at home.
o Jealousy at home and discrimination.
o Influence of peers preventing the girl to change environment.
o Abuse and violence against the girl at home.
o Lack of space in shelter and other organizations.
o Support group is street-based (brother, friends…)
o Lack of love in the family
o Bad behaviour
o Stereotypes against the girl.
o …
Example:
G.N.B, 15 years old.
Her dream
To become a Judge.
Steps
-
-
-
Her strengths
Study (primary school,
then secondary school
then university to study
laws)
Kotosa mibeko (to
respect the law and
norms)
To be fair
Impartiality
Follow the examples of
wisdom and role models
(ex. Solomon)
-
Kotanga
Kimia
Nakozala na Nandako
Bolingo
Does not engage in sex
work
She is willing to study
She wants to live at
home
Workshop 1, How do I see myself in 10 years?
65
Obstacles
-
-
Her dad does not
recognise her, her
mother
abandoned her,
now she is alone.
Domestic
violence.
Poverty.
At the community level (Ecuries), project of changes are decided by the group. This is based on the
presupposition that the members of the group are sharing common trajectories and concerns and,
as peers, are providing a supportive environment, given the circumstances.
The social work has to access the group and work within its environment and zone of comfort. This
can create discomfort and anxiety at first for the social workers, the same way as it create
discomfort and anxiety to the VGYW when invited in the environment that provided comfort to the
social worker (office, shelter…). The relation between the Ecurie and the social worker has to build a
safe environment for both.
Project of change for the group can address issues of:
 Security and safety.
 Accommodation, alimentation, health…
 Education
 Relations to authorities
 IGA and skills…
By responding to the group’s projects of change the social worker builds a positive environment to
start working on individual support and projects of change. It turns the Ecurie from a potential
obstacle to an ally in the process of individual change.
The groups of socialization have to be met in their environment, at time when they are available. In
the case of Ecuries, girls are mostly working at night and say that they are taking drugs before
(alcohol, cannabis, tobacco). Most are not working during the day but do not feel comfortable to
gather in public space for fear of discrimination.
Activities that could be proposed within Ecuries can be:
 Literacy and bridging program enabling to be enrolled in formal education.
 Economic skills, lifeskills, health advises…
 Negotiation for accommodation, improved sanitation, access to water…
 Couple counselling, family planning, domestic economy…
 Access to resources (micro finances schemes based on the group, ristournes…)
 Girl-based empowerment programmes
 Child-based income generating activity and organization
 …
One obstacle for social workers when working with the current environment and group of VGYW, is
that some concerns and priorities social workers have are not shared as such by the VGYW. The
moral and legal framework of the mainstream society, and sub-group that includes the social
workers may not be adapted to the responses needed to the VGYW (ex. labour legislation,
representation in front on the law/ identity). Social worker have to decide if their mandate is coming
from mainstream society to mitigate its exclusion processes and victims or is to represent those that
are excluded/ at the margin from mainstream society in improving their lives and ultimately
integration.
Changing behaviours and attitude in the mainstream society.
Forcing change of attitudes and values on the mainstream group (society, family,…) is difficult when
the group does not consider the legitimacy of the change. Advocacy and a consistent sensitization
aiming at giving cognitive information about the issue to be addressed is necessary. Changes for the
daily experiences and problems faced by the target group cannot be responded in the short term
only by aiming at a change of behaviours from the discriminating group. The larger the group and
the more fundamental the values and attitudes to be changed the longer it takes for change to take
place. The issue addressed by VGYW relates to attitudes and values of the mainstream society
regarding gender, masculinity, relations to the spiritual world, childhood, responsibility, inequality,
distribution of resources, processes of exclusion. These values are at the core of the value system of
the society.
66
Addressing the issue of integration of the VGYW to the mainstream group is essential but effective
changes and improvement of the life of VGYW needs not only to be addressed by aiming at changing
the mainstream society. Within the mainstream society, mechanism of prevention, referral and
identification of risks and vulnerability should be the priority, in order to avoid crisis that lead girls to
live in the street.
