Climate Change Adaptation Sector
Strategy for Rural Human Settlements
Department of Rural Development and Land Affairs
June 2013
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Draft Climate Change Adaptation Sector Plan for Rural Settlement
Contents
1.
Background ...................................................................................... 14
1.1.
Policy context and regulatory framework .................................................. 14
1.2.
Rural Human Settlements ............................................................................. 16
1.3.
South Africa’s Rural People ......................................................................... 17
2.
Climate Change Risks and Vulnerabilities .................................. 19
2.1.
Conceptual Framework ................................................................................. 19
2.1.1.
2.2.
Climate Science and Uncertainty................................................................................... 20
Environmental risk ......................................................................................... 21
2.2.1.
Hazard Exposure.............................................................................................................. 21
2.2.2.
Sensitivity .......................................................................................................................... 24
2.2.3.
Climate disasters .............................................................................................................. 25
2.3.
Social vulnerability and adaptive capacity ................................................. 27
2.3.1.
Infrastructure and Services ............................................................................................. 27
2.3.2.
Health ................................................................................................................................. 29
2.3.3.
Economic vulnerability ..................................................................................................... 30
2.3.4.
Mapping social vulnerability............................................................................................ 32
3.
The need for adaptation ................................................................. 33
3.1.
The links between adaptation and development ....................................... 34
3.2.
Adaptation responses ................................................................................... 36
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4.
Strategic Framework ....................................................................... 41
4.1.
Guiding principles ......................................................................................... 41
4.1.1.
Climate change related vulnerability must be understood in the local context ....... 41
4.1.2.
Adaptation planning must be shaped by local participation ...................................... 41
4.1.3.
Adaptation must build on local capabilities .................................................................. 42
4.1.4.
Acknowledging climate justice ....................................................................................... 42
4.1.5.
Evidence based planning ................................................................................................ 43
4.2.
5.
Goals and objectives ..................................................................................... 43
Implementation Plan ....................................................................... 50
5.1.
Instruments ..................................................................................................... 50
5.1.1.
Local adaption planning .................................................................................................. 50
5.1.2.
Sustainable rural livelihoods ........................................................................................... 51
5.1.3.
Sustainable land management ...................................................................................... 51
5.1.4.
Sustainable eco-system services .................................................................................. 52
5.1.5.
Climate resilient infrastructure and services ................................................................ 53
5.1.6.
Disaster Risk Management ............................................................................................ 53
5.1.7.
Research to support rural resilience ............................................................................. 54
5.2.
Institutional Arrangements ........................................................................... 54
5.3.
Financing Adaptation .................................................................................... 56
5.4.
Priority programmes and projects .............................................................. 57
5.4.1.
Integration of climate change responses into the CRDP ........................................... 57
Local adaptation planning ........................................................................................ 58
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Sustainable livelihoods and protection of eco-system services......................... 58
Delivery of climate resilient services and infrastructure ...................................... 59
5.4.2.
Climate resilient land use management and spatial planning ................................... 59
5.4.3.
Disaster risk management and planning ...................................................................... 60
5.4.4.
Research programme to support climate resilient rural human settlements .......... 61
5.5.
Monitoring and Evaluation Framework ....................................................... 61
5.5.1.
6.
Guidelines for the monitoring and evaluation of projects ........................................... 70
References ........................................................................................ 72
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Definitions of Key Terms
Adaptationinvolves adjustments to enhance the viability of rural development and to reduce its
vulnerability to climate, including its current variability and extreme events as well as longer term
climate change (Smit 2005)
Adaptive Capacity refers to the financial, physical, cultural and political ability of societies to make
the required changes needed to survive the adverse effects of climate change. Adaptive capacity is
defined by how people experience and survive the exposure to hazards.
Climate refers to the average weather over time for a specific region (FAO 2007).
Climate change refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability or
anthropogenic forces (FAO 2007).
Climate-resilient society is one that has taken measures to adapt and respond to climate change
(UNDP 2010).
Climate variability refers to variations in the mean state of the given climate for a specific region
over time (FAO 2007).
Climate Change Vulnerability is a result of a combination between the environmental risks that
society’s face and their abilities to cope with those risks.
Rural Human Settlements are places in which people live and work that lie outside of the urban
edge (DRDLR 2013).
Weather is the current atmospheric condition in a specific area. The weather includes variables such
as temperature, rainfall and wind. Weather happens currently or in the very near future (FAO 2007).
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List of Abbreviations
ACCCA
Advancing Capacity to Support Climate Change Adaptation
ANC
African National Congress
ARC
Agricultural Research Council
CBO
Community Based Organization
CO2
Carbon Dioxide
CRDP
Comprehensive Rural Development Programme
CSAG
Climate Systems Analysis Group
CSDI
Communication for Sustainable Development Initiative
CSIR
Centre for Scientific and Industrial Research
DAFF
Department of Agriculture and Forestry
DEA
Department of Environmental Affairs
DRDLR
Department of Rural Development and Land Reform
DRM
Disaster Risk Management
DRR
Disaster Risk Reduction
DST
Department of Science and Technology
DWA
Department of Water Affairs
EWS
Early Warning Systems
FAO
Food and Agriculture Organization
GAP
Geo Spatial Analysis Platform
GCM
Global Circulation model
GEAR
Growth, Employment and Redistribution
GHG
Green House Gas
IPCC
International Panel on Climate Change
ISRDS
Integrated Sustainable Rural Development Strategy
NARYSEC
National Rural Youth Service Corp
NCCR
National Climate Change Response
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NDP
National Development Plan
NDMC
National Disaster Risk Management Centre
NRF
National research Foundation
NGO
Non-Governmental Organization
NPC
National Planning commission
NT
National Treasury
RDP
Reconstruction and Development Plan
REID
Rural Infrastructure Enterprise Development
RID
Rural Infrastructure Development
SADC
Southern African Development Community
SARVA
South African Risk and Vulnerability Atlas
SANBI
South African National Biodiversity Institute
SAWS
South African Weather Services
SLF
Sustainable Livelihoods Framework
UCT
University of Cape Town
UN
United Nations
UNESCAP
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
UNFCCC
United Nations FrameworkConvention on Climate Change
UNISDRUnited Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction
WRC
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Draft Climate Change Adaptation Sector Plan for Rural Settlement
List of tables and figures
Figure 1: Employment in agriculture, first quarter 2001 - 2013............................................ 18
Figure 2: Conceptual Model for Climate Change Vulnerability ............................................ 19
Table 1: Potential impacts of projected temperature increases........................................... 21
Table 2: Potential impacts of projected changes in precipitation patterns ......................... 22
Table 3: Potential impacts of projected changes in oceanic systems ................................ 24
Figure 3: Composite mapping of social vulnerability indicators ........................................... 32
Table 4: Adaptation Responses................................................................................................ 36
Figure 4: CRDP Programme Phases ....................................................................................... 51
Figure 5: Institutional Arrangements ........................................................................................ 55
Figure 6: Phases for incorporating adaptation into CRDP sites .......................................... 58
Table 5: Logical Framework for Adaptation Plan ................................................................... 62
Figure 7: Steps in the monitoring and evaluation process ................................................... 70
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Climate Change Adaptation Sector Plan for Rural Human Settlements has been prepared by
DRDLR in fulfilment of its mandate to coordinate delivery of Outcome 7: Vibrant, equitable and
sustainable rural communities and food security for all. Further, the development of sector based
climate change adaptation plans by national departments is mandated by the National Climate
Change Response White Paper (NCCR), adopted by Cabinet in 2011.This adaptation plan is guided by
the National Development Plan (NDP), which encapsulates the overarching vision of the country
until 2030 and aims to eliminate poverty and reduce inequality by 2030. The NDP recognizes that
government attempts to reduce rural poverty since 1994 have shown that there is no simple answer
to this challenge.
Climate Change is associated with increased variability in weather and a heightened risk of extreme
weather events that may result in climate-related disasters, which include:

Droughts,which caused damage estimated at R1 150 million between 2000 and 2009.

Floods and storms, which caused damage estimated at R4 700 million, and have resulted in
140 deaths between 2000 and 2009.

Veld fires caused damage estimated at R1,750 million, and 34 deaths during the 2000 – 2009
period.
The table below summarises the key impacts of the changes to temperature, rainfall and oceanic
systems that result from climate change:
Bio-physical changes in climate
Potential Impacts
Increased number of warm and very hot
days and increased maximum daily
temperatures
Increased evaporation impacting on the availability of surface water
Soil degradation due to increased acidity, nutrient depletion, declining
microbiological diversity, lower water retention and increased runoff.
Positive or negative impacts on crops and growing season length depending on
local topography, precipitation and crop types. Some crops, particularly
deciduous fruits, require a chill factor during winter to be productive.
Increased incidence of heat waves and associated risks for human and
livestock health from heat stress, particularly for the very old and young, and
those already suffering from illness.
Increase in the concentration and range of pests and pathogens that comprise
human and livestock disease vectors, such as malaria and ticks.
Increased risk of wild fires and associated damage to crops, property and
infrastructure.
Increased number of consecutive dry
days
Decreases in runoff and stream flow and an increased risk of drought, affecting
crop production, food security and rural livelihoods.
Reduced stream flow is a particular threat for rural communities that are
directly dependant on surface water resources.
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Loss of soil moisture affecting crops and increasing the risk of soil erosion due
to wind.
Increased risk of veldfires and resultant damage to property, grazing, and
crops.
Increase in number of consecutive wet
days and/or increase in extreme
precipitation events
Increased risk of floods, with consequent risks of damage to crops, property
and loss of life.
Water logging of soil affecting crops.
Increased risk from water borne diseases such as cholera.
Damage to bulk water infrastructure, irrigation systems and water reticulation.
Damage to property and crops from winds associated with violent storms.
Extreme precipitation events are often preceded by lightening, which is
responsible for a significant number of fatalities in rural areas every year
Changes in the variability and timing of
precipitation
Farmers rely on predictable rains for timing the planting of crops, and
subsistence farmers practicing rain-fed agriculture are particularly at risk.
Increased variability and unpredictable timing of rainfall impacts directly on
the management of catchments and bulk water infrastructure, threatening the
availability of water.
Sea level rise
Salinisation of water sources provided by coastal aquifers on which some
coastal communities depend
Damages to infrastructure and property located in coastal areas with a low
elevation, aggravated by storm surges associated with extreme weather.
Oceanic warming
Changes to the distribution and ranges of estuarine and marine species
important to livelihoods in rural fishing communities.
Ocean acidification
Impacts on the development and reproduction of estuarine and marine species
important to livelihoods in rural fishing communities.
Because of the high levels of poverty and low levels of service delivery and infrastructure
experienced by many rural communities, they are particularly vulnerable to such disasters. Drivers of
social vulnerability to climate change include:

Inadequate access to basic services such as water, sanitation, electricity, and waste
management

Inadequate access to health care facilities

Inadequate access to infrastructure such as housing, roads and communications.

Infants and the old are more physiologically vulnerable to the effects of climate change on
human health, and communities with a low number of economically active adults are socioeconomically vulnerable.
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
Households with low income levels are less able to cope with and respond to the
environmental stresses and shocks associated with climate change. Similarly, lack of access
to land and insecure tenure increases social vulnerability.
The scope of this plan embraces human settlements whichlocated outside of the urban edge, as
defined in spatial development plans. This may include

Urban Fringe: settlements on the periphery of metropolitan areas and towns, which may
include informal settlements, low cost housing and high-income low density settlements.

Dense Rural Settlements: consisting of “betterment settlements” as a legacy of apartheid
planning in the former homelands and informal settlements.

Rural villages: these can be unplanned traditional settlements, or planned settlements that
service farms.

Dispersed and scattered settlements: these consist of unplanned traditional homesteads
and settlements in commercial farming areas.
Within each of these typologies, and even within particular rural communities, there is a large
degree of diversity in settlement patterns, socio-economic status, and access to services of
households.South Africa has experienced a long-term and ongoing trend of urbanisation. Currently
almost 39 percent of the population resides in the rural areas, and on current trends this will
decrease to 20 percent by the year 2050. For many in the rural areas, particularly the densely
populated former homelands, life is beset with struggles around access to basic necessities such as
potable water, sanitation, fuel for cooking and high levels of poverty and food insecurity. One in two
rural households is dependent on social grants, compared with one in five houses in urban centres.
The Climate Change Adaptation Sector Plan for Rural Human Settlements is founded on the
following guiding principles, which will be used to inform adaptation responses in the sector:

Climate change related vulnerability must be understood in the local context – climate
change risks and vulnerabilities are location specific.

Adaptation planning must be shaped by local participation – community driven adaptation
responses must place control and resources in the hands of local communities and view
rural people as partners and assets in development.

Adaptation must build on local capabilities – responses should leverage the resources,
efforts and capabilities of local areas.

Acknowledging climate justice – adaptation responses must seek to allocate resources in the
context of disproportionate needs and historical inequalities, with the rural poor most
vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, despite have contributed least to the causes.

Evidence based planning – climate change responses should be based on scientific evidence
and should initially focus on delivering outcomes that are known to be intrinsically beneficial
to rural communities.
The overarching goal of the Climate Change Adaptation Sector Plan for Rural Human Settlements is
to create sustainable livelihoods that are resilient to the shocks and stresses caused by climate
change and do not adversely affect the environment for present and future generations. To achieve
this, the adaptation plan has been structured around the following strategic objectives:
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1. Support the development of community and local climate adaptation plans – climate change
vulnerability is best understood in terms of the particular environmental risks and socioeconomic conditions pertaining to particular rural human settlements, and adaptation
responses need to be tailored to local needs and build on local capabilities.
2. Build local adaptive capacity through supporting sustainable livelihoods – diversifying
income sources for poor rural households, many of whom depend on government grants
and subsistence agriculture for survival, is necessary to reduce their risks and combat rural
poverty.
3. Support sustainable land management that promotes climate resilience– land use
management and land reform processes need to not only protect and enhance productivity
and transformation in the agricultural sector, but also to build resilience to the
environmental impacts of climate change and protect natural assets by reducing land
degradation and soil erosion.
4. Protect ecosystem services to rural communities– ecosystems provide critical services to
rural communities such as clean water, air, biodiversity and productive soils. Protecting
ecosystems not only builds the resilience of rural communities to climate change, but is also
essential to the sustainability of urban centres.
5. Promote access to climate resilient services and infrastructure – lack of access or inadequate
access to basic services and infrastructure increases the exposure and vulnerability of rural
communities to the impacts of climate change.
6. Strengthen disaster preparedness and response – Rural human settlements are in many
cases particularly vulnerable to climate related disasters as a consequence of the increased
reliance of many rural households on natural resources, a high incidence of poverty, as well
as issues of access as a result of remoteness and inadequate transport and communications
infrastructure.
7. Invest in long term research on more effective ways to supports rural household climate
resilience – akey goal of climate research is to reduce the uncertainty associated with
climate change and provide timely, relevant information to inform planning processes and
develop appropriate adaptation responses.
Designing and implementing climate change adaptation responses will require multi-sectoral
coordination and cooperative governance across different government departments and spheres of
governance, as well as coordination with non-governmental stakeholders. For this reason, the
adaptation leverages a broad range of instruments for implementation, including partnerships with
other government departments and agencies. Local adaptation responses can be supported by
planning instruments such as IDPs and associated planning instruments for local government. The
Spatial Planning and Land Use Management Act, Act No.16 of 2013 gives legal effect to National,
Provincial, Regional and Municipal Spatial Development Frameworks,land use schemes and
Municipal Planning Tribunals.
Four priority programmes for the implementation of the plan have been identified:
1. Integration of climate change responses into the CRDP – this forms the core of the plan and
consists of undertaking adaptation planning process in CRDP sites in partnership with the
relevant local municipalities, piloting adaptation responses and strategies at these sites, and
building on success to take adaptation response to scale while learning from failures.
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2. Climate resilient land use management and spatial planning – this involves developing
norms and standards for incorporating climate change risk and vulnerability into spatial
development frameworks, land use schemes, and environmental impact assessments.
3. Disaster risk management and planning – this involves partnering with the National Disaster
Risk Management Centre to improve early warning systems, develop climate-related
disaster response strategies for rural areas, and undertaking local disaster risk and
vulnerability assessments to inform local government planning.
4. Research programme to support climate resilient rural human settlements – the key
research areas in this programme include climate resilient agriculture relevant to small-scale
and subsistence farmers, technology innovation in service delivery to rural human
settlements, and an audit of indigenous agricultural knowledge and practices.
The monitoring and evaluation framework for the plan is based on a logical framework for the
adaptation plan itself, and monitoring and evaluation of adaptation projects.
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1. Background
This section of the Climate Change Adaption Sector Plan for the Rural Human Settlements (referred
to as “the adaptation plan” in this document) sets out the mandate of the Department of Rural
Development and Land Reform (DRDLR) in developing the plan, by describing the institutional scope
of the plan and the social context in which it is framed.
1.1. Policy context and regulatory framework
The DRDLR was established as a result of the ruling party’s Polokwane resolutions in 2009 and
replaces the previous Department of Land Affairs (DLA). The mandate of the DLA in relation to
reform of apartheid patterns of land ownership is taken up by the DRDLR within the context of an
integrated strategy for sustainable agrarian transformation to support socio-economic development
of rural areas. The central programme of the DRDLR is the Comprehensive Rural Development
Programme (CRDP).
The DRDLR is responsible for coordinating delivery in terms of the presidential outcome 7: Vibrant,
equitable and sustainable rural communities and food security for all. The 6 outputs which
contribute to this outcome are defined as:

