IMPACT ASSESSMENT - DRAFT VERSION
Implementing Directive 2009/125/EC of the European
Parliament and of the Council with regard to Ecodesign
requirements for Power, distribution and small
transformers
ISR-University of Coimbra
12 October 2012
Aníbal T. De Almeida
Fernando Martins
Bruno Santos
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT
Full Impact Assessment
Accompanying the document
Proposal for a Commission Regulation
Implementing Directive 2009/125/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council
with regard to Ecodesign requirements for Power, distribution and small
transformers
ii
COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT
Full Impact Assessment
Accompanying the document
Proposal for a Commission Regulation
Implementing Directive 2009/125/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council
with regard to Ecodesign requirements for Power, distribution and small
transformers
Lead DG: ENTR
Associated DG:
Other involved services:
Table of contents
List of Tables .................................................................................................................................... v
List of Acronyms...............................................................................................................................vi
Definitions ...................................................................................................................................... viii
1.
2.
Procedural Issues and Consultation......................................................................................... 1
1.1.
Organization and Timing .................................................................................................. 1
1.2.
Impact Assessment Board................................................................................................ 2
1.3.
Transparency of the Consultation Process ...................................................................... 2
1.4.
Preliminary Results of Stakeholder Consultation ............................................................ 3
Problem Definition................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 Market and Regulatory Failures ............................................................................................ 4
2.2 Baseline Scenario ................................................................................................................. 10
2.2.1. Scope of Transformers Covered (VITO & BIOIS, 2011) ................................................ 11
2.2.2. Relevance of Product Group for Eco-design Implementing Measures ....................... 13
2.2.3. Market Structure ......................................................................................................... 14
2.2.4. Sales and Stock ............................................................................................................ 14
2.2.5. Definition of Base-cases............................................................................................... 16
2.3 Future Trends....................................................................................................................... 18
2.3.1 Energy Price Evolution .................................................................................................. 18
2.3.2 Aluminium vs. Copper in the Windings ........................................................................ 20
2.3.3. Grain Oriented Steel vs. Amorphous steel (Main Source (DoE, 2011)) ...................... 22
2.4 Policies and Measures supporting energy efficiency of distribution transformers in non-EU
countries .................................................................................................................................... 24
2.5 Legal Basis for EU Action...................................................................................................... 27
4.
Policy Options ........................................................................................................................ 29
4.1 Option 1: Baseline (BAU) ..................................................................................................... 29
4.2 Option 2: Self-regulation ..................................................................................................... 30
4.3 Option 3: Energy Labelling Only........................................................................................... 30
4.4 Option 4: Ecodesign MEPS Regulation on Transformers .................................................... 31
4.4.1 Definition of the Types of Energy-Using Products Covered ......................................... 32
4.4.2 Implementation of Ecodesign Requirements .............................................................. 32
4.5 Option 5: Energy Labelling + Ecodesign Requirements ....................................................... 33
5.
Impact Analysis ...................................................................................................................... 35
i
5.1
Economic analysis .......................................................................................................... 39
5.1.1. Energy savings.............................................................................................................. 39
5.2 Administrative Costs ............................................................................................................ 42
5.3 Social impacts ...................................................................................................................... 42
5.4 Greenhouse gas emission reduction ................................................................................... 43
5.5 Technology, functionality and innovation .......................................................................... 44
5.6 Health and safety ................................................................................................................. 45
5.7 Uncertainties and Sensitivity Analysis ................................................................................ 45
5.7.1 Assumptions related to the load factors ...................................................................... 45
5.7.2 Assumptions related to the electricity tariff ................................................................. 53
6.
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................ 60
6.1 Proposed Efficiency Levels Based and Sensitivity Analysis Results ................................... 60
6.2 General Conclusions ........................................................................................................... 61
7. Monitoring and Evaluation ........................................................................................................ 63
8. References ................................................................................................................................. 64
List of Annexes ...................................................................................................................................
