Assignment 2 – Application of an Ethical Perspective
Assignment 2– Application of an ethical
perspective
3014VTA and Values and Ethics
Submitted by: David Martin
Student #2636349
David.Martin3@student.griffith.edu.au
Date Submitted: 6 November 2007
David Martin
Student #2636349
3014VTA – Values and Ethics
1
Assignment 2 – Application of an Ethical Perspective
Over the last decade the use of information and communication technology (ICT) in
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education has increased rapidly, offering new tools to teachers and students, creating
an electronic learning environment where, in some cases there is little or no contact
between the teacher and the student. Course materials and resources are posted,
either by mail or online and students complete the course on their own, or with limited
teacher communication. The application of these new technologies has brought about
many ethical dilemmas, four of which will be analysed in this assignment. Firstly the way
that e-learning and technology is promoted will be analysed. Secondly, how privacy
concerns about online communication can be compared to face to face communication.
Thirdly, issues of copyright and finally the idea of online communities will be analysed.
These issues will be interpreted using the ethical theories of communitarianism,
consequentialism and deontology. It will be argued that new ethical challenges have
been raised with the widespread introduction of technology into education and methods
that may be successful in dealing with these challenges will be proposed and analysed
using ethical viewpoints.
Governments, educational institutions and the private sector are continually pushing for
more courses, qualifications and learning that can be done using ICT. E-learning has
been promoted as cost-saving, market driven and a better way to learn as part of
lifelong learning, therefore an all round better product than a classroom or traditional
teaching methods. Communitarianism would object to the market individualism (Tam,
1998, p. 3) shown by these education policies. Further, there is more to learning than
can be measured by inputs, outputs and dollars; education has an underlying
responsibility to character formation (Tam, 1998, p. 9) which is hard to quantify but
David Martin
Student #2636349
3014VTA – Values and Ethics
Assignment 2 – Application of an Ethical Perspective
needs to be recognised as important and valuable in itself. Deontology would view that
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the students are more important than their economic worth, and should not be treated
as a means to an end (Darwall, 1977, p. 36). Yet at the same time, if government
policies are acting out of duty and the moral worth of education, then regardless of how
it is done deontology has the view that the decisions are ethically sound. Further,
consequencialistic statistics can be used to justify the changing style of education; with
data showing that the needs of adult learners can be met using e-learning methods
(Feldhaus & Fox, 2004, p. 389). Long term consequences also need to be considered,
and if the initial discomfort and steep learning curves associated with e-learning
outweighed by the long-term gains made when people are made computer literate,
especially in the emergent global and information economies (Arthur, Beecher, Elliott, &
Newman, 2006, p. 56) these new learning methods should be implemented from a
consequential viewpoint. However, governments need to apply whole of society policies
that consider educational contributions that are not necessarily economic in nature. This
can be done by working towards raising education standards by supporting best
practices (Tam, 1998, p. 10) and continuing the development of moral education
programs. This would have the ethical support of deontology, in that people are treated
more than a means to an end. Further, the resulting overall happiness would increase,
satisfying consequentialism and communitarians would be happy if social issues were
addressed as part of the education process.
There are a number of factors that differentiate on-line discussion and face-to-face
communication done in the classroom. Firstly, contributions are stored and can be
made available after the conversation and possibly out of context; discussions can be
David Martin
Student #2636349
3014VTA – Values and Ethics
Assignment 2 – Application of an Ethical Perspective
easily disclosed at a later date. (Gabb, 2002, p. 15). These new concerns about
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communication done on-line, for example forums, need to be considered as a ethical
dilemmas of copyright, confidentiality and privacy; are emails, chat and postings private
or public, who owns postings and is the information copyright (Applebee, McCormack, &
Donnan, 2002, p. 3)? Students need to be treated as ends in themselves (Darwall,
1977, p. 36) so deontology could be used to guide the actions of those that have access
to the material being posted. Using the categorical imperative to apply a possible action
in a universal way should allow these stored conversations to be used in a nondamaging way and for the purpose they were originally intended. However, appraisal
respect can easily be lost if a student believes the teacher has used the material being
posted inappropriately with deontology examining the “principle of volition” (Kant, 1998,
p. 175) regardless of the consequences. Confidentiality “refers to information and
involves restricting access to personal information” (Gabb, 2002, p. 20) and while
written and procedural ethical standards regarding confidentiality are generally well laid
out in educational organisations, privacy, which “is a human right – often defined as the
right to be left alone” (Gabb, 2002, p. 20) is much less defined and documented
especially when dealing with on-line environments. Consequentialism would look at the
results of sharing information, and would judge it morally wrong if the intention or actual
result was to damage the reputation of the people involved. However, if the overall
effect of sharing the information was positive, for example information that helped all the
other students with their assignments, consequentialism would make it possible to
share information at the cost of an individual’s privacy. When dealing with
confidentiality and privacy, extrinsic motivation should be avoided, instead “doing the
David Martin
Student #2636349
3014VTA – Values and Ethics
Assignment 2 – Application of an Ethical Perspective
right thing, just because it is the right thing” (Preston, 1996, p. 45) would in itself bring
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about good decision making. However it would be best that information used in an
educational environment be governed by rules of conduct, privacy and confidentiality
that should be outlined clearly and explicitly before electronic communication is entered
into. This would allow students to be aware of and be able to raise concerns about the
way their postings or writing can be used and the consequences of entering into the
online conversations would be laid out. If policies are not already in place, the
communitarian idea of partnership based enquiry can be implemented by students and
teachers exploring the ethical issues raised. This would also show recognition respect
for the student’s privacy and views by giving appropriate deliberation of their position
and role (Darwall, 1977, p. 38).