Sustainable agrarian reform with a thriving farming sector

Improved access to affordable and diverse food

Improved services to support livelihoods

Rural job creation and promoting economic livelihoods

Enabling institutional environment for sustainable and inclusive growth

Cross cutting/Institutional Support
The DRDLR coordinates delivery of these outputs through the Implementation Forum chaired by the
Minister of Rural Development and Land Reform and on which the provincial MECs for the relevant
provincial departments and District Mayors are represented as well as ministers of the core
participating departments, which include the Departments of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Cooperative Governance and Traditional Affairs, Trade and Industry, Water and Environmental Affairs,
Energy, Public Works and Public Enterprise (amongst others).
The technical forum is chaired by the Director General of the DRDLR, and includes the Director
Generals of the core participating national departments, Heads of Department of the provincial
departments and District Mayors.
The DRDLR and its delivery partners also contribute to the following presidential outcomes that are
directly relevant to the climate change adaptation plan:

Outcome 4: strengthening employment, economic growth and equality in line with the job
creation model

Outcome 8: Sustainable human settlements and improved quality of household life
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
Outcome 9: meeting basic needs of communities and promoting appropriate service
delivery models in rural areas

Outcome 10: sustainable natural resource management
The outputs of Outcome 10, for which the DRDLR is a core partner, are particularly relevant to the
adaptation plan:

Enhanced quality and quantity of water resources;

Reduced greenhouse gas emissions, climate change impacts and improved atmospheric
quality;

Sustainable environmental management; and

Protected biodiversity.
The development of sector based climate change adaptation plans by national departments is
mandated by the National Climate Change Response White Paper (NCCR), adopted by Cabinet in
2011. Section 5.7 of the NCCR is devoted to rural human settlements and notes the vulnerability of
rural communities with high dependence on natural resources to climate change, particularly in
relation to agricultural production. The guidelines for adaptation in rural human settlements
provided in the NCCR are to:

Educate subsistence and small-scale farmers on the potential risks of climate change, and
support them to develop adaptation strategies with on-farm demonstration and
experimentation. Adaptation strategies will include conservation agriculture practices
including water harvesting and crop rotation, and will prioritise indigenous knowledge and
local adaptive responses.

Empower local communities, particularly women who are often primary producers, in the
process of designing and implementing adaptation strategies.

Design and implement economic and livelihood diversification programmes in rural areas.

Within the country’s research and development system, prioritise technologies for climate
change adaptation within rural areas, including low water-use irrigation systems, improved
roll-out of rainwater harvesting strategies, and drought resistant seed varieties.

Target adaptation programmes to build resilience among the most vulnerable sections of
the rural population and ensure that disaster management architecture includes the
provision of safety nets for rural communities most vulnerable to theimpacts of climate
change. This includes enhancing their knowledge of sustainable environmental conditions
and optimising the ecosystem services that these provide. (NCCR, 2011)
The National Development Plan (NDP) (2012) encapsulates the overarching vision of the country
until 2030 and aims to eliminate poverty and reduce inequality by 2030. The NDP recognizes that
government attempts to reduce rural poverty since 1994 have shown that there is no simple answer
to this challenge. Both climate change and rural development present a complex and multidimensional set of challenges for the state that require cross cutting sectoral approaches involving
horizontal departmental coordination and vertical alignment between national, provincial and local
government, traditional authorities, development agencies and civil society.
The NDP puts forward three possible solutions to rural poverty alleviation which are not exclusive:
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
Enabling the poor to migrate to cities where livelihoods may be more accessible;

Diversifying rural livelihoods;

Retaining and reviving rural agriculture.
Particularly important to the implementation of the adaptation plan in the context of rural
communities and land reform is the role of traditional authorities as defined in the Constitution, Act
No. 108 of 1996, and the Traditional Leadership and Governance Framework Amendment Act, Act
No.41 of 2003 and the Communal Land Rights Act, Act No.11 of 2004. These establish the role of
traditional councils in the administration of communal land and are particularly relevant to the
former homelands, in which some of the most socially vulnerable rural settlements are located. The
Restitution of Land Rights Act, Act No. 22 of 1994 (and subsequent amendments) establish the legal
basis for land reform through land restitution, and provide the legislative mandate for the
Commission on Restitution of Land Rights.
South African local government consists of district, local and metropolitan municipalities. In general,
district municipalities are not directly responsible for service delivery, but instead are responsible for
district wide planning, coordination and strategic economic development of the local municipalities
which fall within their jurisdiction. The powers and responsibilities of local government institutions
are established in the constitution and the Municipal Structures Act of 1998. Of particular
importance in relation to the adaptation plan is the Spatial Planning and Land Use Management Bill,
introduced to parliament in 2012, which describes the national, provincial and local government
framework for spatial planning and land use management.The bill explicitly stipulates that spatial
planning and land use management should conform to:
“the principle of spatial resilience, whereby flexibility in spatial plans, policies and land use
management systems are accommodated to ensure sustainable livelihoods in communities
most likely to suffer the impacts of economic and environmental shocks;”
1.2. Rural Human Settlements
The Comprehensive Plan for the Development of Sustainable Human Settlements adopted by
Cabinet in 2004 represented a shift in government focus from the delivery of housing to an
integrated approach to human settlements. Building on the comprehensive plan, the presidential
delivery agreement for Outcome 8 defines sustainable human settlements and improved quality of
household life as:

Access to adequate accommodation that is suitable, relevant, appropriately located,
affordable and fiscally sustainable.

Access to basic services (water, sanitation, refuse removal and electricity).

Security of tenure irrespective of ownership or rental, formal or informal structures.

Access to social services and economic opportunity within reasonable distance.
The Department of Rural Development and Land Reform (DRDLR) considers areaslying outside of the
urban edge, as defined in spatial development plans, to be rural. The 1998 White Paper on Local
Government included a typology of human settlements which includes the following settlement
types that may fall outside the formal urban edge:
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
Urban Fringe: referring to settlements outside the urban core, particularly on the periphery
of metropolitan areas that often include informal settlements and middle-order low income
settlements, as well as high-income low density settlements.

Dense Rural Settlements:consisting of “betterment settlements” as a legacy of apartheid
planning in the former homelands and informal settlements.

Rural villages: these can be unplanned traditional settlements, or planned settlements that
service farms.

Dispersed and scattered settlements: these consist of unplanned traditional homesteads
and settlements in commercial farming areas.
In addition, there are many small towns and villages in which the majority of households fall within
the urban edge, but which nevertheless have close links to surrounding rural areas and farms.Within
each of these typologies, and even within particular rural communities, there is a large degree of
diversity in settlement patterns, socio-economic status, and access to servicesof households.The
National Development Plan (NDP) indicates that research is required into understanding the spatial
variation of rural areas so that development interventions can adequately address the unique
challenges which particular rural areas face.
Access to land and land ownership within rural human settlements is mediated through a continuum
of legal and extra-legal tenure arrangements. While most commercial farms are privately owned,
and ownership patterns continue to reflect historical patterns of racial inequality, the Land Reform
(Labour Tenants) Act, Act No.3 of 1996 provides labour tenants living on farms with a measure of
tenure security that is separate from their status as employees. Within informal settlements, which
in many cases are located on state land, extra-legal tenure arrangements which by definition provide
little formal tenure security to households are often in force.
Particularly in the former homelands, but also in the case of communal land claims, much land is
communally owned and land use rights, which may be overlapping, have been allocated through
customary practice. The Communal Lands Rights Act, Act No. 11 of 2004, sought to regulate and
establish the role of traditional authorities and traditional councils in relation to communal lands,
but significant portions of the Act were found to be unconstitutional in a 2010 ruling, and it has not
been implemented. In practice, land use rights for rural land in the former homelands and rural land
that has been restituted are very often allocated through traditional authorities.
The weakness of rural institutions meant to provide communication channels to government is a
challenge for many rural communities. The factors leading to these weakened institutions include
contested indigenous institutions, weak democratic structures, local governments that lack capacity,
lack of alignment and coordination between government and the non- governmental sector in
pursuing development initiatives, corruption in local government and contestation between
traditional leadership structures and democratic institutions.
1.3. South Africa’s Rural People
The people of South Africa’s rural areas are characterised by considerable diversity between and
within rural communities, both in terms of culture and socio-economic status. AlthoughSouth Africa
has experienced a long-term and ongoing trend of urbanisation, almost39 per cent of our population
currently reside in the rural areas.Based on current trends, thisis expected to decrease to 20 per
cent by the year 2050 (National Planning Commission 2013).
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The legacy of colonialism and apartheid is deeply etched in patterns of unequal land distribution and
wealth in South Africa’s rural communities. This is reflected in the fact that 72 percent of the rural
population reside in the former homelands on 22% of the country’s land (Department of Agriculture
2011). Most commercial agriculture happens on the remaining 88 percent of rural land, carried out
by a mere 28% of the rural population, which includes farm workers and commercial farmers. The
division of ownership and labour in the commercial farming sector continues to reflect the racial and
economic inequalities of apartheid.
For many in the rural areas, particularly the densely populated former homelands, life is beset with
struggles around access to basic necessities such as potable water, sanitation, fuel for cooking and
high levels of poverty and food insecurity. The overwhelming majority of the rural population is poor
and reliant on social grants, remittances from the urban areas and subsistence farming. One in two
households in rural areas is dependent on social grants, compared with one in five houses in urban
centres.
In the densely settled former homelands, agriculture is compromised by degradation and overuse of
land (DEA 2011). The increased reliance in rural areas on social grants and wage incomes is both a
cause and effect of the disintegration of traditional networks and community structures, with
households and wage earners having to move in search of work. Rural households attempt to
diversify incomes through participation in both formal and informal markets. However, for many
rural households the erratic nature of household income means that subsistence agriculture remains
an important source of food security.
The commercial agricultural sector has struggled to adjust to the structural reforms and deregulation
that accompanied the democratic transition. This has resulted in declines in agricultural productivity
and employment, and general underinvestment in the sector.
Figure 1: Employment in agriculture, first quarter 2001 - 2013
Source: StatsSA - Quarterly Labour Force Survey (1st quarter 2007 – 2013) and Labour Force Survey,
(revised figures for March, 2001 – 2008)
Much of the economic growth that does take place in rural areas is happening along major transport
lines, in major tourism hubs and along the national borders and is contributing to a densification and
urbanisation of affected rural communities that informs the followingprojections for the rural
population of South Africa:

In the future the size of the South African rural population will reduce and then stabilize.
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
Migration to urban areas and within the rural area itself will increase in the near future
resulting in a densification of rural informal settlements.

Rural households which are the most poverty stricken are likely to be those that migrate
towards urban centres (NPC 2013).
Given the potential of agriculture to alleviate household poverty, government is attempting to raise
the profile of agriculture in rural communities. The current and future impacts of climate change on
food production and food security, both in the local and international context, are significant. Since
2003 the global long term trend of lower food prices that has held since the green revolution of the
1960’s has been replaced by a trend of price increases and increased price volatility (FAO,2011).
Since food is often the single biggest expense for poor rural households, increased prices may
translate directly into reduced food security. At the same time a sustained increase in food prices
may represent a market opportunity for food producers in rural areas. The role of agriculture in
releasing the poverty cycle in South Africa should be more intensely investigated (NPC 2013).
2. Climate Change Risks and Vulnerabilities
This section of the adaptation plan summarises the main findings contained in the report on the
Climate Change Risk and Vulnerability Assessment that accompanies this plan, and which contains
details of the modelling and reports used as well as full referencing of the different sources used.
The report describes a conceptual framework for understanding climate change risks and
vulnerabilities and draws from current scientific modelling of the future impacts of climate change
to provide a spatial overview of environmental risks and social vulnerabilities in relation to climate
change.
While climate change is a global phenomenon, the impacts are specific to local contexts. For this
reason, local risk and vulnerability assessments are critical to responding effectively to climate
change. It is suggested that the general approach to understanding vulnerability adopted in the
national assessment should be adapted and applied to local adaptation planning processes.
2.1. Conceptual Framework
The conceptual framework used by the UNDP to determining climate change vulnerabilityis
summarised as:
Vulnerability = exposure to climate hazards and perturbations x sensitivity – adaptive capacity
(UNDP 2010)
Figure 2: Conceptual Model for Climate Change Vulnerability
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In this approach:

Climate hazards are defined as the direct impacts of climate change such as changes in
temperature and precipitation.

Climate sensitivity refers to the manner in which living systems respond to climate change,
such as changes in the distribution and incidence of plant and animal species.

