Nanotechnology________________________________________
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Video Introduction
Table of Contents
Introduction
Origin
Nanoscale
Quantum Effect
Carbon Nanotubes
Types, Uses and Applications of Nanomaterials p.6
Nano material manufacturing techniques p.7
p.4
p.5
p.1
p.2
p.6
Who
Economics
Health and Human Exposure p.9
Risks
Environmental p. 8 p.11
p.9
p.10
Federal Legislation
Timeline p.13
p.12
References p.17
Nanotechnology is the convergence of science, technology and engineering at the nanoscale. Its basic definition is “the engineering of functional systems at the molecular level. It involves the manipulation and creation of new materials at the

atomic, and molecular level through the use of imaging, measuring, modeling and manipulation of microscopic matter. A vast number of new industries have already been built around the huge variety of new and unique applications for nanoscale materials. Nanotechnology has gained a foothold in such age old fields as healthcare, medicine, mechanics, computing, electronics, communications and the military. For this reason, nanotechnology is sometimes referred to as a “general-purpose technology.” “In its advanced form it will have significant impact on almost all industries and all areas of society. It will offer better built, longer lasting, cleaner, safer, and smarter products for the home, for communications, for medicine, for transportation, for agriculture and for industry in general.” As with all new advancements, there is also a growing concern over the potential threats the improper use of this technology poses to health and safety. Due to the size of the materials this technology produces, monitoring the proper use and handling of nanoscale materials poses new risks and new challenges.
Origin
Nanoscale materials are not new. The use of nanoscale materials can be traced back thousands of years. Nanoscale gold was used in glass as far back as the 6 th
Century B.C. and nanoscale metals were used to create stronger, more flexible weapons as far back as the 13 th
Century B.C. However, the science and technology that has made it possible to understand and utilize matter that is invisible to the human eye has only recently come into being.
On December 9, 1959, by Richard P. Feynman , an American theoretical physicist, first Introduced the concept that matter could be manipulated at the molecular level. Feynman gave a presentation to the American Physical Society at the California
Technical Institute titled, “There is Plenty of Room at the
Bottom.” In his talk Feynman described his vision for the future of a new type of technology that could manipulate and control things

on a small scale. In his speech Feynman prophesied that “This field is not quite the same as the others in that it will not tell us much of fundamental physics (in the sense of, “What are the strange particles?”) but it is more like solid-state physics in the sense that it might tell us much of great interest about the strange phenomena that occur in complex situations. Furthermore, a point that is most important is it would have an enormous number of technical applications.” To peak his audience’s interest, Feynman postulated that the entire Encyclopedia Britannica could be written in raised atoms and fit on the head of a pin. He went on to describe how this might be done and how much easier it would be if the words were condensed to code and the code was condensed to an even smaller scale. Feynman urged his fellow scientists to make the electron microscope 100 times better because with it, the mysteries surrounding the most fundamental problems of biology
(DNA), chemical analysis and the workings of biological systems could be solved by simple observation. Feynman also postulated that with this tool, we could manufacture miniature, nanoscale devices that could be more readily mass produced, and that we could customize molecules to perform certain functions or react in a certain way with other molecules.
Feynman must have sparked an intellectual chord amongst scientists. In 1981, nearly thirty years later, Gerd Binning and
Heinrich Rohrer invented the Nobel prize winning “scanning tunneling microscope.” This microscope is so powerful that it actually allows the human eye to see individual atoms and their bonds. As Feynman predicted this powerful tool has allowed scientists to observe the properties and structures of molecules. The first such breakthrough occurred in 1985, when
Harry Kroto, Richard Smalley, and Robert Curl discovered
“Fullerenes” by viewing the atomic structure of carbon particles through the scanning tunneling microscope. Fullerenes are carbon structures whose atomic structures take on a hollow spherical or cylindrical shape. “Because of the structure’s similarity to that of a geodesic dome, the molecules were named after the originator of