ANNEX 1: Minutes of Consultation Forum meeting ......................................................................... I
ANNEX 2: Commission Staff Working Document ........................................................................... XI
ANNEX 3: Structure of the methodology used for establishing the technical, environmental and
economic analysis ........................................................................................................................ XXV
ANNEX 4: Methodology to Calculate the Life Cycle Cost (LCC) ................................................... XXV
ANNEX 5: Sensitive Analysis Tables ............................................................................................ XXXI
ANNEX 6: Life Cycle Cost Shaded Diagram ............................................................................. XXXVIII
ANNEX 7: Environmental Impacts (VITO & BIOIS, 2011) ............................................................ XXIII
ANNEX 8: European Distribution Transformer Loss standards.................................................. XXXV
ii
List of Figures
Figure 1 - Transformer efficiency and different losses for 75 kVA oil immersed transformer (VITO
& BIOIS, 2011). ................................................................................................................................. 5
Figure 2 - Transformer efficiency for different classes of 400 kVA oil immersed transformers
(D0Ck, B0CK, A0Ck (top), (VITO & BIOIS, 2011). .............................................................................. 5
Figure 3 - Policy model for the distribution transformer market (SEEEDT, 2008)......................... 10
Figure 4 - Half-yearly electricity prices excluding taxes for Industrial consumers (new
methodology from 2007 onwards) *including former GDR from 1991 (based on EUROSTAT data).
....................................................................................................................................................... 18
Figure 5 - Evolution of electricity price (€/kWh) in European Union (27 countries) – (based on
EUROSTAT data)............................................................................................................................. 19
Figure 6 - Evolution of the price of Aluminium and Copper. ......................................................... 20
Figure 7 - Average Annual Prices for Specialty Steels in the US (2010$/lb, note: SA1 is finished
core) (DoE, 2011) . ......................................................................................................................... 23
Figure 8 - Weighted sound power level at 60 Hz as a function of operating induction on SA1
amorphous material core and M3 silicon steel-based core (Azuma & Hasegawa, 2008). ............ 24
Figure 9 -Comparison of international transformer standards (VITO & BIOIS, 2011). .................. 26
Figure 10 - Market push and pull: How the different policy instruments can work together.
Source: (SEEDT, 2007). ................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 11 – Energy Loss Scenarios Evolution 2005-2025 (TWh). ................................................. 38
Figure 12-Energy Evolution for MEPS Scenario (1st stage: 2014 & 2nd stage:2019). ................... 40
Figure 13 - Projected CO2 emissions per unit of electricity in the EU (adapted from
(EURELECTRIC, 2010)). ................................................................................................................... 43
Figure 14 - Evolution of CO2 emissions between 2005 and 2025. ................................................. 43
Figure 15 - Annual energy losses for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)BC1. ................................................................................................................................................ 46
Figure 16 -LCC for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC1 ....................... 46
Figure 17 - Annual energy losses for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)BC2. ................................................................................................................................................ 47
Figure 18 - LCC for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC2. ..................... 47
Figure 19 - Annual energy losses for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)BC3. ................................................................................................................................................ 48
Figure 20 - LCC for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC3. ..................... 48
Figure 21-Annual energy losses for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC4.
....................................................................................................................................................... 49
Figure 22-LCC for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC4. ....................... 49
Figure 23-Annual energy losses for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC5.
....................................................................................................................................................... 50
Figure 24-LCC for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC5. ....................... 50
Figure 25-Annual energy losses for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC6.
....................................................................................................................................................... 51
Figure 26-LCC for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC6. ....................... 51
iii
Figure 27 - Annual energy losses for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)BC7. ................................................................................................................................................ 52
Figure 28 - LCC for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC7 ...................... 52
Figure 29 - LCC for three different cases of electricity price (min, base and max)- BC1 ............... 54
Figure 30 - LCC for three different cases of electricity price (min, base and max)- BC2. .............. 54
Figure 31 - LCC for three different cases of electricity price (min, base and max)- BC3. .............. 55
Figure 32-LCC for three different cases of electricity price (min, base and max)- BC4. ................ 56
Figure 33-LCC for three different cases of electricity price (min, base and max)- BC5. ................ 57
Figure 34-LCC for three different cases of electricity price (min, base and max)- BC6. ................ 57
Figure 35 - LCC for three different cases of electricity price (min, base and max)- BC7. .............. 58
Figure 36 - Distribution of environmental impacts of BC 1 per life cycle phase (LOT 2 –
Preparatory study, VITO, 2011). ................................................................................................. XXIV