Adaptive capacity refers to human, material, financial, natural and political capabilities
which people possess that will allow them to make the required adjustments enabling them
to cope with climate change. Adaptive capacity is dependent on the level of social
vulnerability which people face and is therefore high when social vulnerability is low and
vice versa.
Hazard exposure and sensitivity can be understood as encompassing environmental risk. It is not
practical to directly assess adaptive capacity at a national scale, since this can only be determined by
a detailed assessment of subjective factors determined at the scale of particular communities and
even households. There is however a number of pertinent indicators of social vulnerability that can
be used to identify settlement characteristics that lead to reduced adaptive capacity. Overall
vulnerability to climate change becomes then an outcome of the interaction between social
vulnerability and environmental risk.
2.1.1. Climate Science and Uncertainty
Climate projections are developed through combining climate models that are continuously being
updated, refined and improved with scenarios that estimate the future forcing effects of greenhouse
gas emissions on the climate. The resulting climate change projectionsdo not predict the future, but
rather define a range of possible futures in terms of probabilities, and help climate scientists
understand current trends.Which projections will most closely approximate the real world depend
not only on improvements in modelling climate, but also on future trends in term of economic
growth, population growth and the impacts of internationallytreaties to restrict emissions. As a
result, climate change presents a difficult challenge for policy makers, who need to make decisions
that may have far reaching implications based on uncertain information. The use of terms and
concepts such as the ‘precautionary principle’ and ‘least-regret options’ in adaptation discourse is a
reflection of the accepted degree of uncertainty associated with climate science.
In order to overcome uncertainty, policy makers must both seek to reduce uncertainty by supporting
efforts to improve capacity in data collection, research, modelling and simulation; and they must
manage uncertainty that is intrinsic to climate projections by integrating it into decision making.
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2.2. Environmental risk
Due to its geographical location and characteristics, South Africa experiences an unusually wide
range of weather conditions and a high degree of natural climate variability. Climate change is
reflected in long term changes to the trends in averages for climate variables such as surface
temperature and annual rainfall.
Climate change refers to changes in the long-term average of weather conditions. There is a growing
body of evidence that climate change is also linked to increases in the variability of weather,
including an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events and extreme climate
events. This variability represents an immediate challenge in relation to disaster risk management.
Extreme weather events refer to extremes in atmospheric conditions such as temperature, rainfall
and wind experienced over a day or a few weeks and may have disastrous consequences for human
settlements. Extreme climate events are an accumulation of extreme weather events over a period
of years or decades, such as anincrease in multi-year droughts. Collectively, extreme weather and
extreme climate events are referred to as climate extremes.
Climate extremes can have cumulative impacts. For instance, a combination of below average
rainfall and above average temperature can result in an elevated risk of veld-fires. South African
rural human settlements are at particular risk from climate extremes such as floods or droughts due
to a variety of social vulnerabilities, such as poor infrastructure and services. An example of this is
the difficulty in providing relief services to dispersed settlements where access by road is poor.
2.2.1. Hazard Exposure
Hazard exposure can be understood as the extent to which changes in atmospheric conditions due
to climate change are experienced in a particular location. These changes include average increases
in temperature over time, increases in the frequency and intensity of storms, and changes in
precipitation patterns, and seal level rise.
Hazard exposure can result in both gradual impacts such as declines in crop yields over many years
or sudden impacts resulting from an increased exposure to extreme weather events such as floods,
droughts and storms.
Hazard exposure is not experienced the same way everywhere. Sea level rise obviously has no direct
impact on inland rural communities, but is relevant to coastal rural human settlements where assets
may be vulnerable to beach erosion caused by storm surges. Key determinants of hazard exposure
and the impacts with which they are associated are discussed below.
Changes in Temperature
In the future the temperature for South Africa, as for the rest of Africa and much of the world, is
expected to rise. The extent of increase is uncertain and dependant on, amongst other factors, the
effectiveness of international efforts to curb the emissions of greenhouse gas responsible for
human-induced climate change. Based on current projections, the average temperature increase for
South Africa is expected to be between 2 and 6 degrees Celsius by the end of the century, although
this increase will not be uniform across the country.Due to the moderating influence of the ocean,
temperature is likely to increase less over the coastal regions than the interior. Temperature
maximums will however, increase and new record temperatures can be expected.
Table 1: Potential impacts of projected temperature increases
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Temperature change
Impact
Increased number of warm and very hot
days and increased maximum daily
temperatures
Increased evaporation impacting on the availability of surface water
Soil degradation due to increased acidity, nutrient depletion, declining
microbiological diversity, lower water retention and increased runoff.
Positive or negative impacts on crops and growing season length depending
on local topography, precipitation and crop types. Some crops, particularly
deciduous fruits, require a chill factor during winter to be productive.
Increased incidence of heat waves and associated risks for human and
livestock health from heat stress, particularly for the very old and young, and
those already suffering from illness.
Increase in the concentration and range of pests and pathogens that comprise
human and livestock disease vectors, such as malaria and ticks.
Increased risk of wild fires and associated damage to crops, property and
infrastructure.
Changes in Precipitation Patterns
Although South Africa is regarded as semi-arid, the country experiences marked regional differences
in rainfall patterns in terms of the timing, intensity and quantity of rainfall and these differences are
projected to increase in the near and in the long term:

The west of the country is drier than the east. Areas which border Namibia (the
Richtersveld) may only receive less than 50 mm of annual rainfall while the mountains of the
south west Cape can receive more than 600 mm of rainfall. (Palmer & Ainslee 2013).

There are three major rainfall zones in South Africa: the winter rainfall region of the
western, south western and southern Cape; the bimodal rainfall region of the Eastern Cape,
and the summer rainfall region of the Highveld and KwaZulu Natal.
Downscaled climate change models suggest that in the near term (2021 – 2050) there is a
likelihoodof increased drying and associated risk of drought in the western and north eastern parts
of the country, becoming more pronounced in the long term (2071 – 2100). Climate models indicate
a range of possible scenarios, and there is significant uncertainty as to whether the southern and
eastern cape is likely to become wetter or drier. It is also possible that the direction of change
(wetter or drier) may alter when comparing long term scenarios to near term scenarios.
Climate models suggest that there will be an overall increase in the annual variability of rainfall, and
an increased risk of rainfall arriving in the form of intense precipitation events. An increase in the
projected number of dry days for any particular region is not incompatible, therefore, with an
increase in the projected number of consecutive wet days but rather indicates a future in which
rainfall is more erratic.
Table 2:Potential impacts of projected changes in precipitation patterns
Change in precipitation patterns
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Potential Impacts
Draft Climate Change Adaptation Sector Plan for Rural Settlement
Increased number of consecutive
dry days
Decreases in runoff and stream flow and an increased risk of drought, affecting
crop production, food security and rural livelihoods.
Reduced stream flow is a particular threat for rural communities that are directly
dependant on surface water resources.
Loss of soil moisture affecting crops and increasing the risk of soil erosion due to
wind.
Increased risk of veld-fires and resultant damage to property, grazing, and crops.
Increase in number of consecutive
wet days and/or increase in
extreme precipitation events
Increased risk of floods, with consequent risks of damage to crops, property and
loss of life.
Water logging of soil affecting crops.
Increased risk from water borne diseases such as cholera.
Damage to bulk water infrastructure, irrigation systems and water reticulation.
Damage to property and crops from winds associated with violent storms.
Extreme precipitation events are often preceded by lightening, which is
responsible for a significant number of fatalities in rural areas every year
Changes in the variability and
timing of precipitation
Farmers rely on predictable rains for timing the planting of crops, and subsistence
farmers practicing rain-fed agriculture are particularly at risk.
Increased variability and unpredictable timing of rainfall impacts directly on the
management of catchments and bulk water infrastructure, threatening the
availability of water.
Sea level rise, oceanic warming and ocean acidification
Sea level rise stems from both the thermal expansion of water and the melting of glaciers and landbased ice sheets at the poles. Currently most sea level rise is a result of warming sea-water, but it is
expected that this will be out-stripped by melting in future. The current rate of sea-level rise shows
some regional differences across the South African coastline, with the west coast rising 1.87 mm per
year, the south coast by 1.47 mm per year and the east coast by about 2.74mm per year. The rate of
sea level rise is very likely to increase in future, but there is a high degree of uncertainty over the
time scales and extent of change.
The ocean reduces the impact of man-made GHG emissions by absorbing CO2, but this results in
ocean acidification. This will be detrimental to many marine species, particularly those relying on
calcification to develop skeletons or shells, such as molluscs, corals and plankton.
Increases in sea surface temperatures have already been observed in South African waters and are
expected to continue. Increased temperatures in our coastal and estuarine waters impact on the
ranges of marine and estuary species, and an increasing southwards penetration of tropical fish
species has been observed.
While sea level rise and ocean acidification are incremental phenomena, sea-level rise can
exacerbate the impact of coastal storm surges, threatening urban infrastructure that breaches or is
close to current coastal setback lines.
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Table 3: Potential impacts of projected changes in oceanic systems
Changes in oceanic systems
Potential Impacts
Sea level rise
Salinisation of water sources provided by coastal aquifers on which some coastal
communities depend
Damages to infrastructure and property located in coastal areas with a low
elevation, aggravated by storm surges associated with extreme weather.
Oceanic warming
Changes to the distribution and ranges of estuarine and marine species
important to livelihoods in rural fishing communities.
Ocean acidification
Impacts on the development and reproduction of estuarine and marine species
important to livelihoods in rural fishing communities.
2.2.2. Sensitivity
Sensitivity refers to the reactions of ecological systems to exposure to climate change. For instance,
a 2°C increase in temperature may affect the geographical extent of a particular ecosystem (such as
savannah). Although ecological systems are complex, and their sensitivity to climate change is
imperfectly understood, this is becoming an increasingly important focus of adaptation research.
Biodiversity
South Africa has a rich natural heritage of biodiversity. The IPCC 4th Assessment Report concluded
that climate change will have, and is already having, significant impacts on biodiversity in terms of
the distribution and incidence of species and therefore on the spatial extent of ecosystems.
Many indigenous species have intrinsic commercial value (such as rooibos), cultural value and
medicinal value and biodiversity is an important aspect of the countries value proposition as a
tourist destination. As a consequence, biodiversity contributes directly to rural livelihoods and the
adaptive capacity of rural communities.
Examples of the impacts of climate change on ecosystems include:

Bush encroachment on grasslands due to elevated CO2 levels favouring woody plant species.

Changes in the composition of dominant plant and animal species as a result of differences
in the sensitivity of species to increases in temperature, changes in rainfall, and frequency of
veld-fires – these often favour pioneer species (weeds) and invasive aliens.
Studies of indigenous plant and animal species estimate that the area of land currently optimal for
supporting the countries existing biomes could be reduced by between 38% and 55% by 2050 as a
result of climate change. The most substantial losses are likely to be incurred in the western, central
and northern regions of the country and include negative impacts on commercially significant
species such as the rooibos plant.Changes to ecosystems as a result of climate change are initially
most marked at the boundaries between different biomes.
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Invasive alien species
Invasion by alien plant species poses a significant threat to indigenous biodiversity and alien species
consume scarce water resources leading to reduced runoff. The economic impact of alien plant and
insect species on grazing potential and crop losses is estimated at approximately US$ 3.5 billion per
year.
Climate change may expand the range and incidence of some invasive pathogens and pests. It is
likely that woody alien plants will benefit from climate related bush encroachment, altering
ecosystem functioning in relation to stream flow, nutrient cycling, fire regimes, and incidence and
behaviour of animal species amongst others. These changes almost invariably negatively impact on
the ability of ecosystems to deliver goods and services that are important to rural communities.
Land use and agriculture
Human activities resulting in land use changes as a result of increased human population densities
and increases in land under cultivation or grazing have a significant influence on the resilience of the
environment to climate change. Apart from increases in human population density being directly
correlated with declines in biodiversity, land use changes contribute indirectly to carbon dioxide
levels through loss of sequestration potential and directly through carbon emissions associated with
agricultural production. Land use changes also affect stream flow characteristics, exacerbating the
impact of climate extremes such as flooding and drought.
Unsound agricultural practices can amplify the impact of climate change on desertification and land
degradation. South Africa has fragile soils and large areas of the country are susceptible to soil
erosion as a consequence of semi arid climate conditions, high rainfall intensity, and limited or
degraded land cover.High sediment loads in stream flow as a result of soil erosion threaten the
storage capacity and lifespan of water infrastructure such as dams and irrigation systems. This can
have negative impacts on the quality and quantity of water available to rural communities.
At the same time, agriculture is of great importance for the climate resilience of the country in
general and rural human settlements in particular as a source of employment, livelihoods, and food
security and as a sector is particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. The impacts of
climate change on agriculture are direct and specific to particular crops and agricultural techniques.
Projected changes in the variability of rainfall and in terms of long term trends for its timing,
duration, and intensity are of great significance to farmers, with subsistence farmers relying on rainfed agriculture at particular risk. Modelling of rainfall seasonality indicates that the timing of rain in
the summer rainfall regions, which tends to fall later towards the west, will in general be delayed as
a result of climate change. There is considerable uncertainty about the modelling on rainfall at the
boundaries between the summer and winter rainfall regions, and a heightened risk of increased
variability in these areas, implying both very wet and very dry periods.
2.2.3. Climate disasters
Climate disasters are the result of the disruptive physical impact or environmental effects of
extreme weather events on socially vulnerable communities. Increases in the frequency and
intensity of extreme weather events constitute an immediate and damaging impact of climate
change that is already resulting in significant economic losses.
The level of environmental risk and social vulnerability of rural human settlements varies in relation
to the specific nature of the climate related events to which they are exposed. Climate related
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events which can assume disastrous proportions and are of particular relevance to South African
rural human settlements include drought, storms and flooding, and veld fires.
Climate related disasters can have either a sudden impact, as in the case of flash floods, or can have
a more gradual onset that is the result of an incremental accumulation of environmental impacts, as
is often the case with drought.
Drought
Droughts are defined in South Africa as a season’s rainfall of 70% less than normal, and are
considered progressive or ‘slow onset’ disasters that are usually widespread rather than localised.
Droughts caused damage estimated at R1 150 million between 2000 and 2009 in South Africa’s
Second National Communication to the IPCC.
Drought should be thought of not only as a meteorological phenomenon relating to rainfall but also
as a hydrological phenomenon reflected in changes to stream flow which is sensitive to factors such
as evaporation rates, groundwater availability and recharge rates, geology, soil characteristics and
land cover. Even when a meteorological drought is technically broken as a result of rainfall, it is
possible for the amount of rainfall to have been insufficient to break a hydrological drought.
Floods and storms
Historical data indicates that floods are responsible for a greater number of human fatalities and
cause greater damage to assets than droughts, and this is likely to be the case in the future as well.
In South Africa between 2000 and 2009 floods, associated with high and often concentrated rainfall
events, have caused damage estimated at R4 700 million, and have resulted in 140 deaths.
Although floods typically have a sudden impact, they can also have a gradual onset resulting from an
accumulation of rainfall over several days or weeks. In these cases, flooding is typically preceded by
water logging, in which soil becomes saturated and is unable to absorb additional rainfall. Water
logging can cause extensive crop losses and the sensitivity of particular locations is determined by
soil types and depth, as well as the geological sub-strata. Water logging is not typically a problem in
the arid Northern Cape, but can be a problem in the eastern third of the country.
Key factors in determining the sensitivity of particular areas to flooding include slope, soil types, and
land cover, as well as the presence of bulk water infrastructure such as dams capable of
accumulating stream flow. Human settlements and infrastructure tend to significantly increase the
runoff rate due to reductions in vegetative land cover and degradation of wetlands.
Storms are sudden events most commonly associated with severe thunderstorms and cold
fronts.Storms are often associated with heavy precipitation, high winds, and flash floods, resulting in
coastal and landslide damage. Each component has the ability to cause extensive damage.
Veld fires
Veld fires are a natural phenomenon in many of South Africa’s ecosystems, but a higher frequency of
veld fires disrupts natural plant cycles, exposes soil to erosion and degrades ecosystems. Veld fires
also can cause damage to human settlements and deaths, and are particularly damaging to the
plantation forest industry. During the 2008 – 2009 period, wildfires caused damage estimated at
R1,750 million, and 34 deaths.
Climate change is expected to result in an increased number of consecutive dry days and an increase
in annual average temperatures. These climate changes, coupled with land use changes such as
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afforestation due to commercial plantations and the presence of invasive alien species, are
associated with an increased in the incidence and destructive impact of veld fires.
2.3. Social vulnerability and adaptive capacity
As has been noted in Section 1.2, the concept of “rural human settlements” includes a wide range of
settlement types, from small towns that are strongly linked to rural agricultural economies, to
densely populated rural areas in which agriculture is of very little economic significance and only
makes a marginal contribution to subsistence requirements. These different human settlement
typologies experience vulnerability to climate change in different ways. The previous section looked
at environmental risks that can be spatially differentiated to determine the exposure of particular
communities to climate change, but adaptation planning also needs to respond to the social
determinants of vulnerability.
Adaptive capacity refers to the ability of people to make the required changes that will enable them
to adjust to a changing climate. Adaptive capacity is therefore defined by the resources,
infrastructure and services available to people to respond to the risks of climate change. Further,
adaptive capacity is defined by how people will experience hazard exposure; therefore it reflects the
multiple stressors which people experience such as poverty, ill-health or unemployment. Adaptive
capacity is inversely related to social vulnerability – a community with high adaptive capacity will
have low levels of social vulnerability to climate change and vice versa.
The Climate Change Risk and Vulnerability Assessment that accompanies this plan includes spatial
maps of key indicators of social vulnerability and adaptive capacity. This section of the plan
summarises the approach to understanding and mapping the social determinants of vulnerability to
climate change.
2.3.1. Infrastructure and Services
From the perspective of spatial development, one of the characteristics of urbanisation is that the
concentration of people in densely populated urban environments reduces the costs of providing
bulk utilities such water and sanitation, electricity, and waste management services. Similarly,
infrastructure and related services such as roads, public transport, housing, and telecommunications
can be more cost effectively delivered in urban environments than in rural environments. Whilst the
sustainability of urban environments is ultimately dependent on the integrity of ecosystem services,
access to these services and infrastructure greatly reduces the direct dependence of urban people
on natural resources and their exposure to environmental risks associated with climate change.
Since the advent of democracy, significant progress has been made in extending access to basic
services, as reported by StatsSA in the outcomes from national surveys and the census:

More households are using electricity for lighting (85% in 2011 compared to70% in 2001),
and fewer households are using paraffin, wood or coal for cooking or heating.