the such domes, R. Buckminser Fuller.” The cylindrical structure of the Fullerene molecule has gained a lot of attention for its potential application in the field of electronics, materials science and medicine particularly for their photo, electrochemical and physical properties. For example, Fullerenes have been use as contrast agents for MRI’s, X-Ray imaging, photodynamic therapy, and drug and gene delivery.
The Nanoscale
The nanoscale is a unit of measure used to describe the size of things at the atomic level. The scale goes from 1 to 100 nanometers; one nanometer being one billionth of a meter. At the smallest end of the spectrum you will find the hydrogen atom. The hydrogen atom has the smallest diameter of all atoms; one fourth of one nanometer. The following chart depicts on a relative scale the size of nanomaterials.
The Quantum Effect
Atoms and molecules form the essence of all matter. They are at the core of all living systems, and give form to the world around us. We are well versed in the properties of most things at the scale at which the human eye can see. But what is truly new and novel about these same materials is that they often behave differently at the nanoscale. The difference in behavior is

characterized as the “ quantum effect
.” The quantum effect refers to the unique characteristics of a material at the nanoscale that are different from their properties at the macro scale, i.e. the size of things that can be observed with the naked eye. Quantum effect has been observed to affect the melting point, fluorescence, electrical conductivity, magnetic permeability, and chemical reactivity of matter at the nanoscale. For example, nanoscale gold has a red or purple appearance when viewed under a microscope. Because gold’s electrons are tightly bound at the nanoscale, nanoscale gold reacts differently to light. Scientists have discovered that they can use these unique properties to extinguish tumors with laser targeted therapy. When nano gold particles are injected into the tumor they form an outline of the tumor which gives the surgeon a clear and precise target for the laser.
Types, Uses and Applications of Nanomaterials:
A variety of popular types of nanoproducts have been invented since the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope. As noted above, one of the first nanoproducts to be created and manufactured are Fullerenes. Since then, new nanoparticles, nanopowders, nanotubes, nanowires, nanorods, nanofibers, quantum dots, dendrimers, nanoclusters, nanocrystals, and nanocomposites have been discovered and developed.
Carbon Nanotubes (“Fullerene”)

A particularly fascinating area of study in nanotechnology is on the carbon nanotube . Incredibly the carbon nanotube molecule is made from a single layer of carbon atoms. The carbon atoms are arranged in a lattice that is folded over into a tube shape as if it were a piece of paper folded long ways. As it is folded the ends of the carbon sheet bond together making a tube shaped molecule. This molecule is very long in comparison to its diameter.
Carbon nanotubes have valuable attributes that can be applied in many areas of the industrial market. It has been reported that carbon nanotubes are lightweight, and have high tensile strength. It is estimated that carbon nanotubes have about one hundred times the strength of steel. The strength to weight ratio of a carbon nanotube is even higher than that of spider silk. It also possesses great thermal and electrical conductivity.
Nano material manufacturing techniques
Over one hundred nanomaterial products have been created since the advent of nanotechnology in 1985. Over time, two main approaches to manufacturing nanomaterials
(“nanomanufacturing”) have evolved. One is described as the
“bottom up” approach, and the other as the “top down” assembly.
The bottom up technique builds the new material one atom or molecule at a time from scratch. This technique is used when molecules must be arranged with precision to make the material with the desired unique qualities. This technique allows affordable fabrication and many options of material input. The top-down technique breaks down a larger substance into nanoparticles by using mechanical, chemical, or other forms of energy input.
Within the categories of top-down and bottom-up assembly, a number of new processes have been developed. These include, chemical vapor deposition, molecular beam epitaxy, atomic layer eptoxy, Dip pen lithography, nanoimprint lithography, roll-to-roll processing, and as self assembly.
Who
Recognizing that nanotechnology required the development

and acquisition of highly advanced and very expensive equipment, the National Nanomanufacturing Initiative was formed to help fund nanotechnology projects and research. In 2015, the President allocated $1.5 billion for the National Nanotechnology Initiative,
$36 million of which is set aside for manufacturing.
The major nanotech developers in the United States are located in San Francisco, Boston, New York and Los
Angeles. Nanotech development is also gaining interest in other countries such as, Japan, Germany, France, and the United
Kingdom. In recent years, more patents relating to nanotechnology have been filed than in any other field. Most nanotechnology patents are made in nano-electronics and nano-materials. The sub areas of the most growth in nanotechnology are in the fields of electronics, chemicals and instruments. Lead manufacturers in nanotechnology produce nanotubes or aerogel. A big producer of nanotubes is NanoTechLabs, Inc. (NTL). Located in Yadkinville,
NC, NTL specializes in nanomaterial and nanocomposite application development. NTL’s products surpass current technology with effective weight savings, enhanced performance, and prolonged service life.
Economics
At a recent conference held by the United States
Government Accountability Office in January, 2014, participants described the future of nanomanufacturing as “… a future megatrend that will potentially match or surpass the digital revolution’s effect on society and the economy. They anticipated further scientific breakthroughs that will fuel new engineering developments; continued movement into the manufacturing sector; and more intense international competition.”
The developments in nanotechnology can be applicable to many fields of production. Its wide variety of uses has caught the attention of investors and entrepreneurs. The United States alone has invested $3.7 billion dollars into research as of 2005. For carbon nanotubes alone the global market was worth $192 million in 2011. In 2012, the market increased over thirty percent to an