The immediate group of integration for the VGYW are the Ecuries. They provide security, safety and
support. They provide the supportive foundations for the girls in their project of change. These
groups should be the ones projects should focus on in providing resources and support to create
alternatives for the girls.
d) Pertinence of reintegration for VGYW
The reasons why the girls are in the street, the stereotype VGYW have, the sex work they are
involved with, the values and attitudes regarding sexuality, gender, ideals for a child/adult, reality of
the poverty, competition and inequality … are creating strong barriers to an effective reintegration
of VGYW within their families. If a common willingness to reunite is not present, and the
reunification is forced on one party, or bought (conditioning the reunification with support in IGA,
resources, funds), the odds are high that the girl will not be stable. Efforts to reintegrate a VGYW are
important and consuming resources. They are not often efficient and reintegration should not be
considered as the ideal and principal intervention to respond to VGYW.
The ideal representation for a family unit is not reachable for many of the VGYW, and the fact that
they are living in the street is a strong indicator that the model failed.
If reintegration and reunification should not be the main process for improving the integration of the
VGYW, it remains essential to open the possibility of improving the relation between the family/girl
by supporting communication and mediation between the parties. Reintegration is an option that
can happen when both parties are ready, but cannot be forced.
e) Reintegration or integration
For children living in the street, especially for VGYW, it is more effective to initiate a social and
economic integration starting from the street environment. This implies to consider existing skills
and strengths, recognizing the street-based systems. The work will focus in supporting and
reinforcing existing systems in order to reduce risks and vulnerability, improve the conditions of life
and opportunities.
A street-based socio-economic integration is more advisable as the default integration process,
based on the existing groups of peers (ecuries), with possibilities to respond to individual projects,
some of which will be of reunification.
f)
Participation of the girls, as groups and as individuals in their change
Implementing support with Ecuries opens the challenge of working with VGYW either as clients of
services or leaders of change. When social workers consider the target group through its lacks and
problems, the tendency is to take the responsibility to respond to the problems, and in doing so to
relate to the person as a beneficiary, client of a service provided by the social worker. The person is
not seen in its capacity to respond and overcome its problem.
Working on the base of change demands to consider the strengths and resources of the
person/group and build the steps to lead to change based on those resources. The social worker is
supportive but not guiding nor responsible of the change.
VGYW are leading their changes. Social workers are there to help in their empowerment, in building
a fertile environment for participation and collective leadership, and respond to demands of
information and knowledge the girls have. In this scenario VGYW are leading their process of change.
67
When a social worker considers the VGYW as partners and not beneficiary, they empower them and
strengthen their self-esteem, resilience and skills to overcome obstacles. Social workers do not carry
the sole responsibility for the change, and its potential failure. This lower the stress and burn out for
social workers and improves their motivation.
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7- Social workforce
a) Approach to VGYW
Working with VGYW and nurturing the aim to help them change their life demands professionalism
and openness. VGYW living in the street are sending back questions about family model, poverty,
social integration, but also about sexuality, gender relations, morality etc.
There are two main models in social work, following two lines of thoughts: to consider the problem
of individually (marginality) or to consider the problem socially (integration). Either the individuals
are problematic and have to benefit from help (or be forced) in order to fit in the society or the
environment/ society is inclusive for all and need to be changed in order to accommodate all.
Services and interventions for Children Living in the Street often focus on the first approach. They
would gain in keeping individual-responses and efforts to build an inclusive environment and
society.
Problem = individual38
Problem= at the social level
Charity Model
VGYW is seen through her problems. She
has deficit and obstacle to lead an
autonomous life. VGYW need special
services and institutions because they are
different.
They need help, charity and welfare: they
are “unable” and need to be looked after.
They are victim and responsible, they
cannot make the “right” decisions to lead a
respectable and good life and need help in
that regard.
Social Model
Regards marginality to be a result of the way society is
organized. Shortcomings means that VGYW face barriers
and obstacle to their full participation and inclusion.
These include:
 Discrimination and negative attitudes towards VGYW
 Environmental: gender-based stereotype,…
 Institutional: legal discrimination, or absence of
adapted procedures to implement laws.
According to this model, marginality do not only comes
from the individual but also has to be seen in its context.
It is the fruit of an enabling/disabling environment.