In the last ten years, at the same time as the population grew by 7 million:
o
Thenumber of people without access to water fell from 16% to 9%.
o
The number of peoplewithout access to sanitation fell from 14% to 5%.
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
The number of households who get a weekly waste service has increased from 52% in 1996
to 62% in 2011. At the same time the number of households who don’t have any waste
service at all has dropped from 10% to 5%.

Policy directives and fiscal provisions have been made to support the extension of free basic
services to indigent households
At the same time, progress in the delivery of basic services has been both a cause and effect of the
long term trend to urbanisation experienced in South Africa and the rest of the world. In the context
of scarce resources, government has inevitably concentrated its efforts where they can be most
cost-effectively expended.
Basic Services
One of the consequences of the logistical difficulties associated with the rollout of basic services to
rural areas is that a disproportionate amount of the backlog in access to services, and particularly in
the extension of free basic services, is located in rural areas:

Rural households are much less likely to have access to a supply of piped water close to their
dwellings. Not only does this result in household activities being centred on the collection of
water (which is often a strenuous and time-consuming task), but it also means that rural
households may have to rely on unclean water sources that are a vector for diseases such as
cholera and may be much more vulnerable to the impact of climate change on water
availability than urban households. The lack of access to bulk waste infrastructure and
irrigation schemes in some rural areas may also constrain the opportunities for both
subsistence and commercial agriculture in the context of climate-related environmental risks
to food security and rural livelihoods.

Rural communities are much less likely to have access to hygienic sanitation than urban
households. Improved sanitation is vital in protecting the health of communities and
safeguarding communities from infectious diseases of which the incidence will increase as a
consequence of climate change.

The backlog in electrification is concentrated in rural areas. As a result, many rural
households rely on other sources of energy such as wood, gas, dung, or paraffin. A reliable
source of energy within dwellings is an important component of well-being and contributes
to rural livelihoods by making income diversification more possible. Access to energy within
the household for lighting, cooking and heating is especially beneficial for women as they
are most often tasked with the unpaid work of sourcing energy, which detracts from other
activities such as food production. Moreover, households which are reliant on wood as a
primary energy source may contribute to deforestation and land degradation.

Although the removal of solid waste from close proximity to human dwellings is a mandated
function of local municipalities, it is usually prohibitively expensive to extend the same level
of service enjoyed by urban households to rural households, and those households with no
access to waste removal services at all are overwhelmingly concentrated in rural areas. Not
only is the dumping of solid waste a climate change hazard because of the release of
methane; but the build-up of waste near human settlements also presents serious threats to
human health and may present a fire risk.
Infrastructure
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The environmental risks presented by climate change have significant implications for infrastructure
such as housing, clinics, schools, roads and telecommunications, particularly as a consequence of
shocks and stresses associated with extreme events such as floods, storms and droughts.These risks
need to inform the design and geo-spatial positioning of infrastructure.
Buildings that are deemed resilient may have some of the following features: flood and lightning
protection, efficient water systems for drought protection, cool spaces, heat reflective surfaces,
damp proofing and appropriate north/south orientation. Furthermore buildings should be
strategically placed to avoid flood plains, green spaces and coastal setback lines.
For similar reasons to those already identified in relation to basic services, government low-cost
housing programmes and other forms infrastructural upgrades tend to take place within the urban
edge, or constitute an expansion of the urban edge. As a consequence, rural human settlements
outside the urban edge may be particularly vulnerable:

There is a relative lack of housing programmes that specifically target people living in rural
areas. Of the 1,139,916 households living in traditional housing as reported in Census 2011,
the overwhelming majority live in rural areas (1,047,797). While traditional housing is not
necessarily less resilient than a poorly built low cost housing, these houses are less likely to
have access to basic services and it may be undesirable or difficult to safely provide such
services in the conventional manner.

As of 2011, approximately 296,357 households in rural areas (defined as tribal/traditional
areas or farms in Census 2011) lived in informal housing, or shacks. While informal
settlements are not specifically a rural problem, informal settlements often develop on
marginalized land that may be particularly exposed to, for instance, flooding. Informal
housing isconstructed with inferior building materials that offer little protection against the
environmental risks associated with climate change. In many cases, informal housing
presents significant health risks for their inhabitants, such as a lack of air circulation inside
the dwelling.

Government spending on roads and public transport tends to focus on the routes connecting
major urban centres. As a consequence, many rural settlements can only be accessed by dirt
roads or even footpaths. These roads are particularly vulnerable to degradation during rains,
which can compound the difficulties associated with providing disaster relief services to
remote rural communities. Furthermore, the difficulty and expense in accessing urban
markets experienced by remote rural communities constrains rural livelihoods and income
diversification opportunities.

Public infrastructure such as schools and health clinics in rural areas tend to be less
accessible, more poorly equipped and less structurally resilient than in urban areas. They are
also much more likely to lack basic services such as electricity, water and sanitation – greatly
constraining their functionality.
2.3.2. Health
As has already been noted, inadequate access to basic services and infrastructure can increase
exposure to health risks associated with climate change. Poor health, in itself, is a source of
vulnerability that exacerbates the impact of climate change on individuals by making by making
them more vulnerable to heat stress or diseases and pathogens,such as cholera and malaria, with
vectors influenced by climate change.
Population age profile
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Census data shows that 28.4% of the population of South Africa is between the ages of 0 and 14
years and 21% of the population is between the ages of 15 and 24 years, rendering the population of
South Africa extremely young. The median age of the South African population is 25 years
(Indexmundi 2013).
Many rural areas are populated by high numbers of children and the elderly due to working age
people migrating to urban areas to find employment or further education, as well as the impact of
HIV / AIDS epidemic, which has particularly affected economically active people. This is particularly
true of the former homelands, which tend to have a lower than proportion of women, children and
the elderly. Not only are the elderly and children, particularly infants, constitutionally more
vulnerable to the effects malnutrition and extremes in temperature, but they are less likely to be
economically active, resulting in higher rates of poverty in communities whose demographics are
distorted towards the young and elderly. The links between poverty and ill-health have been well
established, and the role of poverty as a factor in discussed later in the context of economic
vulnerability.
Malnutrition in children
One of the most socially impactful links between poverty and ill-health is that of childhood
malnutrition, which can results in physical stunting and intellectual impairment. Due to the high
rates of poverty in many of South Africa’s rural areas, there is also anincreased incidence of
childhood malnutrition. This is particularly the case in the rural areas of the Eastern Cape and the
Northern Cape, which experience the highest levels of poverty in the country and the highest rates
of childhood malnutrition. Incidence of childhood malnutrition is also positively correlated with
social inequality, and is disproportionately experienced by the poorest black and coloured
communities.1
Communities with high levels of malnutrition are particularly vulnerable to the impact of climate
change on food security, both in terms of its impact on households with some reliance on
subsistence agriculture, and its impact on food prices in the context of rural poverty.
Access to primary health care
South Africa is currently aiming for a target of 3.5 PHC visits per person per year. The Primary Health
Care Utilization rate provides an indication of areas in which people have or do not have regular and
easy access to medical care from medical facilities and therefore serves as an indication of the
amount and location of people that are more vulnerable to climate change because of inadequate
health services.
In rural areas, medical facilities are often far apart and ill-equipped. Since climate change is likely
bring new environmental stressors to bear upon the health of communities such as heat stress,
waterborne diseases and increased malnutrition, access to regular and quality medical care will
enhances the adaptive capacity of rural settlements.
2.3.3. Economic vulnerability
1
Eyob Zere, Diane McIntyre. 2003. Inequities in under-five child malnutrition in South Africa. Int J
Equity Health. 2003; 2: 7. Published online 2003 September 11. doi: 10.1186/1475-9276-2-7
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The socio-economic status of households and profile of communities is a key driver of vulnerability
to climate change. One of the most constructive ways of determining local vulnerability of climate
change for rural people is by analysing the sensitivity of rural livelihoods to climate-related
environmental risks. A ‘livelihood’ is considered to consist of the assets, activities and entitlements
that enable people to make a living. Rural livelihoods tend to be much more dependent on natural
resources and therefore more directly vulnerable to climate change than is the case in urban
environments. Much of the rural economy is linked to agriculture, for instance, with subsistence
farming forming an important component of many rural livelihoods.
Employment and income
Employment is very often a key component of livelihoods in that it provides income and access to
social networks and communication, and is often a determinant of the ability to take out and repay
loans. There has been a steady increase in rural unemployment in the past decade, to the point at
which it had reached an estimated level of 52% in 2012, as reported in a briefing to Parliament's
public service and administration portfolio committeeby the Director General of the Performance
Monitoring and Evaluation Department. This is well above the national average and has contributed
to a situation in which the levels of household incomeare substantially lower in rural communities
than in the metropoles.
Poverty, with lack of accumulated wealth, inadequate access to basic services and unreliable and
insufficient income being important determinants of poverty, affects the ability of rural households
to respond to environmental stresses and shocks. For instance, poor people spend proportionately
more of their income on food and may depend on subsistence agriculture to supplement their
nutritional requirements. In the absence of accumulated wealth, increases in food prices or loss of
household crops due to flooding or drought can result in a nutritional crisis.Similarly, it is may be
difficult for poor households to replace assets lost due to extreme weather events. Furthermore, in
the absence of savings and the ability to take out loans, it may be difficult for poor households to
make financial investments required to adjust to changing climate conditions – such as investments
in climate-resilient crops and agricultural techniques.
Land tenureand land use
Land tenure in rural areas tend to be less secure than in urban environments, and as a result inhibits
investment of capital in rural development. This in turn affects land use regimes, and has resulted in
a large amount of underutilisation and inefficient use of land. The two main sources of insecurity are
the land restitution process and the status of land under traditional authorities:

Currently, there is neither a legislative mechanism nor a coherent resourcing strategy to
ensure that environmental concerns, including the implications of climate change, are taking
into consideration during or after the process of deciding on land claims.

The uncertain status of individual land ownership in “tribal” lands and the legislative
challenges around communal land ownership makes it difficult to leverage finance against
these properties.
At the same time, customary arrangements around land use, which may involve overlapping but
distinct rights to the different natural resources attached to a particular piece of land being held by a
variety of different people, may also in some cases provide a basis for innovative adaptive responses
that promote access to land by poor rural people who would struggle to secure such access in an
open property market.
Gender
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Gender inequalities exist in South Africa and these inequalities are often more pronounced in rural
areas. In South Africa women already experience multiple stressors; such as unpaid and lowly paid
work, child rearing, and insufficient access to basic services. Further it may be challenging for
women to gain access to land under the governance of traditional leadership. Climate change is
expected to make already existing development challenges worse; specifically for female headed
households.
2.3.4. Mapping social vulnerability
In general, it is possible to say with a high level of confidence that rural human settlements are
particularly vulnerable to climate change as a result of their elevated exposure to environmental
risks, and the social vulnerabilities that exist as a result of the urban focus of service delivery and the
socio-economic vulnerability of a large proportion of rural households. On its own, this warrants
national government redirecting national resources to supporting climate change adaptation in rural
communities. At the same time, this should support the many linkages and dependencies that exist
between urban and rural communities that are vital to the long term sustainability of our cities.
The challenge lies in determining how and where national resources to support adaptation should
be allocated. A common theme of the preceding analysis has been the large degree of
differentiation that exists between rural communities. Not all rural communities experience the
same vulnerabilities to climate change, nor can all rural communities be considered equally
vulnerable. Furthermore, within particular communities, not all households experience the same
level or types of vulnerability.
Figure 3, drawn from the Climate Change Risk and Vulnerability for Rural Human Settlements,
provides an overview of the spatial distribution of social vulnerability to climate change, based on a
composite mapping of indicators relating to the dimensions of social vulnerability discussed in the
preceding analysis.
Figure 3: Composite mapping of social vulnerability indicators
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What Figure 3cannot reflect, are the environmental risks, social conditions and human potential that
pertain for particular rural communities. Nor does it reflect the economic significance of the
environmental risks attached to climate change. For instance, while social vulnerability appears
relative low in the Western Cape, the impact of climate change on deciduous fruit and wine farming
could have devastating economic consequences for the rural economy of the province.
For this reason, support for local and community-level adaptation planning, leveraging community
experiences and indigenous knowledge as well as detailed studies of downscaled climate projections
and environmental sensitivity provided by climate scientists, must form a central part of the national
adaptation response for rural human settlements.
3. The need for adaptation
Even if climate change mitigation activities are implemented, science indicates that carbon dioxide
concentration will continue to rise for some time into the future, temperatures will continue to rise
and that the sea level will also continue to rise. While mitigation efforts are crucial to limiting the
extent of these changes, a certain amount of change is now inevitable and failure to plan for these
changes could have catastrophic effects for societies the world over. The following quote by Smith
and Lenhart (1996) encapsulates the need for climate change adaptation and specifically within
Africa.
“Africa is one of the regions of the world potentially most vulnerable to climate change. Warming of
the globe due to increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases appears to be
inevitable. Therefore, it is imperative that policy makers in regions such as Africa begin to consider
what measures they should take to adapt to the potential consequences of climate change.”
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In the absence of strategies to improve to develop climate resilience, climate change threatens the
sustainable development goals of the country, and particularly the goal expressed in presidential
outcome 7 of: “Vibrant, equitable and sustainable rural communities with food security for all”.
The vulnerability to climate change of any particular rural human settlement is determined by the
degree to which it is exposed to the environmental risks caused by climate stresses and shocks and
this susceptibility is affected by the ability of individuals within the affected community to cope,
recover and adapt:

Coping involves the ability to engage in practises and access resources in order to live with
the impacts of climate change. For instance, buying food to replace subsistence crops
destroyed in a flood is a coping strategy.

Recovery involves the ability to restore or replace that which was lost or damaged as a
result of climate change. For instance, replanting crops after a flood is a recovery strategy.