estimated $239 million in revenues, and is projected to grow to over $527 million by 2016.
Health and Human Exposure
With concerns over the health and safety of nanoproducts, many new organizations have sprung up whose mission is to develop processes to limit the harmful exposure of nanoparticles to humans. Considering the wide variety of products that can be made from nanomaterials it is conceivable that people can be exposed in many ways without their knowledge. For example, nanoparticles, can be readily inhaled, drunk, absorbed through the skin, consumed, worn or inhaled. In reaction to these concerns, the
NNI 2011 Environmental, Health, and Safety (EHS) Research
Strategy was developed to provide predictive modeling of risks and identify the most likely causes of human exposure.
Because nanoparticles can be introduced into the human body so readily and in so many ways, safety has become a huge concern. There are several governmental agencies that have sprung up in recent years whose primary focus is on risk prevention and safety of nanotechnology:
•
NIOSH's Approaches to Safe Nanotechnology
•
EPA's Nanomaterials Research Strategy
•
OSHA's Nanomaterials Fact Sheet
•
EPA Significant New Use Rule (SNUR) on nanomaterials
•
Info on how EPA applies TSCA to nanotechnology
Risks
Nanoparticles and materials pose a variety of unconfirmed risks. There is human exposure in the workplace for those individuals involved in the manufacture of nanomaterials and for those who use the manufactured products. Not only is there a risk to human health that results from direct exposure, but indirect sources of nanoparticles are being considered. For example, experts point out that there is the possibility of unintentional release of nanoparticles from exhaust from fuels, fire damage, and chemical exposure. The use of nanoparticles in cosmetics could pose a direct health threat. The use of nanoparticles in medicine

would expose a person to direct ingestion. Potential hazards from nanomaterial exposure include damage to the brain, a fetus, mutations, the carcinogenic effects, endocrine disruption, and inflammatory reactions.
Here is a basic list of questions to guide a risk assessment:
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How do the nanoparticles used behave in water?
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How will the nanoparticles interact in the soil?
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Will the nanoparticles bind with metals?
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Will the nanoparticles bind with the air?
•
Will the nanoparticles bind with organic matter?
•
Will the nanoparticles bind with toxins or pollutants?
• If so what is the behavior of the new compound?
•
Will the nanoparticles be toxic to organisms?
Environmental
As nanoparticles are used in nanotechnology and many nano-based products it is important to anticipate how these nanomaterials might behave in the environment. It is conceivable that nanoparticles could be improperly disposed of like other wastes like plastic, sewage and other contaminates. If they are discarded into water sources and other habitats adverse impacts on the environment can result. Procedures and regulations have been developed to prevent environmentally toxic materials getting into the environment. Yet, the effect of singular unbound molecules and atoms in the environment has not been confirmed. For example, even though materials like aluminum have been accepted on a large scale as a safe material. The aluminum atoms have much different properties at the atomic level and can be poisonous. At the atomic level aluminum atoms are easily ingested by an organism and then spread throughout the food chain.
Federal Legislation
In 2000 President Clinton proposed the National
Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI). It was officially created when congress passed the bill and President Bush signed it. The goal of the NNI is described as follows; “The vision of the National

Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) is a future in which the ability to understand and control matter at the nanoscale leads to a revolution in technology and industry that benefits society.” –NNI. The NNI is funded by the federal budget. The NNI requested 1.5 billion dollars for the 2015-year for research and development. Congress is responsible for adopting policies to regulate nanoproducts and nanomaterials.
Timeline
•
6 th
-15 th
Centuries: Stained glass windows in European cathedrals glowed with many colors made by nanoparticles of copper, gold, silver and chlorides.
•
13th-18th Centuries : Damascus saber blades contained carbon nanotubes in the steel.