Modern technology has made it simple to copy and paste material, information and
idea, with teachers making use of a wide range of material from a variety of sources.
Without gaining permission and acknowledging sources, most of western society views
this as plagiarism, theft of intellectual property. However, many teachers assume fair
use in the classroom because they have no intention of reselling the material (McLaren,
2005, p. 90). This is an example of consequentialism being used to justify an activity as
no financial loss is generated by the action therefore the decision is not a bad one.
Further, overall happiness generated by higher faculty activities, such as teaching would
also be interpreted as a morally good act (Mill, 1897, p. 2) and would easily assist the
inclination to use intellectual works to benefit students. Further, communitarianism
promotes public ownership would be against copyright as when used as “the right to
exclude, not to publish” (Medley, Rutherfoord, Anderson, Roth, & Varden, 1998, p. 59).
David Martin
Student #2636349
3014VTA – Values and Ethics
Assignment 2 – Application of an Ethical Perspective
Further, “the right to publish is not a moral right” (Gerdsen, 2002, p. 33) but rather is
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dictated by tradition and law. However copyright is in place to protect the earning of
copyright holders, and therefore the consequence of the intellectual theft is that the
author will not receive payment. Deontology can also be used to make the decision a
universal one, asking if what we are doing we would want done to ourselves. As an
author, is the teacher using other people’s materials willing to allow their own creations
and work to be used without payment or acknowledgement? A further copyright related
issue is when a teacher moves to a new institution or employer and wants to take
resources that have been created as part of their employment (Gerdsen, 2002, p. 34).
Most patent and copyright applications are done by organisation and companies rather
than individuals (reference), so the argument that the individual that created the
material isn’t getting paid becomes less valid and therefore less of a consequence.
Teachers are also being encouraged to create and use learning objects that are stored
in centralised databases which in some cases are created collaboratively and re-used
by different institutions so perhaps a licensing system similar to the music industry,
where contributors are paid royalties based on their input and the amount the materials
are used could be the future of copyright and fair use for learning objects. While this
doesn’t remove the possibility of intellectual piracy, it implements a system where
individuals can be rewarded for their part in the community of educational resources,
and if implemented correctly and more individuals are happily recompensed for their
efforts, consequentialism would see this as a positive step.
It is questionable that people want to use technology to learn, with recent statistics
showing that internet usage in Australia is not concentrated on education, with only 10%
David Martin
Student #2636349
3014VTA – Values and Ethics
Assignment 2 – Application of an Ethical Perspective
of internet use being done at a TAFE or tertiary institution and 97% of internet access at
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home being for personal use in 2005-2006 (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2006, pp.
19-20). These statistics show what I believe to be a broad trend of ICT being available
for education, and yet not being taken up at the rates hoped for by promoters and
educators. This is a reflection of people wanting to be taught by people, and also raises
the dilemma of teachers and policy makers asserting autonomy over students (Arthur,
Beecher, Elliott, & Newman, 2006, p. 56) by forcing them to learn in a certain way.
Communitarianism opposition to authoritarianism would advocate co-operative enquiry
with all stakeholders (Tam, 1998, p. 9). Further, the deontological idea of treating
people as an ends in themselves (Kant, 1998, p. 167) would sway a teacher to use the
best method possible, not one that is forced upon them. Teachers also need to have
respect for students and what they know and don’t know (Martin & Webb, 2002, p. 50).