Adaptation involves making changes that lowers susceptibility to harm from the impacts of
climate change. For instance, rehabilitating a wetland to reduce the impact of future floods
on nearby land under cultivation is an adaptation strategy.
Improving the resilience of rural human settlements to the stresses and shocks associated with
climate change therefore involves more than simply improving their ability to “bounce back” in the
sense of returning to a previous state in response to a climate event. It also involves making
progressive changes to the base status and capacities of human settlements that reduce their
susceptibility to the environmental risks associated with climate change.
3.1. The links between adaptation and development
In 2008 the Department of Environmental Affairs published the National Framework for Sustainable
Development. The Framework spells out a clear vision for sustainable development in South Africa:
“South Africa aspires to be a sustainable, economically prosperous and self-reliant nation state that
safeguards its democracy by meeting the fundamental human needs of its people, by managing its
limited ecological resources responsibly for current and future generations, and by advancing
efficient and effective integrated planning and governance through national, regional and global
collaboration.”
The national vision is underpinned by a set of principles that guide all decisions and actions taken to
achieve the vision. These principles underscore a cyclical and systems approach to achieving
sustainable development and are as follows:

Efficient and sustainable use of natural resources

Socio-economic systems are embedded within, and dependent upon, eco-systems

Basic human needs must be met to ensure resources necessary for long-term survival are
not destroyed for short term gain.
The sustainable livelihoods approach to rural development is based around the concept of capital
assets (human, physical, financial, natural and social assets) upon which people draw for their
livelihoods. These assets are a precondition and complement to social and economic development.
Within the sustainable livelihoods approach poverty is seen as more than income poverty or a lack
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of wealth, and rather as a condition of insecurity or vulnerability to shocks and stresses. Sustainable
livelihood is a way of living that is resilient to shocks and stresses and does not adversely affect the
environment for present and future generations. Poverty is therefore seen as a dynamic rather than
static condition, and the poor move in and out of relative poverty as they respond to the
opportunities, shocks and stresses that they experience.
The five assets classes that are used in sustainable livelihoods approach are:

Natural, including natural resource stocks, environmental sustainability, energy efficiency

Social resources (networks of support, membership of groups, relationships of family and
trust)

Physical, including shelter, basic infrastructure, transport, power supply and means of
production

Human capital, including good health, skills and knowledge

Financial resources, such as savings, availability of affordable credit, remittances and
pensions
There is a strong alignment between the sustainable livelihoods approach to development outlined
above, and the requirements for climate change adaptation planning. Adaptation planning should
therefore focus on strengthening the resilience of the assets upon which rural livelihoods depend.
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3.2. Adaptation responses
Drawing on the risk and vulnerability assessment, the table below provides a list of potential adaptation responses that should be considered during local
adaptation planning processes based on relevance as determined by local assessments of risks, vulnerability and adaptive capacity.
Table 4: Adaptation Responses
Climate change environmental risks
Drivers of Rural Social Vulnerability
Potential Climate Change Adaptation Responses
Decreased availability of surface water:
Strengthen water resource planning and infrastructure
Increased temperatures leading to higher evaporation rates
Lack of access to reticulated water supply and dependence
on open water sources such as rivers, ponds, and dams for
drinking and sanitation.
Reduction in annual precipitation and seasonal droughts
Dependence on open water sources for irrigation agriculture.
Alien-clearing programmes
Alien infestation
Conflicts between agriculture and rural settlements for
access to water
Sustainable use of groundwater resources
Impacts on runoff from human settlements and agriculture
Rainwater harvesting
Environmentally-friendly and socially acceptable sanitation
solutions
Catchment management informed by modelling of climate
vulnerability
Water-wise crop cultivation and irrigation practices e.g. drip
irrigation
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Climate change environmental risks
Drivers of Rural Social Vulnerability
Potential Climate Change Adaptation Responses
Reduced agricultural yields
Dependence on agriculture for employment and wealth
creation
Agricultural extension programmes to promote climatesensitive agriculture (water and soil conservation, crop
selection)
Changes in the timing, duration and intensity of rainfall,
drought, flooding and waterlogging
Increased surface temperatures and loss of chill units, heat
waves
Veld fires
Subsistence farming and
agriculture for food security
dependence
on small-scale
Vulnerability to food price increases due to poverty
Lack of access to capital for investment in agriculture due to
insecure tenure
Soil degradation and erosion
Lack of access to agriculturally productive land
Increase in alien infestations and agricultural pests and
pathogens
Research and innovation in crops and livestock farming
Composting of organic waste linked to community food
gardens and commercial food production
Technical and financial support to small-scale and
subsistence farmers, agricultural co-operatives and improved
access to markets
Communications strategy and early warning systems for food
producers (commercial and subsistence)
Audit of indigenous agricultural knowledge and traditional
agricultural practices, to build on existing climate resilient
capabilities
National standards for organic produce to promote organic
farming
Development to support income diversification
Land use management, land reform and reform of legislative
framework for communal lands informed by modelling of
climate change vulnerability
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Climate change environmental risks
Drivers of Rural Social Vulnerability
Potential Climate Change Adaptation Responses
Loss of Biodiversity
Changes to temperature and precipitation patterns
Direct dependence on natural resources and eco-system
services for food, water, energy, shelter, medicines due to
culture, poverty and lack of access to basic services.
Development of the “wild-life economy” – tourism,
sustainable hunting, game farming, payment for eco-system
services, carbon sequestration
Changes to the natural fire regime
Pollution and inadequate waste management services.
Alien clearing programmes and bio-energy recovery projects
Bush encroachment and alien species infestation
Dependence on terrestrial and aquatic species for food
security, employment and wealth creation
Fire-risk management programmes
Land degradation due to population pressure and overgrazing
Dependence on intact ecosystems for tourism
Vulnerability to climate extremes that are mitigated by intact
eco-systems e.g. floods
Land rehabilitation programmes – working for wetlands,
grasslands etc
Estuarine, marine and coastal management programmes
Support to small-scale fisheries
Expansion of protected areas programme
Financing of biodiversity through environmental offset
requirements for development
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Climate change environmental risks
Drivers of Rural Social Vulnerability
Potential Climate Change Adaptation Responses
Environmental Health Risks
Lack of access to appropriate health services, waste
management services and infrastructure,
electricity,
transport and communications infrastructure
Improved delivery of services to rural human settlements:
HIV treatment and prevention programmes
Extreme weather events
Lack of access to reticulated water services and hot water,
poorly maintained or inadequately specified bulk water
infrastructure and treatment facilities
Food security
Inadequate housing and sanitation infrastructure
Vector borne diseases, malaria, cholera
Prevalence of HIV, tuberculosis, malnutrition
Water quality and availability
Heat waves
Poverty and unemployment
Improved and more accessible primary health care facilities
Job creation through upgrades and maintenance of rural
roads
Renewable energy electrification and Internet access in
remote rural clinics
Environmentally-friendly and socially acceptable sanitation
solutions
Age – infants and the elderly vulnerable to heat stress
Climate resilient rural housing programme including solar
water heaters and off-grid/mini grid electrification
School feeding programmes and sanitation infrastructure,
planting of trees for shelter
Rural waste management strategies focusing on challenges
facing rural communities
Technological innovation and research in service delivery to
rural communities, focusing on appropriate green
technologies
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Climate change environmental risks
Drivers of Rural Social Vulnerability
Potential Climate Change Adaptation Responses
Extreme weather events
Inadequate disaster preparedness and management
Rural Disaster Relief Fund
Floods, storms and coastal storm surges
Lack of access to appropriate health services, waste
management services and infrastructure,
electricity,
transport and communications infrastructure
Rural Disaster Management Strategies for climate-related
disasters
Droughts
Lightening
Local risk and vulnerability assessments to inform disaster
risk management plans and spatial development plans in
terms of zoning
Heat waves
Lack of access to reticulated water services and hot water,
poorly maintained or inadequately specified bulk water
infrastructure and treatment facilities
Veld fires
Inadequate housing and sanitation infrastructure
Improved delivery of service to rural communities (see
adaptation responses for environmental health risks)
Vulnerable demographic profiles in terms of age, income,
employment and health status
Communications and awareness strategy, including early
warning systems
Rehabilitation of ecosystems such as wetlands that provide
protection against extreme weather events, working for fire
programme
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4. Strategic Framework
The strategic framework for the climate change adaptation plan for rural human settlements
outlines:

The principles that inform adaptation planning and the allocation of resources in terms of
this plan – both in terms of this national plan, as well as local planning processes informed
by this plan.

The goals and objectives of the climate change adaptation plan.

A logical framework for the implementation of the adaptation plan.
4.1. Guiding principles
The climate change adaptation strategy for rural human settlements is guided by the planning
principles outlined in the National Development Plan; and in particular that of spatial resilience, the
guiding principles for an equitable transition to an environmentally sustainable low carbon economy,
and the vision of an inclusive rural economy and sustainable human settlements. It is also guided by
the principles of the National Strategy for Sustainable Development.
The strategy further provides a set of guiding principles for delivery ofpresidential outcome 7:
“Vibrant, equitable and sustainable rural communities and food security for all” in the context of the
needfor rural human settlements to adapt to climate change. These guiding principles are explained
below.
4.1.1. Climate change related vulnerability must be understood in the local context
Climate change risks and vulnerabilities are unique to specific locations and to specific groups of
people:

The positioning of communities in relation to local topographical features such as
mountains, forests, or rivers can significantly affect their exposure to climate change related
threats. Communities on either side of a mountain range, for instance, may experience very
different rainfall patterns despite their geographical proximity to one another.

Similarly communities, and even households within a community, may experience very
different levels of vulnerability. The levels of vulnerability, motives and interests in relation
to adaptation responses of farm workers and owners within the same rural community may
be different. Similarly, communities within the same municipality may rely on different
livelihood strategies and have very different access to resources and political representation.
Because it is the combination of the different climate related risks and unique social vulnerabilities
which people face that determine their ability to adapt to climate change, climate change risk and
vulnerability assessments and adaptation planning should be performed in the interests of specific
communities and groups of people and should take place at the most localized level possible.
4.1.2. Adaptation planning must be shaped by local participation
As with other development initiatives, adaptation interventions where communities are not involved
in deciding the outcomes of their own development futures and where their real needs are not
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catered for are likely to fail. Adaptation responses should be premised on placing the community at
the heart of the development process. Community-driven adaptation responses need to:

place control and resources in the hands of the community

view rural people themselves as assets and partners in development

build on existing institutions.
Communities understand their own risks best and therefore should be at the forefront in
determining climate change adaptation options. While the concept of climate change adaptation
may be new, the practice is not. Climate varies on inter-annual, inter-decadal and longer timescales,
and rural communities have always had to adapt to changes in the climate system in order to
survive. Rural communities in South Africa have experienced dramatic weather events and climate
changes before. Community participation in assessments of risk and vulnerabilityand in the planning
of adaptation responses makes it possible to leverage indigenous knowledge, experience and coping
strategies that may otherwise not be accessible.
4.1.3. Adaptation must build on local capabilities
Climate change adaptation, should build on the resources, efforts and capabilities of local areas.
Building on what is already in place will result in supporting communities in processes and systems
that they themselves had already begun and maintain and will in the long term result in more
sustainable outputs for communities and for national government.
The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) provides a useful description of the assets communities
can leverage for adaptation. Assets may consist of natural resources, abilities, knowledge, skills, and
employment opportunities. But they also can include social, political and human dimensions, such as
a sense of community, family and social networks. These assets enable income generating and
wealth creating activities, for example using land for agricultural income and barter, or knowledge
and creativity for the production of artistic goods. The assets of communities are further
complemented by entitlements derived from legal or customary rights. Entitlements can include
access to commonage for grazing, or the benefits of mutual care derived from an extended family
arrangement, or collective arrangements for burial derived from burial societies.
4.1.4. Acknowledging climate justice
The National Climate Change Response White Paper (NCCR) outlines key principles that serve to
frame the concept of climate justice:

Equity – ensuring a fair allocation of effort, cost and benefits in the context of the need to
address disproportionate vulnerabilities, responsibilities, capabilities, disparities and
inequalities.

Special needs and circumstances – considering the special needs and circumstances of
localities and people that are particularly vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate
change, including vulnerable groups such as women, and especially poor and/or rural
women; children, especially infants and child headed families; the aged; the sick; and the
physically challenged.

Uplifting the poor and vulnerable – climate change policies and measures should address
the needs of the poor and vulnerable and ensure human dignity, whilst endeavouring to
attain environmental, social and economic sustainability
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
The Polluter Pays Principle – those responsible for harming the environment paying the
costs of remedying pollution and environmental degradation and supporting any
consequent adaptive response that may be required.
It is widely acknowledged that the rural poor have contributed least to the problem of climate
change, but are most vulnerable to its effects. In keeping with the principles outlined in the NCCR,
and bearing in mind the fact that government resources are limited, the focus of this adaptation
plan must be on the rural poor. At the same time, it is recognised that the sustainability of the
commercial agricultural sector in the face of the environmental risks posed by climate change is
directly relevant to rural livelihoods.
4.1.5. Evidence based planning
The adaptation planning for rural human settlements must be based on scientific evidence. In
allocating scarce resources to invest in rural infrastructure and development, government is forced
to make decisions that may have long terms consequences in local contexts. It is therefore
important that these decisions are informed by the best available historical data on weather and
climate trends, and scientifically credible extrapolation of these trends into the future that takes into
account the impacts of climate change, and that this information can be meaningfully downscaled
and communicated at the level needed to inform local adaptation planning. Similarly, local
adaptation planning also needs to be informed by the best available data on social demographics
and economic activity and opportunities. In many cases, this means engaging with local communities
themselves.
There are intrinsic uncertainties associated with climate change that need to inform planning. On
the one hand, uncertainty exists about the extent of future change and, in some areas, even the
direction. On the other hand, there is a high level of confidence in the scientific community that
climate change will result in increased variability and therefore an increase in the incidence and
severity of extreme weather events.
The implication of this is that rural adaptation planning needs to be informed by the following:

Ongoing research into climate change and its social impacts, which should include direct
engagement with rural communities.

Investments in infrastructure and services should cater for uncertainty and variability by
building resilience to a wide range of environmental risks.

Adaptation responses should focus first on delivering outcomes that are known to be
intrinsically beneficial to rural communities, and which we should be doing anyway, such as
improving access to healthcare, providing access to basic services and diversifying rural
incomes.
4.2. Goals and objectives
The overarching goal of the adaptation plan is to:

Create sustainable livelihoods that are resilient to the shocks and stresses caused by climate
change and do not adversely affect the environment for present and future generations.
The purpose of the adaptation plan is to provide a co-ordinated people-centred response to the risks
and vulnerabilities posed by climate change that promotes the well-being of the population as a
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whole, and of households and vulnerable individuals and groups within it.The plan focuses on
securing and enhancing rural livelihoods because the current reliance of many poor rural
communities on government grants, while necessary in the short term, is neither financially
sustainable in the long term, nor socially desirable. The central adaptive dimensions of the plan
consist of:
1. Ensuring that the sensitivity to climate change of natural systems on which rural livelihoods
depend is taken into account.
2. In so doing, developingnatural resources in a sustainable manner to maximise their
contribution to rural livelihoods while preserving and protecting ecosystem services for
current and future generations.
3. Supporting rural livelihoods and climate resilience in rural settlements by pursuing
innovative, cost-effective and environmentally sustainable solutions for extending services
to rural communities which are currently under-serviced.
The National Climate Change Adaptation Plan for Rural Human Settlements is intended to inform
local adaptation planning and support interventions that respond to the climate change related risks
and the social vulnerabilities experienced by particular rural communities.
The objectives that will be pursued to achieve this goal are described below. Central to these
objectives is the assumption that effective climate change adaptation leverages local knowledge and
resources, and builds local capabilities.
Objective 1: Support the development of community and local climate adaptation plans
As established in the guiding principles for the adaptation plan, climate change vulnerability is best
understood in terms of the particular environmental risks and socio-economic conditions pertaining
to particular rural human settlements, and adaptation responses need to be tailored to local needs
and build on local capabilities.Participatory rural appraisal is an effective way of mobilising
community resources to cope with climate change.While the national adaptation plan provides a
menu of adaptation options and strategies, their application to particular rural human settlements
needs to be determined through local adaptation planning processes in which rural communities are
active participants. Furthermore, local adaptation planning can provide scope for incorporating local
indigenous knowledge and innovation in adaptation responses in a manner in which the national
plan cannot.
Local adaptation planning must be a cooperative project between local municipalities and district
municipalities and the communities they serve; with related provincial and national government
departments such as the Department of Human Settlements (DHS), Department of Agriculture,
Forestry and Fisheries (DAFF), Department of Water Affairs (DWA) and Department of
Environmental Affairs (DEA) providing policy guidance and resources to support implementation.
The primary level of planning should be that of the community, and to ensure community
adaptation plans are monitored and properly resourced, they must be included in IDP’s,
Environmental Management Frameworks and Spatial Development Frameworks at the level of local
and district municipalities. Local authorities may also choose to develop strategic plans for climate
adaptation. At the provincial level, growth and development strategies and provincial spatial
development frameworks must be explicitly informed by the climate change adaptation
requirements for rural human settlements, as set out in existing community-based adaptation plans,
this national plan, and subsequent guidance on rural adaptation that may be provided from the LTAS
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process and land reform processes, including revision of the legislative framework for communal
lands.
To support this process, the DRDLR, in partnership with SARVA and the LTAS, willsupport a countrywide roll out of adaptation plans. The following technical support will be provided:

Provide guidelines, toolkits and financial support for participatory rural appraisals to
incorporate traditional knowledge and existing coping strategies into community-based risk
and vulnerability assessments and adaptation planning processes.

Provide communication tools to assist in communicating climate science to rural
communities, including an online database of the latest climate science and social
vulnerability data and appropriately tailored research products.