Medical Model
Marginality is a medical condition that
need to be responded: cured or balanced
in order to make the a-social person fit in
the society. The problem of disability lies
with the individual.
The medical model promotes the use of
drugs and clinical PSS tools. It considers the
individual through its lacks and imbalance
(emotionals, health-related,…)
Right-based Model
Focuses on the fulfilment of human rights to equal
opportunities and participation. The main base for the
right-based approach is empowerment (participation and
effective access and accessibility) and accountability (of
the public services).
The right-based model promotes equality of opportunities
for all and, in that regard, work to prevent discrimination
and lack of access due to attitudes, environment and legal
discrimination.
38
Adapted and based from Harris and Enfield, 2003, Disability, Equality and Human Rights: A Training Manual for
Development and Humanitarian Organisations. An Oxfam Publication in association with Action Aid on Disability and
Development (ADD). Oxford.
69
VGYW living and working in the street are mainly seen through the scope of their personal stories
and marginality. Considering the number of VGYW and their similar trajectories, interventions
should also focus more on addressing the social integration of the VGYM. Addressing the social
integration demands to complement individually based interventions with group-based
interventions focusing on improving the integration and recognition of the group.
A professional attitude and understanding to the social phenomenon at stake is essential in order to
provide adapted support to the girls. The values and objectives defended by the organisation need
to be clear as they will directly impact on the relation with the girls. Values behind the objective to
improve the socio-economic integration of VGYW are different from those to stop VGYW working in
commercial sex. Projects and the resources allocated can focus on problems to solve or on change.
Approach to VGYW, position of the social worker in regard to them gain at being transparent and
clear, both for the social worker and the VGYW.
b) Support to social workers
Social workers are not only implementing activities. They need to have the possibility to adapt the
activities to the realities they meet. They will lose efficiency and productivity when asked to perform
management-related interventions (following indicators, responding to topical issues…). They will
gain productivity, motivation and efficiency when they have the liberty to adapt, invent and respond
to situations, leading the process of social change. Their role is in leading the negotiation between
chaos (marginalized group) and order (mainstream society).
They will be efficient when their management organises the workspace accordingly:
 Implement collective leadership and participation during the phases of the project
building: during the definition of objectives, construction of actions, identification of
methodologies, evaluations, reassessments, reporting, etc.
 Organize weekly group supervision of the social workers. Meetings that are not focused
on collecting information for the project, but on hearing social workers speak about
their experiences, ideas and difficulties. The group supports the individual.
 Organize regular individual supervision. One to one conversations about the way work
has an impact on their life, providing personalized support and setting individual
objectives.
 Opening discussion on work-related issues that can be taboo. Ex. Men and women have
a different experience to VGYW working in commercial sex. The sexuality of the girls can
bring discomfort at different levels. Workspace has to be safe enough and open for
social workers to address and share their feelings with their peers and receive
professional support in their discomforts.
 Allow autonomy in case management and responses: Social workers have to adapt to
circumstances, sometimes supporting activities that are not scheduled by the
organization or project. The objective of success and change should enable social
workers and managements to adapt the implementing process if justified.
c) Stress and professional well-being.
Stress is a state of unbalance and discomfort in relation to a situation. Social workers are often
prone to stress due to:
 Difficulties working with social groups and individuals at the periphery of our society.
Social worker are also belonging to groups and subgroups within a society. They have
the mandate to work on problematic social links. “Beneficiaries” are impersonating the
dysfunctions and discriminating processes of the mainstream society. This can create
70
stress: on one side the social worker is included in the mainstream society and gets his
mandate and recognition from it, and on another side he is faced with the limits of
integration of the society and the questions people at the margin are throwing back. The
social worker can find himself thorn between different values system, having to make
decisions and mediations. This is a cause of stress and can bring confusion about
personal values.
 Personal motivations and experiences. Individual motivations to work on social issues
(child protection, gender related issues…) can be based on personal experiences. The
way we have responded to these experiences give the feeling of knowledge and skills.
Motivations can be based on our experiences of survival where we feel we can share
and help others the way we have been helped/ wish we could have been helped.