Figure 37 - Distribution of environmental impacts of BC 2 per life cycle phase (LOT 2 –
Preparatory study, VITO, 2011). .................................................................................................. XXV
Figure 38 - Distribution of environmental impacts of BC 3 per life cycle phase (LOT 2 –
Preparatory study, VITO, 2011). ................................................................................................. XXVI
Figure 39 - Distribution of environmental impacts of BC 4 per life cycle phase (LOT 2 –
Preparatory study, VITO, 2011). ............................................................................................... XXVIII
Figure 40 - Distribution of environmental impacts of BC 5 per life cycle phase (LOT 2 –
Preparatory study, VITO, 2011). ................................................................................................. XXIX
Figure 41 - Distribution of environmental impacts of BC 6 per life cycle phase (LOT 2 –
Preparatory study, VITO, 2011). ................................................................................................. XXXI
Figure 42 - Distribution of environmental impacts of BC 7 per life cycle phase (LOT 2 –
Preparatory study, VITO, 2011). ............................................................................................... XXXIII
iv
List of Tables
Table 1 - EU-27 distribution transformer losses (SEEDT, 2008). ..................................................... 6
Table 2- Barriers and obstacles towards increase energy efficiency of distribution transformers in
the EU (Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment, Energy and SEEDT Partners, 2008). ......... 8
Table 3 - Summary of the market and stock data for 1990 – 2005 – 2020 (VITO & BIOIS, 2011). 15
Table 4 - Environmental impacts of the EU-27 stock in 2005 for all base-cases (VITO & BIOIS,
2011) . ............................................................................................................................................ 17
Table 5 - Summary of Life Cycle Cost Analysis (VITO & BIOIS, 2011). ........................................... 17
Table 6 - Copper and aluminium physical characteristics. ............................................................ 21
Table 7- Physical properties and prices of two pieces of copper and aluminium with similar
electrical resistance. ...................................................................................................................... 21
Table 8 - Business As Usual (BAU) transformers scenario - No load losses at rated voltage and
frequency (P0)
& Load losses at rated current and reference temperature (Pk). .......... 36
Table 9 - Losses levels corresponding to the four different scenarios (BAU, LLCC, BAT,
Intermediate /MEPS 2014 and MESP 2019). ................................................................................. 37
Table 10 - Impact Assessment Input (adapted from VITO 2011). ................................................. 39
Table 11 - Minimum Energy Performance Standard (MEPS) Adopt for 2014 and 2019. .............. 40
Table 12 - Energy consumption of existing transformers (old stock) and of new transformers
(new stock installed after 2014), with the corresponding energy savings in TWh due to the
transformers purchased in the period 2014-2025. ....................................................................... 41
Table 13 - Cumulative impacts and savings in the period 2014-2025. ......................................... 41
Table 14 - Cumulative Savings and Yearly savings in 2025 for Minimum Energy Performance
Standard (MEPS) adopted in 2014 and 2019. .............................................................................. 41
Table 15 - Cumulative CO2 savings 2014-2025. ............................................................................. 44
Table 16 – CO2 Emissions and CO2 Savings (Mton) due to the transformers purchased in the
period 2014-2025. ......................................................................................................................... 44
Table 17 – Annual Load factors used in this study. ....................................................................... 45
Table 18- Assumptions related to electricity tariff. ....................................................................... 53
Table 19- Losses levels corresponding to the four different scenarios (BAU, LLCC, BAT,
Intermediate /MEPS 2014 and MESP 2019) and cumulative impacts and savings 2014-2025. .... 60
Table 20 - HD428/HD538 ........................................................................................................... XXXV
Table 21 - EN 50464-1 ................................................................................................................ XXXV
Table 22 - EN 50464-1 ............................................................................................................... XXXVI
Table 23 - EN 50464-1 ............................................................................................................... XXXVI
Table 24 - EN 50464-1 .............................................................................................................. XXXVII
v
List of Acronyms
AC
AF
Al
AM
AMDT
AMT
BAT
BAU
BNAT
BOM
CENELEC
CGO
Cu
DER
DOE
DSO
EN
EP
ERP
EU
EuP
GO
GWP
HV
Hz
IEC
IEE
k
Kf
LCA
LCC
LV
MEEuP
MEPS
MV
Paux
PF
Pk
Po
RES
RoHS
S
SEEDT
Si
Alternating Current
(Transformer) Availability Factor
Aluminium
Amorphous Metal
Amorphous Metal Distribution Transformer
Amorphous Metal Transformer
Best Available Technology
Business As Usual
Best Not yet Available Technology
Bill of Materials
European Committee for Electrotechnical
Standardization
Cold rolled Grain-Oriented Steel
Copper
Distributed Energy Resources
US Department of Energy
Distribution System Operators
European Norm
Eutrophication Potential
Energy Related Products
European Union
Energy using Products
Grain Oriented
Global Warming Potential
High Voltage
Hertz
The International Electrotechnical Commission
Intelligent Energy Europe
Kilo (10³)
Load form factor
Life Cycle Assessment
Life Cycle Cost
Low Voltage
Methodology for the Eco-design of Energy using
Products
Minimum Energy Performance Standard
Medium Voltage
Auxiliary losses
Power factor
Load losses at rated load
No load losses
Renewable Energy Sources
Restriction of the use of certain Hazardous Substances
in electrical and electronic equipment
(transformer) apparent power
Strategy for development and diffusion of Energy
Efficient Distribution Transformers
Silicon
vi
SME
TCO
small medium sized enterprise
Total Cost of Ownership
TOC
TSO
TWh
V
VA
VITO
Total Operational Cost
Transmission System Operators
TeraWatt hours
Volt
Volt-Ampere
Flemish Institute for Technological
Research
Volatile Organic Compounds
Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment
Short-circuit impedance
Load Factor
VOC
WEEE
Z
α
vii
Definitions
1.