Provide guidelines at assists municipalities in incorporating climate change risk and
vulnerability assessments and adaptation plans for rural human settlements into existing
planning instruments, including Integrated Development Plans and Spatial Development
frameworks

Training workshops with community organisations, traditional authorities, and local
government officials and councillors from rural wards in relation to environmental risks
associated with climate change and the implications for rural development and planning.
Objective 2: Build local adaptive capacity through supporting sustainable livelihoods
Poverty and a lack of economic opportunities are the most important source of vulnerability to
climate change in rural communities. A lack of sufficient accumulated wealth makes it difficult for
poor rural households to recover from and cope with the impact of climate-related disasters. A lack
of adequate and reliable income makes it difficult for these households to accumulate savings and
makes these households particularly vulnerable to increases in food insecurity and health impacts
linked to climate change.
Diversifying income sources for poor rural households, many of whom depend on government
grants and subsistence agriculture for survival, is necessary to reduce their risks and combat rural
poverty. At the same time, health threats that particularly affect certain rural communities, such as
HIV/AIDS, can have a significant impact on potentially economically productive adults and the
strengthening of existing programmes to extend and improve health services to rural communities
enhances their adaptive capabilities.
Initiatives to strengthen the adaptive capacity of rural communities through enhancing rural
livelihoods must build and extend existing capabilities and assets in rural communities, which
include natural resources, physical and financial resources, social and human resources. Agriculture
is of particular importance to rural communities, both as a source of income and employment, and
as a source of food security. At the same time, many rural communities are densely populated
and/or located on land with limited agricultural potential, and strategies that promote income
diversification are an essential component of securing rural livelihoods.
To build the climate resilience of rural communities the DRDLR will, in partnership with the
Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries and other relevant government departments and
agencies, as well as community organisations and non government organisations (NGOs) will pursue
the following strategies to enhance rural livelihoods:
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
Technical and financial support for adaptation and resilience in agriculture and food
production, targeting both commercial and subsistence farming, including climate
communications and early warning systems for food producers and agricultural extension
programmes to promote climate-sensitive agriculture.

Technical and financial support for initiatives to support poverty alleviation and income
diversificationin rural households, including job creation through upgrades and maintenance
of rural roads, support to small-scale fisheries and development of the “wild-life economy” –
tourism, sustainable hunting, game farming, payment for eco-system services, and carbon
sequestration.

Improve quality and access to healthcare facilities in rural communities, including ensuring
rural penetration of HIV treatment and prevention programmes.
Objective 3: Support sustainable land management that promotes climate resilience
Sustainable land use management that takes into account the environmental risks posed by climate
change is essential in order to improve land productivity and build climate resilience in rural
communities. Apartheid patterns of spatial development continue to scar our landscapes, and have
led to dense rural populations in the former homelands creating unsustainable pressures on land.
While traditionally white-owned commercial agriculture has often not been undertaken in an
environmentally or socially sustainable manner, job and productivity losses in the sector are a
concern both in terms of the rural economy and food security. Land use management and land
reform processes need to not only protect and enhance productivity and transformation in the
agricultural sector, but also to build resilience to the environmental impacts of climate change and
protect natural assets by reducing land degradation and soil erosion.
Land ownership provides rural households with an important asset that can be used to raise finance
and diversify household income, and there is an urgent need to:

Clarify the legislative and policy framework for communal lands and land reform to ensure
access to land for the rural poor as well as financial investment in rural development and
economically effective, environmentally sustainable land use management.
There are context-specific environmental risks associated with climate change involving both
managing the risks of shocks from extreme weather events such as floods and managing stresses
from long term trends, particularly in relation to water availability, that need to be incorporated into
land use planning at a local level by:

Ensuring effective spatial planning and enforcement of floodlines to protect communities
from devastating impact of floods and other disasters

Protecting water resources for rural communities by ensuring the requirements for climatesensitive sustainable catchment management informs land use decisions and practices.
Objective 4: Protect ecosystem services to rural communities
Ecosystems provide critical services to rural communities such as clean water, air, biodiversity and
productive soils. Protecting ecosystems not only buildsthe resilience of rural communities to climate
change, but is also essential to the sustainability of urban centres. Biodiversity offsets for
development provide a potentially cost-effective way of promoting ecosystem protection and
ensuring no net loss of biodiversity assets that can be used to fund eco-system based adaptation
programmes that create and enhance rural livelihoods.
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Expanding protected areas to include critical ecosystems in ways that do not compete with other
land uses is an important strategy for securing ecosystem resilience and provide a range of
opportunities for rural livelihoods linked to natural resource management. Natural resource
management is an important aspect of climate change adaptation strategies and includes:

Responding to bush encroachment and alien infestation as a means of managing
biodiversity, reducing fire risks, conserving grasslands and grazing potential, and improving
surface water availability.

Protecting and rehabilitating wetlands to improve water quality, and reduce the impact of
floods and droughts.

Protecting and conserving marine, coastal and estuarine habitats to ensure the integrity of
commercially important species that are also important to the subsistence strategies of rural
coastal communities.

Preserving and rehabilitating the carbon sequestration function of intact, functioning ecosystems to mitigate the impacts of human carbon emissions.
As such, there is a compelling case to be made for social investment in rural programmes that
protect ecosystem services, including:

Strengthening of water resource planning and infrastructure, including sustainable use of
groundwater resources

Scaling-up of land rehabilitation and estuarine, marine and coastal management
programmes that create rural jobs, protect natural resource assets, and provide protection
against extreme weather events such as working for wetlands, grasslands, coasts, fires etc
Objective 5: Promote access to climate resilient services and infrastructure
Lack of access or inadequate access to basic services and infrastructure increases the exposure and
vulnerability of rural communities to the impacts of climate change. Lack of access to water and
electricity constrains rural livelihoods by reducing the opportunities for rural women to earn income
due to the amount of time spent in fetching and carrying water and fuel, for instance. As another
example, inadequate sanitation and waste management in dense rural settlements can exacerbate
the impacts of climate change on water quality and disease. Inadequate access to basic services may
also lead to unsustainable pressure on the natural environment, such as deforestation due to
reliance on firewood for cooking.
Extending access to basic surfaces and improving infrastructure not only improves the health and
well-being of communities, but also creates jobs and promotes income diversification by creating
new economic opportunities in rural areas. It provides an opportunity to stimulate the green
economy by encouraging innovation that addresses the logistical, economic and climate-related
challenges associated with service delivery in rural areas.
A strategic priority for the adaptation plan in pursuing this objective is to pilot and take to scale
innovative, environmentally sustainable solutions for the delivery of basic services to rural
communities that address the logistical challenges which have hindered delivery in the first place,
including:

Climate resilient rural housing programmes that include rainwater harvesting, solar water
heaters and off-grid/mini grid electrification, environmentally-friendly and socially
acceptable sanitation solutions
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
Improved and more accessible primary health care facilities, involving renewable energy
electrification and Internet access in remote rural clinics

Rural waste management strategies focusing on challenges facing rural communities,
including the composting of organic waste linked to community food gardens and
commercial food production
Objective 6: Strengthen disaster preparedness and response
Climate related disasters arising from an increase in the severity and intensity of extreme weather
such as violent storms, and climate events such as an increase in the frequency and duration of
droughts, represent a significant threat to rural human settlements. Rural human settlements are in
many cases particularly vulnerable to climate related disasters as a consequence of the increased
reliance of many rural households on natural resources, a high incidence of poverty, as well as issues
of access as a result of remoteness and inadequate transport and communications infrastructure.
The National Disaster Management Centre, established in terms of the South African Disaster
Management Act (2002), is the key partner in achieving this goal. To develop and implement
climate-related disaster risk management strategies for rural human settlements, the following
strategies will be pursued:


Identification of rural communities that are particularly at risk and vulnerable to climaterelated disasters based on an analysis of historical data and climate change projections.
These disasters include:
o
Floods, including those associated with ocean front storm surges and sea-level rise.
o
Storms
o
Droughts
o
Veld Fires
Develop and implement climate-related disaster risk reduction and management strategies
for rural human settlements, including the expansion of rural fire-risk management
programmes.
Due to the particular risks faced by remote rural communities which may not be effectively
represented in local and provincial government institutions, there is a need for a Rural Disaster
Relief Fund that can be used to rapidly respond to disasters in rural communities as they arise.
Objective 7: Invest in long term research on more effective ways to supports rural household
climate resilience
While coping with uncertainty and risk by adopting a “least-regret” approach is an underlying
principle in adaptation planning, a key goal of climate research is to reduce the uncertainty
associated with climate change and provide timely, relevant information to inform planning
processes and develop appropriate adaptation responses.
Current models of the global climate system and downscaling of those models will continue to be
refined and will more closely approximate observed climate change over time as improvements are
made to the models and the observations base. The ongoing improvement of techniques for
downscaling climate projections is of strategic importance to the country’s adaptation plans.
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Linked to improvements in the downscaling of climate change models of atmospheric conditions and
surface temperatures, it is vitally important to progress in our understanding of the impacts of these
changes on the country’s bio-physical systems and the social vulnerabilities that are exposed and
exacerbated as a consequence.
The Department of Science and Technology, National Research Foundation, SAWS, CSIR, SANBI,
SARVA and ARC are key partners in achieving this goal.This goal needs to be accomplished within the
context provided by the Long Term Adaptation Scenarios planning process undertaken by the
Department of Environmental Affairs, and sector-based adaptation planning processes such as those
undertaken for the water sector by the Water Research Commission and by the Department of
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries.
To strengthen adaptation plans and responses in rural human settlements through research, the
following key research objectives will be pursued:

Projections from up-to-date downscaling of climate change models willbe combined with
models of environmental sensitivity and social vulnerability at an appropriate resolution to
meaningfully identify local risks and vulnerabilities.In particular, impacts in terms of health,
agriculture, water resources and biodiversity are of key importance for biodiversity.

A survey of indigenous knowledge of climate variability and customary cultural practices and
agricultural techniques that affect adaptive capability in rural human settlements.

Research to develop and identify technological and social innovation opportunities in rural
human settlements, particularly with respect to environmentally and socially sustainable
models for delivering housing, basic services and infrastructure to under-serviced rural
human settlements.
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5. Implementation Plan
The DRDLR provides strategic direction and coordinates rural development, but rural development is
a cross-cutting mandate that relates to a number of other government departments and institutions.
The implementation component of the adaptation sector plan for rural human settlementsidentifies
and seeks to leverage areas of alignment with the programmes of other government departments
and agencies, but ultimately focuses on a set of actions for which the department can be held
accountable.
The approach adopted in the implementation plan is to initially focus on identifying available
instruments to support adaptation responses in rural human settlements. Such instruments include
national strategies, policies, regulatory frameworks, programmes and planning tools.
The implementation plan then specifies the institutional arrangements for its implementation in
terms of responsibilities for execution, reporting and accountability, as well as strategies for
financing adaptation responses in rural human settlements.
Finally, the plan identifies specific programmes and projects to achieve its strategic objectives, and
provides a monitoring and evaluation framework with indicators and timeframes in relation to the
plan as a whole, as well as a conceptual framework for detailed monitoring and evaluation of
particular adaptation projects.
5.1. Instruments
The available instruments for supporting adaptation responses are examined in relation to each of
the strategic objectives identified for the sector adaptation plan in section 4.
5.1.1. Local adaption planning
The central planning tool for local development is the Integrated Development Plan (IDP), which is
implemented by District, Local and Metropolitan Municipalities, all of which are likely to include
rural human settlements within their boundaries. IDPs include and reference a number of more
specific planning tools, including:

Integrated Waste Management Plans (IWMPs)

Spatial Development Frameworks (SDFs)

Bioregional Management Plans
IDPs should be drawn up to align with Provincial Growth and Development Strategies and Spatial
Development Frameworks. Statutory requirements for public participation in local government
planning processes exist, and the DRDLR will develop guidelines and tools for local government and
rural communities that empower their participation in these processes.
Taking into account the capacity constraints already experienced by many municipalities, and
particularly those with large rural populations, it is not suggested that adaptation plans for rural
human settlements should be required as an additional, separate planning tool to be integrated into
IDPs. Instead, the DRDLR will provide financial and technical support to districts in undertaking
district-level assessments of risk and vulnerability in relation to rural human settlements, and
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provide guidelines to local municipalities for incorporating adaptation responses for rural human
settlements into IDPs.
5.1.2. Sustainable rural livelihoods
The DRDLR’s Comprehensive Rural Development Programme (CRDP) forms the core of its strategy
for promoting sustainable rural livelihoods, with the creation of decent work and sustainable
livelihoods being a central objective of the programme.The CRDP programme focuses on a three
stage strategy implemented in rural wards identified as appropriate targets for becoming CRDP sites.
The three phases of the CRDP Programme are outlined below:
Figure 4: CRDP Programme Phases
Incubation
Entrepeneurship
• Meeting basic
needs is the
driver
• Infrastructure
development
is the driver
Enterprise
Development
• SMME's and
village
markets are
the drivers
The CRDP job creation and skills training strategy is linked to the EPWP programme, and the
objective is for one member of every household in a CRDP site to be employed for a 2-year period,
with contractual obligations to share at least 50% of their income with the household during the
incubation phase of the programme. The DRDLR has entered into strategic partnership with the
Department of Higher Education to facilitate education of rural youths to equip them with the skills
needed to run their own enterprises in rural areas.
During phase 2 and 3 of the CRDP programme, the focus is initially on the creation of
entrepreneurial opportunities around infrastructure development and agriculture, which is then
expanded into the development of Small, Medium and Micro Enterprises by skilling rural people,
building village economies and markets, strengthening public and social services, and providing
access to credit finances.
The CRDP programme has potential alignment with DAFF strategies for agrarian renewal, as well as
green economy initiatives outlined in the New Growth Path and the DTI’s Industrial Policy Action
Plan for the agro-processing sector, such as development of the organic food sector, food processing
and beneficiation industries, and aquaculture. The renewable energy sector, including wind, solar
and bio-fuels, will also create jobs and catalyse investment in rural areas.
5.1.3. Sustainable land management
With the promulgation of the Spatial Planning and Land Use Management Act, Act No.16 of 2013 in
August 2013, proper legal effect is given to instruments for national spatial planning and land use
management, which include standards for:

National, Provincial, Regional and Municipal Spatial Development Frameworks.
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
Land use schemes, which must be developed by municipalities with the participation of
traditional councils, and must provide for land use zoning.

Municipal Planning Tribunals, which consist of municipal officials and technical advisors (but
exclude municipal councillors), which are responsible for determining land use and
development applications within a municipality.
The Act provides for the Minister of Rural Development and Land Reform to issue regulations in
terms of the act that include “... national norms and standards, policies and directives pertaining to
spatial development planning, land use management and land development ...”. The principles that
should apply to spatial planning and land use management include:

Spatial justice, which includes redressing historical imbalances and exclusions in terms of
access to land, as well providing for security of tenure and the incremental upgrading of
informal settlements.

Spatial sustainability, which includes fiscal sustainability, the protection of agricultural
lands, sound environmental management and effective and equitable land markets.

Spatial resilience, which includes flexibility to ensure sustainable livelihoods in communities
most vulnerable to economic and environmental shocks.
The Act clearly provides scope for the Minister to issue norms and standardsfor incorporating
climate change risks and adaptation priorities in spatial development frameworks and land use
management procedures, including the consideration of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs)
associated with land development application procedures.
EIAs provide a potentially useful instrument both for land use management and planning, as they
provide a mechanism through which climate change risk and vulnerability assessments can be
performed at the scale of local development, and the EIA process includes provisions to ensure
public participation.
A key instrument with respect to the principle of spatial justice is the Land Claims Commission. In the
interests of ensuring that the land restitution process enhances rather than detracts from the
resilience of rural communities, community land claims should include an EIA process to determine
the implications of restitution settlements in relation to the principles outlined in the Act.
5.1.4. Sustainable eco-system services
Rural communities are directly dependant on eco-system services, and protecting the integrity of
these services and the ecosystems that support them is therefore an important part of the
Adaptation Plan.The Department of Environmental Affairs is a key institutional partner, providing
the following frameworks and instruments to support biodiversity and eco-system services:

National Protected Area Expansion Strategy, which has as its overall goal cost-effective
expansion for ecological sustainability and adaptation to climate change. The DEA is
currently in the process of developing a programme for the implementation of the strategy,
which seeks to contribute to job creation through community involvement in protected
areas.