Confronted with VGYW who are not responding to advises, are not listening or are
vocally contradicting will cause stress and frustration. Our history and stress
management can prevent us to listen and understand the personal experience of the
VGYW.
 Lack of recognition and support. Managers, friends and family often acknowledge what
social workers “do” but fail to give importance to what they “live”. Contacts with VGYW
will have an impact on the social worker’s own values, frustrations, experiences,
discomfort… or question the values and norms of mainstream society and personal
identity.
Stress creates discomfort that can lead to a lack of motivation, physical or mental troubles
(insomnias, lack of appetite, stomach/head ache, heart-related problems…), relational problems
(versatility, lack of sexual desire, confusion, problems controlling drug intake/sexual appetite, lack of
happiness,...), burn-out (work-related depression)…
In their relation with their beneficiaries, social workers will protect themselves from additional stress
by avoiding personal involvement in the relation and preferring to apply ready-made recipes. The
“ready-made” recipes are often based on a closed value system and pre-analysis of the beneficiary
(stereotypification). Social workers who cannot engage in the relationship with the beneficiary are
unlikely to succeed in bringing the beneficiary to the change intended.
An employer and manager will see losses in results and productivity from stressed workers. They will
show less enthusiasm, lower their participation and involvement in any work-related situation and
demand stronger compensations for their fading work. On one hand the workers are less productive
and more absents and on the other they will constantly ask for compensations (in kind or monetary
values) for any unplanned activity.
Without organized professional support and supervision, social workers are prone to loss of
enthusiasm, stress and burnout in the first 24 months of their service.
d)
Monitoring tools for Social Work the situation of War Child and Anuarite
Monitoring and Evaluation tools in place measure the work of the social team. They are
useful to monitor the indicators of the project. Most only serve for the reporting of the
interventions. Adapted tools could improve better the support given to human resources and the
feedback given to the proximity teams, challenging them on specific questions that can lead to
practical advocacy.
Individual files are existing but mostly used to record information and are not fed back in the
activities. There cannot be considered as case management files. There is no system to discuss and
follow up all cases met. Actual tools are measuring occurrences of events (number of VGYW met,
number of reunification done…). They do not measure the quality of the intervention.
The existing Monitoring and Evaluation cannot be use as tools to help manage the project (and
identify good practices / weaknesses from the human resources, positive deviance, capitalizations…)
nor to build up knowledge for evidence-based advocacy campaigns.
71
Gathering data is important in building targeted advocacy and bringing evidence of the situation
VGYW face in regard to the effectiveness of their socio-economic integration.
Strengthening data collection systems for evidence-based advocacy and the empowerment of local
and national stakeholders is key to bring change.
A project management system needs to encourage the flow of information between the different
components of the project, especially in the designing of the intervention and advocacy arguments
based on evidences. These need to be built with the implementing teams. Continuous methods to
build knowledge, based on Participative Action Research are more efficient to provide adequate
tools that can feed lobbying activities and follow up the quality of the intervention. The project
needs to invest in providing support to the management team in order to improve Monitoring and
Evaluation tools, to collect and provide data that can be fed back in the project:
o Data can provide useful indicators to field workers about trends, trajectories and
similarities between PwD.
o Data can be gathered in order to develop evidence-based advocacy campaigns or
targeted actions at the local level, or for a group sharing similar constrains.
o Data can help project coordinators and managers in following the outcomes and
impact of the work done in the field. They can see differences that are related to
the skills of the proximity agent, see positive deviance and weaknesses. They can
respond and support better their teams, creating a better work environment.
Checklists and data collection system are not used to monitor the individual work with the
educators. In that regard, there is no tools to help managers to better support educators and social
workers that have had shown “lower” results or learn from those that have shown positive
deviance/results. The latter are not valued and used to their full potential, to help improve the work
done by their peers.
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Recommendations for improving the socio-economic
integration of Vulnerable Girls and Young Women
a) Improving the Socio-Economic Integration of the VGYW
Kinshasa’s society has created a specific street-system. As such the street-system is sharing more
links, values and similarities with mainstream society than differences. VGYW living in the street are
integrated in the society. Their primary groups of inclusion are the Ecuries rather than their families.
