Cognitive explanation: theory of mind and autism
Leading cognitive psychologist Simon Baron-Cohen believed that social problems in autistic children could be explained by
what he termed mind-blindness. The term mind-blindness is often considered the opposite of empathy. It is the inability
to see things from another person’s perspective, therefore making it impossible to empathise or interpret how other
people see or understand things.
To investigate theory of mind – which is the opposite of mind-blindness, i.e. the ability to view things from another
person’s perspective, Baron-Cohen and Frith (1985) carried out a study of the autistic mind. The procedure involved using
a specially-devised task known as the Sally-Anne task (see following page). Sally and Anne are two dolls. Sally has a
basket, and Anne has a box. Sally puts a marble in her basked and then goes out for a walk. Anne then takes the marble
from Sally’s basket and puts it in her box. Sally then returns from her walk, wanting to play with her marble. In the study,
the children participants would have had this acted out for them individually, and having watched the whole scene, the
child would then be asked where Sally would look for her marble. The correct answer is of course the basket. Those
children who cannot comprehend Sally’s perspective are said to lack a theory of mind.
The participants used included 20 autistic children, aged six-to-sixteen; 14 children with Down’s syndrome, aged six-to
seventeen; and 27 clinically normal children, aged three-to-five. They were assessed on their ability to answer the belief
question (where they thought Sally would look for the marble). However, several other questions were asked:
1 Researchers introduce the dolls, Sally and Anne, to the child
2 The child is then asked the naming question – this is to show they can identify the dolls 3 The SallyAnne skit is then enacted 4 Three more questions are asked:
- the belief question – “where will Sally look for her marble?”
- the reality question – “where is the marble really?”
- the memory questions – “where was the marble to begin with?”
Summary of Sally-Anne skit
1
– Sally and Anne are introduced.
Sally has a basket, and Anne has a box
2
– Sally has a marble. She places
her marble in her basket
3
– Sally goes out for a walk,
leaving her marble in her basket. Anne
remains behind whilst Sally is out
4
– Anne removes Sally’s marble
from the basket and places it in to her
own box
5
– Sally returns some time later,
and she wants to play with her marble.
Where will she look, in the basket, or in
the box, for her marble?
The results of the experiment showed that all the children tested passed the naming, reality and memory questions.
These questions were to check that the children didn’t have any other cognitive problems which would interfere with the
results. As for the belief question, it was seen that:
•
85% (23/27) of the clinically unimpaired group got the belief question correct
•
86% (12/14) of the Down’s syndrome group got the belief question correct
•
20% (4/20) of the autistic group got the belief question correct
The study showed that only autistic children lacked a theory of mind, which provides evidence for this explanation of
autism. The Down’s syndrome and clinically unimpaired groups acted as control groups. As autistic people are high
systematisers and low empathisers, this makes sense. A person who lacks a theory of mind would obviously find it
difficult to work out external events, as they cannot look at things from another’s perspective. In the case of the Sally
Anne task, the person lacking the theory of mind would not understand where Sally would look for the marble.
Biological explanation: extreme male brain
One of the founding fathers of this explanation is also Simon Baron-Cohen. The biological explanation of the autistic brain
is that it is very much like an extreme male brain. This idea came about as autistic people are high systematisers, and low
empathisers, which suits the male brain. Males are better at visuo-spatial tasks such as map-reading or jigsaw puzzles,
whereas females are better at language tasks.
Baron-Cohen and others believe that these differences in male and female brains arise due to the presence of
testosterone in the womb whilst the foetus is developing. At around 8 gestational weeks, the male embryo releases the
hormone causing the brain to grow as a distinctly male brain. Baron-Cohen believes that autism is an extreme form of this
male brain, and research shows that autistic people are better at male-orientated tasks than even males.
Differences in male and female brain structure
Differences in male and female brain function
Males have a smaller corpus callosum (which links the two
hemispheres) than females, and is even smaller in those
with autism
Males show more brain lateralisation, whereas females use
both sides equally, and the level of lateralisation is even
greater in the autistic brain
Male brains are heavier than female brains, and Bailey et
al. (1994) found that autistic people have an even heavier
than normal brain
Males develop language ability more slowly than females
do, and this development is yet slower in autistic people
Male brains have slightly larger amygdalae than females,
and young autistic children have them abnormally large
Differences found by Baron-Cohen in systematising and
emotional abilities of males versus females, although more
research is needed into this area
Male brains grow more quickly than females, and the
growth is even more rapid with autistic people
Males are usually better at spatial tasks than females, and
autistic people are better yet still at visuo-spatial tasks