The Department’s Environmental Programmes Branch coordinates a raft of environmental
Extended Public Works Programmes, including the Working for Water, Working on Fire, and
Working for Wetlands. As well as contributing to climate change adaptation and mitigation,
these programmes create jobs and provide skills and training in rural communities
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
Bio-regional plans are a mechanism established in terms of the Biodiversity Act, Act No. 10
of 2004, to provide for the incorporation of land-use guidelines for conserving natural
habitat in critical biodiversity areas into multi-sectoral planning instruments such as
Environmental Management Frameworks, IDPs, EIAs, and Spatial Development Frameworks.
5.1.5. Climate resilient infrastructure and services
Delivery of climate resilient infrastructure and services is central to enhancing sustainable rural
livelihoods. While the DRDLR is not directly responsible for the delivery of services and
infrastructure, it can partner with the relevant government departments and agencies to pilot
innovative and sustainable solutions to the delivery of services and infrastructure in CRDP sites in
which these services are currently not adequately delivered, often due to the logistical challenges
encountered in remote rural areas. Opportunities for such partnerships include:

Off-grid and mini-grid solutions for renewable energy solutions as part of the National
Electrification Programme in partnership with the Department of Energy, provincial and
local municipalities.

Rural Household Infrastructure Programme, in partnership with the Department of Human
Settlements, Provincial Governments, and service providers such as the Mvula Trust and
Independent Development Trust. The programme seeks to improve sanitation services in
rural areas.

Strategies for providing waste management services to rural communities in partnership
with the Department of Environmental Affairs and rural municipalities as part of Integrated
Waste Management Planning processes.

Rollout of rainwater harvesting systems to rural communities in partnership with the
Department of Water Affairs, who have an existing programme.

Labour intensive programmes to maintain and upgrade rural roads, in partnership with
SANRAL.

Partnerships with the Departments of Health and Basic Education to upgrade rural clinics
and schools.

Collaboration with the Department of Human Settlements and local municipalities around
rural densification and environmentally sustainable standards for rural low cost housing that
is resilient to climate extremes.
5.1.6. Disaster Risk Management
The National Disaster Management Centre (NDMC) has been established under the Department of
Cooperative Governance in terms of the Disaster Management Act, No.57 of 2002. The NDMC is
responsible for the implementation of the National Disaster Management Framework, which
emphasises disaster risk reduction and mitigation strategies. The four key performance areas (KPAs)
of the NDMC are:
1. Establishing integrated institutional capacity within the national sphere to enable the
effective implementation of disaster risk management policy and legislation.
2. Establishing a uniform approach to assessing and monitoring disaster risks that will inform
disaster risk management planning and disaster risk reduction undertaken by organs of state
and other role players.
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3. Ensuring all disaster risk management stakeholders develop and implement integrated
disaster risk management plans and risk reduction programmes in accordance with
approved frameworks.
4. Ensuring effective and appropriate disaster response and recovery by implementing early
warning systems; mitigating the risks of personal injury, health, loss of life, property,
infrastructure, environments and government services; implementing timely response and
relief measures; and implementing rehabilitation and reconstruction strategies following
disasters.
As has been documented in the Risk and Vulnerability Assessment that accompanies this plan, many
rural communities are particularly vulnerable to climate-related disasters, and the DRDLR should
therefore partner with NDMC in implementing the National Disaster Management Framework.
5.1.7. Research to support rural resilience
The central coordination mechanism for adaptation research is the Long Term Adaptation Scenario
(LTAS) research programme that has been established by the Department of Environmental Affairs.
The LTAS process develops adaptation scenarios through projecting climate change impacts for key
sectors and examining the socioeconomic impacts at a national and sub-regional level. The first
phase of the scenario planning process was completed in June 2013 and was targeted at:

Developing a consensus view of climate trends and projections for South Africa

Identifying key impacts and responses for the water, agriculture and forestry, human health,
marine fisheries and biodiversity.
During the next phase of the process the scenario planning for rural, urban and coastal human
settlements will be a key focus, as well as modelling of the economic impacts of climate change.
The LTAS is informed by research and adaptation planning that happens at a sector level, including
research undertaken by the Water Research Commission and Agricultural Research Council, which is
of particular relevance to rural human settlements. Other research institutions that contribute to
and benefit from the LTAS include the Climate Systems Analysis Group (CSAG), the Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC). The CSIR
maintains the South African Risk and Vulnerability Assessment (SARVA) on behalf of the Department
of Science and Technology (DST). Climate Change is a key cross-cutting theme within SARVA.
The DST also hosts the National Research Foundation, which includes the South African
Environmental Observation Network (SAEON) as a research facility. SAEON is key to developing the
countries capacity to monitor climate and ecosystems.
To ensure that the relevance, quality and depth of scientific evidence available to support
adaptation planning and responses for rural areas continues to improve, it is essential for the DRDLR
to be an active participant in the LTAS process and actively engage research institutions to address
research needs for rural human settlements.
5.2. Institutional Arrangements
While accountability for implementation of the Climate Change Sector Adaptation Plan for Rural
Human Settlements ultimately rests with the Minister for Rural Development and Land Reform, the
DEA is responsible for the overall coordination of the NCCR, of which the Adaptation Plan for Rural
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Human Settlements is a directive. It is important for the adaptation plan to be integrated into the
institutional arrangements envisaged for the implementation of the white paper to ensure policy
coherence and promote intergovernmental cooperation. The diagram below describes the key
institutional arrangements for implementation of the Adaptation Plan in terms of accountability, line
functions, and stakeholder arrangements.
Figure 5: Institutional Arrangements
Within the DRDLR, the Chief Directorate for Spatial Planning and Information is the owner of the
plan, reporting to the Spatial Planning and Land Use Management Branch. The Director General:
DRDLR is responsible for ensuring effective coordination of the plan across the various branches
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within the department, and in ensuring effective coordination through the Technical
Implementation Forum for Presidential Outcome 7 with Director Generals from other core
departments, provincial Heads of Department and local government officials. The Director General is
accountable to the Minister of Rural Development, and ensuring that the Technical Implementation
Forum provides effective support to the Minister in implementing the executive outcomes
determined in the Ministerial Implementation Forum, which is coordinated by the Minister and
includes the Ministers of core departments and relevant provincial MECs.
The Chief Directorate for Spatial Planning and Information will also report on the plan and refine
implementation of the plan through participation in the LTAS, which will ensure that the adaptation
responses that comprise the plan and the climate scenarios and impact assessments continue to be
informed by research emerging from the broad range of stakeholders involved in the plan.
The Chief Directorate for Spatial Planning and Information will also report on the plan and
coordinate its implementation with other national departments, provincial and local government
spheres through participation in the Inter-governmental Committee on Climate Change and
technical working committees established under this structure.
It is proposed that the Reference Group established to review the drafting of the plan be formalised
in consultation with other Outcome 7 stakeholders and its scope of work extended to encompass
oversight and coordination of the implementation of the plan.
To ensure that dedicated capacity exists to drive implementation of the plan, effective learning of
lessons from implementation takes place, and thatpractical and robust systems for monitoring and
evaluation are in place, the Chief Directorate will establish a Programme Management Unit (PMU)
for the plan.
5.3. FinancingAdaptation
Maximising the impact of the Adaptation Plan depends on effectively leveraging the cross-cutting
synergies that exist with the mandates and work of other government departments, spheres of
government, and government agencies. The central implementation mechanism for the plan is the
Comprehensive Rural Development Programme (CRDP), which is already included in the Medium
Term Expenditure Framework of the Department. This funding will need to be supplemented with
additional finance to support the implementation of Adaptation responses that go beyond what was
envisaged in the initial design of the CRDP.
A range of programmes with existing funding in place have already been identified in the previous
sectiondescribing instruments for implementation. The categories of funding these draw on include:

The Extended Public Works Programme

Local government budgets for integrated planning and capacity building.

Intergovernmental transfers which include direct and indirect transfers to local government
such as the Integrated National Electrification Programme grant, Municipal disaster
management grant, and Rural households infrastructure grant

Conditional grants to provinces, such as the Land Care Programme, Comprehensive
agricultural support programme and provincial roads maintenance grant
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
Expenditure by national departments in terms of their existing mandates in relation to rural
areas.
Furthermore, there is scope to leverage other sources of funding that include funding windows for
adaptation, such as:

The Green Fund, administered by the DBSA.

The Adaptation Fund which is a climate finance initiative established in terms of the Kyoto
Protocol, and for which SANBI is the local implementing agent.

Donor agencies, such as GiZ and Oxfam, that have a history of funding climate change
adaptation initiatives in rural areas.
5.4. Priority programmes and projects
In order to build momentum and ensure rapid delivery on the Climate Change Adaptation Sector
Plan for Rural Human Settlements, four priority programmes have been identified. These four
programmes target all the strategic objectives for the sector and support the overarching goal of
sustainable rural livelihoods that are resilient to climate shocks and stresses through the
coordination of people-centred responses to the risks and vulnerabilities posed by climate change.
These programmes are:
1. Integration of climate change responses into the CRDP
2. Climate resilient land use management and spatial planning
3. Disaster risk management and planning
4. Research programme to support climate resilient rural human settlements
Each of the programmes are described below in terms of the strategic objectives they are designed
to fulfil, the implementation strategy, and the component sub-programmes and/or projects.
5.4.1. Integration of climate change responses into the CRDP
The integration of adaptation planning and responses into the CRDP programme represents the core
of the Climate Change Adaptation Sector Plan for Rural Human Settlements. Rural development and
the design and implementation of climate change adaptation responses require multi-sectoral
coordination and cooperative governance across government departments and spheres of
government. The Comprehensive Rural Development Programme (CRDP) is a key mechanism for
piloting and show-casing adaptation responses and climate resilient solutions to the delivery of
services and infrastructure that can then be taken to scale through coordination with the relevant
national departments and development agencies, as well as local government and traditional
authorities.
The programme consists of the following components, or sub-programmes, structured around the
strategic objectives for climate change adaptation in rural human settlements:

Local Adaptation Planning

Sustainable Livelihoods and Protection of eco-system services
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
Delivery of climate resilient services and infrastructure
The programme aims to build on, strengthen and extend the existing features of the CRDP
programme that reduce social vulnerability and build adaptive capacity in rural communities. The
following phased approach to integrating climate change into CRDP sites will be adopted:
Figure 6: Phases for incorporating adaptation into CRDP sites
Local Adaptation
Planning
•Identification of
CRDP sites
•Risk and
Vulnerability
Assessments
•Participatory
Adaptation Planning
Piloting of Adaptation
Responses
•Sustainable rural
livelihoods
•Protection of ecosystem services
•Climate resilient
services and
infrastructure
Taking to scale
•Evaluation and
impact assessment
•Cost-benefit analysis
•Build on success,
learn from failure
Local adaptation planning
So as to ensure learning based on regional differences in the environmental risks that climate
change presents, as well as regional differences in social vulnerability, during the first year in the first
year of implementation of the adaptation programme, each province will identify at least one new
CRDP site in which local adaptation planning processes will be undertaken.
The department will appoint local service providers in each province to undertake community-based
risk and vulnerability assessments and adaptation planning processes at the selected CRDP site. An
Adaptation Learning Network for Rural Human Settlements will be created to facilitate the
development and exchange of approaches and communications tools to support participatory
adaptation planning and the leveraging of indigenous knowledge. The local municipalities in which
the CRDP sites are located will be engaged as stakeholders in the process to ensure that the
outcomes from the adaptation planning processes are incorporated into their Integrated
Development Plans and build their capacity to plan for climate change.
Sustainable livelihoods and protection of eco-system services
To strengthen rural livelihoods while at the same time protecting the integrity of eco-system
services, the following set of flagship programmes will be developed through the CRDP:

A climate resilient agriculture flagship programme to be established, based on strengthening
the capacity of agricultural extension workers to support the needs of small-scale and
subsistence farmers, agricultural co-operatives and improved access to markets. The
Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries and the Agricultural Research Council will
be key partners in this programme.

A programme to develop the “wild-life economy” in partnerships with SANParks and the
DEA as part of the Protected Areas Expansion Strategy– including tourism, sustainable
hunting, game farming, payment for eco-system services, carbon sequestration.
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
In partnership with DAFF, support to small-scale fisheries in the sustainable harvesting of
natural resources and in reducing pressure on marine resources through promoting
environmentally sustainable aquaculture projects in which small-scale fishing communities
are stakeholders.

A rainwater harvesting flagship programme to be taken to scale and linked to communal,
small-scale and subsistence agricultural programmes. The Departments of Water Affairs and
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries will be key partners in this programme.

As key components of the CRDP rural livelihoods programme, in partnership with the DEA,
scale up EPWP programmes such as working for wetlands, grasslands, and working for water
rehabilitate critical ecosystems, especially those that provide protection against extreme
weather events and sequester carbon..

In partnership with DEA, develop CRDP projects that finance biodiversity through
environmental offset requirements for development.
Delivery of climate resilient services and infrastructure
To strengthen adaptive capacity in rural human settlements through improved access to basic
services and infrastructure, the following set of flagship programmes will be developed through the
CRDP:

A programme to test, pilot and take to scale environmentally sustainable and socially
acceptable sanitation and housing solutions. The Departments of Human Settlements and
Science and Technology will be key partners in this programme.

Mini-grid and off-grid renewable-energy electrification flagship programmes established and
taken to scale, showcasing solutions for households, schools and clinics. The Department of
Energy and SANEDI will be key partners in this programme.

A labour-intensive rural road maintenance and upgrade programme to be taken to scale,
building on existing programmes that empower rural women and communities. The
Department of Public Works and SANRAL will be key partners in this programme.

A waste services and recycling flagship programme targeting densely populated rural
communities to be established. The Department of Environmental Affairs, REDISA, ROSE
Foundation and PPRASA will be key partners in this programme.
5.4.2. Climate resilient land use management and spatial planning
This programme addresses the strategic objective of supporting sustainable land management that
promotes climate resilience, with the implementation of the Spatial Planning and Land Use
Management Act promulgated in August 2013 being the central implementation strategy.
The key projects within this programme are:

Researching and drafting norms and standards to support the integration of climate change
risks and vulnerability assessments into:
o
Spatial Development Frameworks
o
Land Use Schema
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Draft Climate Change Adaptation Sector Plan for Rural Settlement
o
The Environmental Impact Assessment requirements for land development
applications submitted to Municipal Planning Tribunals

Research and drafting amendments to or a replacement of the Communal Lands Rights Act,
No. 11 of 2004, substantial portions of which have been rendered unenforceable by the
constitutional court. Particularly to the rural populations in the former homelands who are
highly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, land tenure rights and customary
practices in relation to land use rights are complex issues that require careful research and a
flexible regulatory framework.

Developing procedures, potentially as an amendment to the Restitution of Land Rights Act,
No. 22 of 1994, to ensure that the environmental implications of restitution of communal
land are considered and that, without comprising the need to address historical distortions
in land ownership and speed the pace of land reform, measures and finance are in place to
ensure the land restitution reduces rather than enhances the vulnerability of poor rural
communities to climate change.

Developing policy guidelines and analytical tools to assist municipalities in assessing climate
change risks and vulnerabilities in the course of integrated planning processes that affect
land use management in rural areas, particularly with respect to prohibiting development in
high risk areas such as floodplains.
Land reform and land use management have a critical role to play in rural livelihoods, and the LTAS
scenario planning process needs to unpack the environmental, economic and social implications of
the current regulatory framework in relation to climate change risks and vulnerabilities for rural
human settlements and guide proposed changes. Key issues that need to be considered include the
need to enforce appropriate flood-lines in spatial planning and understand the implications of
changes in land use management for runoff regimes and water catchment management.
5.4.3. Disaster risk management and planning
This programme addresses the strategic objective for climate change adaptation planning for rural
human settlements to strengthen disaster preparedness and responses. The key partner in this
programme is the National Disaster Management Centre (NDMC). The implementation strategy
involves working with the NDMC and South African Weather Service in:

Conducting local climate change risk and vulnerability assessments to inform disaster risk
management plans and spatial development plans in terms of zoning and identifying actions
to reduce risks, such as rehabilitation of wetlands to reduce flood risks and alien clearing to
reduce fire risks.

Capitalising aNational Rural Disaster Relief Fund to ensure swift responses to disasters in
remote rural areas.

Establishing Disaster Management Strategies for climate-related disasters, such as veld fires,
droughts and floods, that are sensitive to the particular circumstances and logistical
challenges that may pertain in rural areas, such as lack of infrastructure such as roads and
telecommunications and have a spatial and temporal scope that is sensitive to the daily,
weekly and annual movement patterns of rural communities.