The girls’ integration with the Ecuries is as functional that their integration with their family was. For
many girls, the Ecuries are their best present option.
Socio-economic changes have to be based in the girl’s present situation and context. They should
not automatically suppose a “return” to a family and an ideal normality. Working with the present
context of integration enable to use its strengths and build projects of changes that are rational.
Demanding a re-unification with a family fails to see the dysfunctionality of the family, the
discrimination and exclusion the girl experienced. A reunification is important but is not essential to
improve the socio-economic integration of the VGYW. To the contrary, a conditional support linked
to an automatic reunification can create more uncertainties for the girl.

Strengthening the groups of belonging.
o Working in the streets and places where VGYW feel comfortable.
Street-based work enable the VGYW to stay in an environment they are familiar
with. This brings them a certain feeling of comfort. The social workers have to be
invited in their lives and spaces. By working in the street the educator/street worker
adapts his/her interventions to the interests, priorities and availability of the VGYW.
This can be uncomfortable for the social workers. With time social worker and
VGYW can identify places that are accepted by both (ex. a drop-in centre).
o Working with the Ecuries:
Ecuries are groups of integration for the VGYW. They play the role of a group of
belonging, similar to a kinship. Its loose hierarchy and obligation means that the
gathering of its members is based on the satisfaction of their needs by the Ecurie. As
a social group of integration, Ecuries should serve as the base for empowerment and
group-led interventions (eg. Alphabetization, training in economy and resources
management linked to IGA, providing services of micro-investments,…). Ecuries can
also be the platform to improve health conditions (sexual and reproductive health,
hygiene, general concerns…), and improving wealth.
As a gathering of individuals, Ecuries can be changed. Different types of Ecuries
could be encouraged as a place of integration, with different access rites, gathering
girls that are developing different IGA from commercial sex…
o Leading change:
VGYW have experiences, strengths and resources they are using to survive and
succeed in the street. These gained skills should serve as a base to build a better
integration in the society. To force the VGYW to fit in the ideal of a socially
respectable women is limiting the options available to the VGYW. Their
understanding and experience of autonomy, their dreams of success and strong
professional characters and their control over their sexuality can be an important
73
base for change and advocacy. Leading changes with the VGYW instead of trying to
manage them and solve their/our problems will be easier. Existing legislations that
are limiting the realization and integration of VGYW should be addressed in the
advocacy campaigns directly, but should not be an obstacle to improve the life of
the VGYW (ex. legislations about gender dependence, age of adulthood and
autonomy, labour laws among others).
o Girl Empowerment:
Implement specific tools of girl and women empowerment, focusing on
strengthening their self-esteem, working on their relation to their body, mind,
emotions and to men.
Girl empowerment provides both group-based activities and individual support
(peer to peer system and support from outside). These interventions can be based in
Ecuries, in the same way as Ecurie members are related in the group, girl
empowerment tools use groups as a positive peer-to-peer support group.
 Individual projects of change
Aside from group-based work, an individual support can be provided to girls that are willing.
The support focuses on their project of change: a vision of their dream, the identification of
the steps to reach it and of the obstacle / allies they foresee.
Individual support and projects can include and exit from the street system, a reunification
with their family, etc. Some projects are unreachable in the immediate time frame. This may
include project of reunification and exiting the street. Social worker has to be honest, never
make promises he/she cannot follow through, never lie. The fact that such projects are not
reachable immediately means that to successfully reach them some essential steps need to
be taken (secure some resources, get a level of education, having discussed and addressed
relationship issues,…).
 Working on family and kin relation: mediation and communication.
Any individual project of change is mainly based on the strengths and resources the VGYW
have at the present. It considers more their past experiences in the way the VGYW
responded to them (the dynamics of change and responses) rather than as facts and
characteristics.
VGYW in a street situation have problematic relations with their family. One of the step for
change will be to address that relationship, and their experience. It does not have to be
immediately nor a condition for any social work. VGYW have different experiences and they
will respond to their family relation when they are ready to do so. Starting a mediation or
communication does not mean to move towards a reunification.