·
•
1947: The semiconductor transistor opened the door to the information age.
•
1959: Richard P. Feynman gave a talk at California Technical
Institute titled “There is Plenty of Room at the Bottom.”
•
1981: Gerd Binning and Heinrich Rohrer invented the Nobel
Prize winning “scanning tunneling microscope” which allowed scientists to “see” individual atoms for the first time.

•
•
1985: Harry Kroto, Richard Smalley, and Robert Curl discovered a class of molecules known as Fullerenes.
•
1985: Louis Brus discovered colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals.
•
1986: Gerd Binning, Calvin Quate, and Christoph Gerber invented the atomic force microscope allowing scientists to view, measure and manipulate materials down to fractions of a nanometer in size.
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1989: Don Eigler and Erhard Schweizer demonstrated the applied use of nanotechnology when they manipulated the 35 individual xenon atoms to spell the word “IBM.”
•
1990s: The first of many nanotechnology companies were formed: Nanophase Technologies, Helix Energy Solutions
Group, Zyvex, and Nano-Tex.
•
1991: Sumio Lijima of NEC discovered carbon nanotubes.
•
1992: C.T. Kresge of Mobile Oil discovered nanostructured catalytic materials with applications for refining crude oil, drug delivery, water treatment among others.
•
1993: Moungi Bawendi of MIT invented a method for controlled synthesis of nanocrystals (quantum dots) which have since been used in a variety of applications ranging from computing, to biology, to high-efficiency photovoltaics and lighting.
•
1998: The Interagency Working Group on Nanotechnology
(IWGN) was formed under the National Science and
Technology Council to oversee the state of the art in nanoscale science and technology and to provide guidance on

potential future developments.
•
1999: Chad Mirkin at Northwestern University invented dip-pen nanolithography . This led to manufacturable, reproducible
“writing” of electronic circuits. It has also been used to patterning biomaterials for cell biology research, and nanoencryption.
• 1999 to early 2000’s:
Consumer products with nanotechnology components begin to enter the market in such products as automobile bumpers, golf balls, tennis rackets, baseball bats, nano-silver antibacterial socks, clear sunscreens, wrinkle- and stain-resistant clothing, deep-penetrating therapeutic cosmetics, scratch-resistant glass coatings, faster-recharging batteries for cordless electric tools, and improved displays for televisions, cell phones, and digital cameras.
•
2000: The National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) was

formed to coordinate Federal R&D efforts and promote U.S. competitiveness in nanotechnology.
•
2003 : Naomi Halas, Jennifer West, Rebekah Drezek, and Renata
Pasqualin at Rice University developed gold nanoshells with unique applications for the integrated discovery, diagnosis, and treatment of breast cancer eliminating the need for invasive biopsies, surgery, radiation or chemotherapy
•
2004: SUNY Albany offered the first college-level education program in nanotechnology in the United States, the College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering.
•
2005: Erik Winfree and Paul Rothemund from the California
Institute of Technology developed new theories for the study of DNA.
•
2006: James Tour built a nanoscale car made of oligo
(phenylene ethynylene) with alkynyl axles and four spherical
C60 fullerene (buckyball) wheels. The buckyball wheels turned like conventional wheels. The speed of the car increased in response to greater temperatures.
•
2007: Angela Belcher and colleagues at MIT built a lithium-ion battery with a common type of virus that has the same energy capacity and power performance as state-of-the-art rechargeable batteries. These viral batteries may one day be used to power plug-in hybrid cars and electronic devices.
•
2009–2010: Nadrian Seeman and colleagues at New York

University created several DNA-like robotic nanoscale assembly devices . One such device creates 3D DNA structures using synthetic sequences of DNA crystals.
•
2010: IBM used a silicon tip measuring only a few nanometers at its point to chisel away material to create a complete nanoscale 3D relief map of the world. The map measures one-one-thousandth of the size of a grain of salt. The map was made in 2 minutes and 23 seconds. This demonstration revealed the great potential of this nanotechnology for creating nanoscale patterns and structures as small as 15 nanometers with applications for for fields such as electronics, optoelectronics, and medicine.
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