Along with advertising and policies that seem to promote communitarian values these
positives hide the exclusion created by the digital divide; sections of the general
population who do not have access to the electronics required to be involved in the elearning community. For example, many mature age students are not generally
confident with technology, and still need face-to-face learning environments (Arthur,
Beecher, Elliott, & Newman, 2006, p. 56). Calculating the utility of these indicators,
holding to the view that actions are right in proportion to the amount of happiness they
produce (Mill, 1897, p. 1) would mean that face-to-face teaching would be a better
course and show that one of the misnomers about e-learning is the belief that the
“learning can take place without teachers” (Martin & Webb, 2002, p. 59). Live interaction
between students and teachers is what is really necessary to create learning
David Martin
Student #2636349
3014VTA – Values and Ethics
Assignment 2 – Application of an Ethical Perspective
environments and ICT should be viewed as a tool that can aid learning, but not
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something that can replace face to face interaction.
Communitarianism is based on connections made between individuals in society
(Preston, 1996, p. 60) and modern technology has made a vast amount of connections
across large distances possible. However, communication technology does not
necessarily build a sense of community, with research showing that students who spend
more time on campus are more likely to discuss course material and be involved in
extracurricular activities (Krause, Harley, James, & McInnis, 2005, p. 32). Interaction is
going to be real and at times confronting in these activities. However at the same time
internet based communities are stretching across geographical barriers and making a
shift from centralised to distributed networks, resulting in clashes of traditional values
and territories, with previously distinct cultural and territories now compelled to
confrontation on the internet (Schreibman cited in Goodenow, 1996, p. 202).While these
communities are being built it is doubtful that fully inclusive communities are formed in
every situation. The impact of changes in new technology on the end user needs to be
considered and responsibility taken by those making the changes (Lin, 2007, p. 416).
How this decision is made is an ethical situation and can use consequentialism to obtain
an outcome. Act-consequentialism does not measure what is best for an individual, but
which decision would be “best, all things considered, from an impartial standpoint”
(Scheffler, 1982, p. 1). However, equity issues are apparent with technology cannot be
used by individuals without access to computers and fast networks or those unable to
use standard equipment. Further, diversity can also be hampered with materials being
designed to stereotyped learners (Lin, 2007, p. 432). Consequentialism would view this
David Martin
Student #2636349
3014VTA – Values and Ethics
Assignment 2 – Application of an Ethical Perspective
as an acceptable loss as long as the majority of learners were benefiting by the
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changes and implementations of the technology and e-learning materials. However, it
should be kept in mind that consequentialism is unable to predict the long term effects
of this lack of diversity (Preston, 1996, p. 42). Further, communitarianism highlights the
need for inclusive communities, where accepted truths and common values are tested
using co-operative enquiry and equal participation is formed (Tam, 1998, p. 7). In cases
where institutes are engaging both learners and teachers in partnerships, the results are
empowering and are the result of justified ethical decision making (Arthur, Beecher,
Elliott, & Newman, 2006, p. 57) and this is the best way to approach inclusivity in these
emerging e-communities.
The issues discussed have not necessarily been brand new, but have evolved very
quickly as technology has been rapidly applied to our society, including education.
Government policy can guide and limit learning trends, and seem to focus on
economics more than social ethics. Cultural and social distribution of technology is
uneven and in some cases unwanted, but ultimately it seems that technology is here to
stay and will be embraced and pervasive. Copyright, privacy and confidentiality issues
are highlighted when technology is involved with mixed views on what is acceptable and
ethically sound. When teaching and technology are brought together teachers are
required to make ethical decisions based on ethical reasoning rather than technological
or pedagogical reasoning (Applebee, McCormack, & Donnan, 2002, p. 1). While
governments and employers may impose rules and policies the final decision is made
by the individual using a combination of ethical viewpoints and experiences.
David Martin
Student #2636349
3014VTA – Values and Ethics
Assignment 2 – Application of an Ethical Perspective
List of References
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Applebee, A., McCormack, C., & Donnan, P. (2002). When technology, teaching and
evaluation intersect ethical dilemmas arise: student evaluation of online teaching.
Proceedings of the Australasian Society for Computers in Learning in Tertiary
Education (ASCILITE) 2002 Conference Winds of Change in the Sea of Learning:
Charting the course of digital education. Auckland: Australian Society for
Computers in Leaning in Tertiary Education.