 Income Generating Activities
For the VGYW, sex work is not only an IGA. Prostitution also include the VGYW in a
community of peers, bringing them a sense of belonging. The community of peers and the
social groups (Ecuries) also provide services that are traditionally expected from a family:
Girls are sharing and respond to their needs of security, support and well-being by the
group. They can put resources together to eat, sleep and have leisures. By working and living
together they lower their expenses and maximize their benefits.
As such, in the present way Ecuries are organized, sex work provides incomes and a
socialization in a group of peers. Alternative IGA cannot only focus on the income.
IGA identified in the market study are also mostly generating less incomes than sex work.
The incomes generated by prostitution are higher than the ones from IGA. Women involved
in IGA are depending in their majority of relatives to balance their costs of living. Income
74
generating has to be seen in its ecosystem, and in the relations between the different
members of a household.
Ecuries are for sex work what families are for IGA. Individuals can have a decent life because
other members are there, helping with chores, with resources and support. The IGA have to
be seen in the ecosystem of the VGYW
b) Strengthening of the social workers and Human Resource/project management

Strengthening of project managers and coordinators with capacitation and tools to
support social workers.
Lack of results are not solely the responsibility of the field workers. They are mainly the
responsibility of the managers: the coordinators, project designers and the officers providing
technical support. Project design and appropriation by staff is essential. Workers that are
considered as bare implementers of a strategies and actions they have not designed and
judged upon result can be efficiently managed and bring positive results in fields that rely on
consistency and pre-defined procedures to reduce the risk. Production plants and industries,
medical field, craftsmanship… are relying on these skills and management modes. To the
contrary, social and rehabilitation work are based on leading changes, showing empathy and
adapting constantly to the realities, dreams and history of the person.
Project designers have to include that necessary autonomy in the conceptualisation of the
project, managers in their ways to lead their teams and technical support officer in the tools
they promote to help the optimal conditions for the social team to respond to the VGYW,
and for the managers to respond and support their teams.
 Creating an environment that give place to collective leadership
Improving group-based case management and decision taking within the social team will
bring stronger interventions. Social workers are not feeling alone with their cases, the
dynamics of collective leadership techniques enable them to share, seek support and help
without feeling that it is a weakness. It also enable the formal managers to step down and
rely on their staff to lead changes, discussions, designing better actions. This strengthen
their position and mandate and lower the risk they take of making mistakes. Ultimately, it
reduces stress managers are feeling. They accept to share responsibilities and feel
empowered in their role, function and responsibilities by their team. Collective leadership
systems are not foreign in the DRC
 Supervision and professional support to workers
Regular supervision and professional support to the social workers and field teams have to
be part of normal activities. Support can be at the group level (collective leadership and
group discussion about situations), and at individual levels (discussions with peers,
managers, psycho-social adviser). They have to be formalized and solely focusing on the way
social workers live and experience their work: how they understand and analyse it. Group
discussions are key moments were to bring foods for thoughts, decide on issues to
study/understand better.
 Stress management and well being of the social workers.
Stress and lack of motivation have a direct impact on the relation social worker have with
the VGYW they are responding to.
Managers can improve the motivations and lower stress of their teams:
o By hiring workers that complement the team, show motivation and dedication.
o By stopping the contract of workers that are not.
o By promoting an organisation culture that promotes autonomy, collective
leadership and direct support to the workers.
75
o
o
To be able to show and organize moments of collective leadership and moments
of management and decision. Collective leadership and participation enables
people to participate in decisions, bring more ideas and give everyone the
chance to lead. Following these moments the managers has to recognize and
maintain the direction decided.
By enabling the worker to feel safe in the organization (to be able to discuss
about his/her difficulties, uncertainties and challenge his/her colleagues,
including decision makers)
 Support to projects of change that are based on the world as the VGYW experience it.
Social service can either follow a mandate from the mainstream society to manage and put
in order deviant members, or take its mandate from people that are discriminated and
excluded from mainstream society and work with them to improve their integration and
change.
Recommendation are to follow the second approach, and to base the improvement of the
integration of the VGYW on their experiences and their mandates. Project of changes in that
regard are not only to make sure the VGYW are closer to an existing social norm, it can also
consider changing the social norm and opens up to interventions based in the community
and advocacy.
c) Advocacy and social change.