Strengthening early warning systems to ensure they are appropriate and accessible to rural
areas, both in terms of the medium and the message.
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Draft Climate Change Adaptation Sector Plan for Rural Settlement
5.4.4. Research programme to support climate resilient rural human settlements
This programme addresses the strategic objective ofinvesting in long term research on more
effective ways to supports rural household climate resilience. The LTAS is currently playing a central
position in developing consensus positions within the scientific community on key issues in relation
to climate scenarios and adaptation responses. At the same time, institutions such as the ARC and
CSIR produce more sector specific research that has a vital role to play in determining adaptation
responses. The following areas of research are particularly critical to rural human settlements and
the department should be contributing to and informing research agendas on these topics:

Research and innovation in climate resilient crops and livestock farming, with a particular
focus on crops that are practical options for small-scale and subsistence farmers with little
or no access to mechanised agricultural techniques. While this type of information may not
be as commercially valuable as research targeting industrial agricultural applications, it is
crucial to the livelihoods of the rural poor.

The department should commission an audit of indigenous agricultural knowledge and
traditional agricultural practices, to build on existing climate resilient capabilities and
identify maladaptive practices.

Technological innovation and research in service delivery to rural communities, focusing on
appropriate green technologies, represents a key research activity that the department
should be promoting and financially supporting.
5.5. Monitoring and Evaluation Framework
The monitoring and evaluation framework for the Climate Change Adaptation Plan as a whole is
presented in the form of a logical framework in Table 5.
For each of the objectives in the plan, activities, indicators and means of verification have been
provided. The assumptions that provided the rationale for identifying the activities intended to
achieve each objective is also provided.
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Draft Climate Change Adaptation Sector Plan for Rural Settlement
Table 5: Logical Framework for Adaptation Plan
ADAPTATION PLAN FOR RURAL HUMAN SETTLEMENTS - LOGFRAME
DESCRIPTION
GOAL
ACTIVITIES
Sustainable rural livelihoods that are resilient to climate shocks
and stresses
INDICATORS
MEANS OF VERIFICATION
ASSUMPTIONS
Access to water and sanitation,
energy, and waste collection.
StatsSA – Census 2011 & 2016
A coordinated country wide response
built on local adaptation plans will
result in sustainable livelihoods that are
climate resilient
StatsSA – Census 2011 & 2016
Household Income
StatsSA – Census 2011 & 2016
Unemployment
No. of new cases of children who
weigh below 60% of their
expected weight-for-age per 1000
children under the age of five.
The District Health Barometer of the
Health Systems Trust of South Africa.
The District Health Barometer of the
Health Systems Trust of South Africa.
Primary health care utilisation
rate
PURPOSE
A co-ordinated people-centred response to the risks and
vulnerabilities posed by climate change
The percentage and number of
rural districts and local authorities
with effective adaptation plans in
place
The extent to which rural
communities are informed and
mobilised
around
climate
adaptation
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Mid-term (2.5 yrs) and end of
programme (5yrs) evaluative survey
and
assessment
of
the
implementation of the adaptation
strategy for rural human settlements
Responding to the risks posed by
climate change requires a coordinated
country
wide
response,
with
decentralised processes of adaptation
planning
Involving communities in the process of
adaptation planning is the most
effective way of unlocking local
knowledge and resources and ensuring
buy in to the plan
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ADAPTATION PLAN FOR RURAL HUMAN SETTLEMENTS - LOGFRAME
OBJECTIVE 1
DESCRIPTION
ACTIVITIES
INDICATORS
MEANS OF VERIFICATION
ASSUMPTIONS
Support the development
of community and local
climate adaptation plans
Develop guidelines and tools for
risk and vulnerability assessments
and adaptation plans
Number of community level
adaptation plans prepared per
annum
DRDLR annual reports
Participatory rural appraisal is an
effective way of mobilising community
resources to cope with climate change
Establish on-line database of latest
climate science and social
vulnerability data
Number of local level adaptation
plans prepared per annum
DRDLR annual reports
Provide financial and technical
support for participatory rural
appraisal as cornerstone of
adaptation planning
Incorporate adaptation plans into
Integrated Development Plans and
Spatial Development frameworks
Incorporate traditional knowledge
and existing coping strategies into
adaptation plans.
Train
community
workers,
traditional
leaders,
local
government
officials
and
councillors from rural wards in
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Number of participatory rural
appraisals completed per annum
DRDLR annual reports
COGTA
assessment
effectiveness
DRDLR annual reports
Number of IDPs which have
incorporated adaptation plans
Number of community workers,
traditional
leaders,
local
government
officials
and
councillors from rural wards
trained in adaptation planning
of
IDP
Local adaptation plans will assist
communities to develop long term risk
management strategies to cope with
climate change
Incorporating adaptation plans into IDPs
will mainstream adaptation issues into
municipal planning and decision making
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ADAPTATION PLAN FOR RURAL HUMAN SETTLEMENTS - LOGFRAME
OBJECTIVE 2
DESCRIPTION
ACTIVITIES
INDICATORS
Build
local
adaptive
capacity
through
supporting
sustainable
livelihoods
Regular climate communications
and early warning systems for
food producers (commercial and
subsistence)
Effectiveness
communications
households
Technical and financial support to
small-scale
and
subsistence
farmers, agricultural co-operatives
and improved access to markets
Agricultural
extension
programmes to promote climatesensitive agriculture (water and
soil conservation, crop selection)
Rural household support initiatives
to support income diversification
Job creation through upgrades and
maintenance of rural roads
Development of the “wild-life
economy” – tourism, sustainable
hunting, game farming, payment
for eco-system services, carbon
sequestration
Support to small-scale fisheries
HIV treatment and prevention
programmes
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MEANS OF VERIFICATION
of
to
climate
rural
Annual assessment of
communications strategy
ASSUMPTIONS
climate
Sustainable livelihoods and diversified
household income provides the most
effective climate risk mitigation
DRDLR Annual Reports
Number of small scale and
subsistence farmers supported
and quantum of financial support
provided per annum
StatsSA – Census 2011 & 2016
StatsSA – Census 2011 & 2016
Household Income
StatsSA – Census 2011 & 2016
Unemployment
StatsSA – Census 2011 & 2016
Primary health care utilisation
rate
Gender of head of household.
Technical and financial support to smallscale
and
subsistence
farmers,
improved access to markets and
agricultural extension programmes will
promote income diversification and
sustainable livelihoods
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ADAPTATION PLAN FOR RURAL HUMAN SETTLEMENTS - LOGFRAME
OBJECTIVE 3
DESCRIPTION
ACTIVITIES
INDICATORS
MEANS OF VERIFICATION
ASSUMPTIONS
Support sustainable land
management
that
promotes
climate
resilience
Promote sustainable land use
management, water-wise crop
cultivation and irrigation practices
e.g. drip irrigation
% of Degraded Land
SARVA (DAFF)
Mean Annual Gross Irrigation
demand
SARVA (Schulze, 2008)
Sustainable land use will improve land
productivity and build resilience of rural
communities to climate change
Accelerate
programme
Land ownership (% of land owned
privately)
DAFF
Soil susceptibility to water erosion
Surveyor General reports
Surveyor General reports
land
reform
Reform legislative framework for
communal lands
Promote spatial planning and
enforce 1:50 year flood lines
Effective
spatial
planning
and
enforcement of floodlines will protect
communities from devastating impact
of floods and other disasters
Catchment management informed
by
modelling
of
climate
vulnerability
Sustainable land use practices in
catchments will protect water resources
for rural communities
% households living in flood plains
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Land
ownership
provides
rural
households with an important asset
that can be used to raise finance and
diversify household income
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OBJECTIVE 4
DESCRIPTION
ACTIVITIES
INDICATORS
MEANS OF VERIFICATION
ASSUMPTIONS
Protect
ecosystem
services
to
rural
communities
Strengthen
water
resource
planning and infrastructure
Ecosystem Protection Level
SANBI BGIS
Availability of Ground Water
SARVA
Invasive Plant Survey (average
density all species)
ARC reports
Ecosystems provide critical services to
rural communities such as clean water,
air, biodiversity and soils, and
protecting ecosystems will build
resilience of rural communities to
climate change
Ensure
sustainable
use
groundwater resources
of
Scale up land rehabilitation
programmes – working for
wetlands,
grasslands,
alienclearing etc
Estuarine, marine and coastal
management programmes
Expansion of protected areas and
community
based
natural
resources
management
programmes
Rehabilitation of ecosystems such
as
wetlands
that
provide
protection
against
extreme
weather events, working for fire
programme
Financing of biodiversity through
environmental
offset
requirements for development
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SANBI BGIS and DEA Annual Reports
% of land under protected areas
SANBI BGIS and DEA Annual Reports
Hectares of wetlands
ecosystems rehabilitated
/other
Quantum of investment into
biodiversity offsets per annum
Expanding protected areas to include
critical ecosystems in ways that do not
compete with other land uses will
contribute to ecosystem resilience
Biodiversity offsets are a cost effective
way of promoting ecosystem protection
and ensuring no net loss of biodiversity
assets
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OBJECTIVE 5
DESCRIPTION
ACTIVITIES
INDICATORS
MEANS OF VERIFICATION
ASSUMPTIONS
Promote
access
to
climate resilient services
and infrastructure
Improved delivery of services to
rural human settlements
Access to water and sanitation,
energy, and waste collection.
StatsSA – Census 2011 & 2016
Improved and more accessible
primary health care facilities
Primary health care utilisation
rate
Greater access to infrastructure
services, health facilities and formal
housing is a critical indicator of
household adaptive capacity in rural
areas
Renewable energy electrification
and Internet access in remote
rural clinics
Dwelling type (% of informal
dwellings)
Environmentally-friendly
and
socially acceptable sanitation
solutions
Climate resilient rural housing
programme including solar water
heaters and off-grid/mini grid
electrification
Rural
waste
management
strategies focusing on challenges
facing rural communities
Composting of organic waste
linked to community food gardens
and commercial food production
Rainwater harvesting
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% of rural households with rain
water harvesting tanks
The District Health Barometer
2010/11 by the Health Systems Trust
of South Africa. Data obtained from
DHIS (2011 & 2016)
StatsSA – Census 2011 & 2016
Stats SA: Census 2011 & 2016
Infrastructure can be effectively
designed and delivered in ways that
lessen its impact on the environment
and which increase its effectiveness in
withstanding climate shocks and
disasters
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ADAPTATION PLAN FOR RURAL HUMAN SETTLEMENTS - LOGFRAME
DESCRIPTION
Objective 6
Strengthen
preparedness
response
disaster
and
ACTIVITIES
INDICATORS
MEANS OF VERIFICATION
ASSUMPTIONS
Expand rural fire-risk management
programmes
% of rural districts covered by
rural
fire-risk
management
programmes
DRDLR Annual Reports
Annual capitalisation of Rural
Disaster Relief Fund
National Disaster Management
Centre Annual Reports
Strengthening disaster management
response capability will lessen the
impact of extreme weather evens and
fires, and is a crucial adjunct to building
climate resilience in rural communities
% of rural districts with Disaster
Management
Strategies
for
climate-related disasters
DRDLR Annual Reports
Capitalise Rural Disaster Relief
Fund
Establish
Rural
Disaster
Management
Strategies
for
climate-related disasters
Conduct local risk and vulnerability
assessments to inform disaster risk
management plans and spatial
development plans in terms of
zoning
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No. of local risk and vulnerability
assessments conducted
National Treasury Annual Reports
Disaster risk management is location
specific, and local risk and vulnerability
assessments are essential to inform
disaster risk management plans
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ADAPTATION PLAN FOR RURAL HUMAN SETTLEMENTS - LOGFRAME
Objective 7
DESCRIPTION
ACTIVITIES
INDICATORS
MEANS OF VERIFICATION
ASSUMPTIONS
Invest in long term
research
on
more
effective
ways
to
supports rural household
climate resilience
Research and innovation in climate
resilient crops and livestock
farming
Number of research papers
published on climate resilient
crops and livestock farming
ARC Annual Reports
Investment in long term climate related
research will mitigate the risks
associated with the high degree of
uncertainty related to climate change
Audit of indigenous agricultural
knowledge
and
traditional
agricultural practices, to build on
existing
climate
resilient
capabilities
Report on audit of indigenous
agricultural
knowledge
and
traditional agricultural practices
National standards for organic
produce to promote organic
farming
Technological innovation and
research in service delivery to rural
communities,
focusing
on
appropriate green technologies
Improved delivery of service to
rural communities (see adaptation
responses
for
environmental
health risks)
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National standards for organic
produce to promote organic
farming
Report on audit of indigenous
agricultural
knowledge
and
traditional agricultural practices
DAFF Annual Reports
Indigenous agricultural knowledge and
traditional agricultural practices are
important assets that local communities
have at their disposal in dealing with
the risks of climate change
There are important gaps in our
knowledge regarding climate resilient
crops and livestock farming, appropriate
green technologies and climate resilient
services to rural communities that merit
greater research investment.
Draft Climate Change Adaptation Sector Plan for Rural Settlement
5.5.1. Guidelines for the monitoring and evaluation of projects
Careful and detailed monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of climate change adaptation projects within
the overall framework of the Adaptation Plan is essential to ensure that scarce resources are
allocated as effectively and as efficiently as possible. Effective M&E also facilitates the integration of
learning from previous adaptation interventions into emerging planning and implementation.
Effective M&E of adaptation activities should allow for flexibility to address unexpected challenges,
compare institutional structures and results across different interventions and locations, and
promote learning and debate between stakeholders. A key step in implementing M&E frameworks
that specifically target climate change adaptation is to clearly defineboth the particular climate
change related risk that the intervention is responding to and the climate change adaptation
outcome.
The M&E system for adaptation projects in rural human settlements described here is based on the
six step M&E system put forward by Spearman & McGraw (2011) and outlined Figure 7below.
Figure 7: Steps in the monitoring and evaluation process
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Draft Climate Change Adaptation Sector Plan for Rural Settlement
Step 1: Describe the Adaptation Context
The first step is to describe the adaptation through a comprehensive assessment of risks and
vulnerabilities. This assists in identifying factors that can influence an adaptation intervention both
directly and indirectly, in better describing the needs of the stakeholders, in identifying
opportunities, and in maintaining flexibility. When making use of vulnerability assessments it is vital
that data used in setting baselines is adequate and accurate, that the key obstacles and enabling
factors are identified, and that gaps in the vulnerability assessment are identified.
Step 2: Identify the Contribution to Adaptation
The second step in designing an M&E system for adaptation is to identify the contribution to
adaptation that the intervention is designed to deliver. Identifying the contribution to adaptation
can be challenging because of the diversity of activities which have relevance for adaptation. There
is no blanket solution for adaptation activities since each intervention must be context specific. A
climate change adaptation intervention is best described by the nature of its objectives.
Step 3: Form an Adaptation Hypothesis
Step three is to form an adaptation hypothesis. This is done only once it is clear how the adaptation
intervention contributes to one of the dimensions of climate change adaptation. An adaptation
hypothesis is a testable statement that describes how each outcome addresses specific risks or
vulnerabilities.
Step 4: Create a Theory of Change
The fourth step, once the adaptation hypothesis for each intervention is drafted, is to create a
consistent theory of change that links the adaptation activities to the adaptation outcomes. The
theory of change tracks the conditions needed to reach the adaptation objective by breaking them
down into achievable steps. Establishing the desired chain of events is useful for understanding the
function of an intervention and monitoring its intervention.
Step 5: Choose Indicators and Set a Baseline
The fifth step is to choose indicators and set a baseline. The climate change adaptation impact must
be reflected in the indicators. Indicators should be informed by the vulnerability assessment and
should target the objectives of the adaptation intervention. M&E for climate change adaptation
often requires more qualitative assessment than is the case for mitigation interventions, which can
be technically challenging.
Step 6: Use the Adaptation M&E System
The final step is to use the adaptation M&E system.It is important is to ensure that the indicators are
monitored consistently and frequently, that the data is being collected from the relevant sources,
and that there are clearly designated roles for the process which are understood by the relevant
parties.
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Draft Climate Change Adaptation Sector Plan for Rural Settlement
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