Arthur, L., Beecher, B., Elliott, R., & Newman, L. (2006). E-learning: Do our students
want it and do we care? Proceedings of the 23rd annual ascilite conference: Who’s
learning? Whose technology? Asclite.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2006). Household use of information technology.
Retrieved September 29, 2007, from Australian Bureau of Statistics:
http://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/B1A7C67456AE9A09CA
25724400780071/$File/81460_2005-06.pdf
Darwall, S. (1977). Two Kinds of Respect. Ethics , 88 (1), 36-49.
Feldhaus, C. R., & Fox, P. L. (2004). Effectiveness of an Ethics Course Delivered in
Traditional and Non-Traditional Formats. Science and Engineering Ethics , 10,
389-400.
Gabb, R. (2002). Who's looking in? Privacy and online learning. The ethics and equity of
e-learning in higher education (pp. 15-26). Melbourne: Victoria University: Equity
and Social Justice.
David Martin
Student #2636349
3014VTA – Values and Ethics
Assignment 2 – Application of an Ethical Perspective
Gerdsen, T. (2002). E-learning: ethics and equity - who own the content? The ethics
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and equity of e-learning in higher education (pp. 27-40). Melbourne: Victoria
University: Equity and Social Justice.
Goodenow, R. (1996). The Cyberspace Challenge: modernity, post-modernity and
reflections on international networking policy. Comparative Education , 32 (2), 197216.
Kant, I. (1998). Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals. In D. L. Cooper,
The Classic Readings (pp. 166-180). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Krause, K.-L., Harley, R., James, R., & McInnis, C. (2005). The First Year Experience in
Australian Universities: Finds from a Decade of National Studies. 2005:
Department of Education, Science and Training.
Lin, H. (2007). The ethics of instructional technology: issues and coping strategies
experienced by professional technologists in design and training situations in
higher learning. Educational Technology, Research and Development , 55 (5),
411-438.
Martin, E., & Webb, D. (2002). Is E-learning good learning? The ethics and equity of elearning in higher education (pp. 49-60). Melbourne: Victoria University: Equity and
Social Justice.
McLaren, K. M. (2005). Copyright: Fair Use or Foul Play. Visual Resources - An
International Journal of Documentation , XII (3-4), 90-97.
David Martin
Student #2636349
3014VTA – Values and Ethics
Assignment 2 – Application of an Ethical Perspective
Medley, M. D., Rutherfoord, R. H., Anderson, G. E., Roth, R. W., & Varden, S. A.
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(1998). Ethical Issues Related to Internet Development and Research. ACM
SIGCUE Outlook , 26 (4), 57-72.
Mill, J. S. (1897). Utilitarianism by John Stuart Mill. Retrieved from
http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/m/mill/john_stuart/m645u/
Preston, N. (1996). Ethical theory: an overview. In Understanding ethics (pp. 39-66).
NSW: Federation Press.
Scheffler, S. (1982). The Project and its Motivation. In S. Scheffler, The Rejection of
Consequentialism: A philosophical investigation of the considerations underlying
rival moral conceptions (pp. 1-13).
Tam, H. (1998). What is Communitarianism? In H. Tam, Communitarianism: A New
Agenda for Politics and Citizenship (pp. 1-30). New York: New York University
Press.
David Martin
Student #2636349
3014VTA – Values and Ethics
Assignment 2 – Application of an Ethical Perspective
Critical Reflection
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For this assignment I started with a list of possible questions that showed that the topic
was ethical. I then grouped them together by which ethical viewpoint suited them best
and started looking for readings that asked the same questions or answered them.
Research for this assignment was more difficult, I had to search a little deeper and find
conference papers, and journal articles rather than books or book section as the books
that contained ethical discussion were on more dramatic situations like murder and
world hunger.
This was also the first assignment that I left until close to the submission date. Even
though the assignment was worked on exclusively, it still felt rushed because of the late
start.
I chose the three ethic styles because they were the ones that I felt I understood, and
related to the most. However it was still a challenge to extract the important issues and
relate ethical viewpoints to them. They way I went about it in the end, was to try and
create mini-fables out of the issues and then interpret them in a similar way to the first
assignment.
This assignment has given me some practice focussing and dissecting issues into
smaller sections, and also shown that I need to work on assignments in small sections
from the outset, rather than trying to do a lot of work in one go. I think the finished
product is better left to stew.
David Martin
Student #2636349
3014VTA – Values and Ethics