 Prevention
Girls living and working in the street are an indicator of the situation girls (children) are
experiencing in their families.
Prevention aims at reducing the amount of decision made to leave the family/exile the child.
Prevention should target vulnerable children (girls, poor families, not scolarized…) and
inform about Who to contact, What to do or Where to go in case of a problem. Social
services aiming at protecting children should be identifiable (common image, similar to signs
displayed by pharmacies, medical facilities…).
Broader prevention systems could aim at reducing poverty, improving access to education,
responding more strictly to some abuses and crimes against children and women, etc.
 System in place to respond quickly to first arrival of the girls in the street.
Once the child reaches the street, he/she will spend some weeks adjusting, without having
bonded with a group/ street life. These few days/weeks are the best and most effective
moments to help the child exit the street and have them either be reunited or socialized in
an different environment. There is a challenge in identifying these children as soon as
possible. Receiving the help of market sellers, street children, Ecurie leaders, yayas… could
be possible. People spending time in the street and capable of identifying new children
should be part of the identification system. These children must have a priority access to
rehabilitation shelters. Ideally they should limit as much as possible their contact with
children that have been living in the street for a longer period and have socialized there.
For these children, the exile/decision to leave is still part of their immediate present. They
are still in the dynamic of the decision, which can be modelled. It does not mean that a
reunification is ideal or possible. The only meaning is that these children have a higher
chance of not bonding and going back in the street. It thus reduce the risks for them of
abuse, violence, lack of education, etc.
 Advocacy at the community and political level: child protection, poverty reduction,
girl’s empowerment and gender relations.
76
Changing community behaviours when the group does not see an immediate interest in the
change takes time (the regular use of a cell phone has been quicker and more socially
accepted than the use of a condom). Projects responding to VGYW give the opportunity to
identify fields and social behaviours that are creating exclusion and discrimination, laws that
are difficult to implement or that are not protecting VGYW.
Monitoring and evaluation system are there to collect and raise information to build
evidence-based advocacy campaigns.
Main areas of advocacy that could be addressed:
iImplementing the laws against violence and abuse against children and
women.
iiAdvocate for the responsibilization of men in commercial sex (as promoting,
harassing, engaging or consuming)
iiiAdvocate for a better redistribution of wealth, fight against corruption,
transparency in administration and systems of governance.
ivStrengthening of the child protection networks at a city level and practical
child protection systems at the level of the neighbourhoods.
vHave child protection actors (public and private) benefit from resources
from the State’s budget and donors that are not project-based but servicebased.
Bibliography
Documents produced by the research :
Inception Report, July 2014
Report of the workshop in July with VGYW and Staff (Anuarite, Oseper, WCUK), july 2014
Report of the workshop in Novembre Staff (Anuarite, Oseper, WCUK), Decembre 2014
Introduction and methodology to a Participative Research Action, July 2014
Timeline and agenda of the RAP, July 2014, updated in August, September and December.
Descriptive statistics, cross tabulations and data analysis of the first survey, Overview of the VGYW,
august 2014
Descriptive statistics, cross tabulations and data analysis of the second survey, Economy of
Prostitution, Septembre 2014
Descriptive statistics, cross tabulations and data analysis of the survey on the Ecuries, Octobre 2014
Descriptive statistics, cross tabulations and data analysis of the market Study, Decembre 14 2014
Descriptive statistics, cross tabulations and data analysis of the interviews with couples, February
2015
Data analysis of the brainstorm on values by VGYW, February 2015
Plans of action and harvest from the planning for action done at Anuarite and with partners,
Decembre 2014
Case management toolkit, July 2014
Models of agendas to lead staff meetings, July 2014
Staff management, theory of change and collective leadership toolkit, Decembre 2014
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Annexes
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Terms of Reference for the Research (softcopy, attached)
Initial Research Proposal by FBAconsult (softcopy attached)
Document review
Interviews and contacts
Data Collection Instruments
Monitoring and Evaluation Toolkit
Reports from the workshops (July/ November)
Descriptive statistics
80