Liquid-immersed transformer means a transformer in which the magnetic circuit and
windings are immersed in liquid;
2. Dry-type transformer means a transformer in which the magnetic circuit and windings
are not immersed in an insulating liquid;
3. Pole mounted transformer means a transformer connected by open bushings suitable
for outdoor service and designed to be mounted on the support structures of overhead
power lines;
4.
Winding refers to the assembly of turns forming an electrical circuit associated with
one of the voltages assigned to the transformer;
5. High-voltage winding refers to the winding having the highest rated voltage;
6. Rated power (S) is a conventional value of apparent power assigned to a winding which,
together with the rated voltage of the winding, determines its rated current;
7. Load factor means the ratio of energy supplied by a transformer during a given period of
time to the energy it would have supplied if it had been operating at its maximum rated
power for the same period of time;
8. Load loss (Pk) means the active power absorbed at rated frequency and reference
temperature associated with a pair of windings when the rated current is flowing
through the line terminal(s) of one of the windings and the terminals of the other
windings are in short-circuit with any winding fitted with tappings connected to its
principal tapping;
9. No load loss (Po) means the active power absorbed at rated frequency when the
transformer is energised and the secondary circuit is open. The applied voltage is the
rated voltage, and if the energized winding is fitted with a tapping, it is connected to its
principal tapping.
viii
1. Procedural Issues and Consultation
1.1.Organization and Timing
This implementing measure is one of the priorities of the Action Plan on Energy
Efficiency1, and is part of the 2008 Catalogue of actions to be adopted by the Commission for
the year 20082.
The proposed implementing measure is based on the Directive 2009/125/EC of the
European Parliament and of the Council establishing a framework for the Commission, assisted
by a regulatory committee to set Ecodesign requirements for energy-using products3, in the
following abbreviated as "Ecodesign Directive". An energy-related product, or a group of energyrelated products, shall be covered by Ecodesign implementing measures, or by self-regulation
(cf. criteria in Article 17), if the Ecodesign represents significant sales volumes, while having a
significant environmental impact and significant improvement potential (Article 15). The
structure and content of an Ecodesign implementing measure shall follow the provisions of the
Ecodesign Directive (Annex VII).
Article 16 provides the legal basis for the Commission to adopt implementing measures
on this product category.
Consultation of stakeholders is based on the Ecodesign Consultation Forum as foreseen
in Article 18 of the Directive (see next section for details), including the consultation of
stakeholders during the preparatory technical study44 on 6 July 2009, 19 May 2010 and 24
August 2010 in order to assist the Commission in analysing the likely impacts of the planned
measures.
Article 19 of the Directive 2009/125/EC5 foresees a regulatory procedure with scrutiny
for the adoption of implementing measures. Subject to qualified majority support in the
regulatory committee and after scrutiny of the European Parliament, the adoption of the
measure by the Commission is planned by the very end of 2013.
1
COM(2006)545 final.
COM(2008)11 final.
3
OJ L 285 of 31.10.2009, p. 10.
4
Technical/economic Ecodesign study on Distribution and power transformers was conducted on January
2009 – 9 February 2011 by an external consultant VITO (Belgic) in partnership with BIOIS (France):
http://www.ecotransformer.org
5
OJ L 285 of 31.10.2009.
2
1
1.2. Impact Assessment Board
The opinion of the Impact Assessment Board was given on (……………...). This impact
assessment has been scrutinised by the Commission's Impact Assessment Board (IAB). In its
opinion, the IAB concluded that IA report (………………..). This final version of the impact
assessment report reflects its recommendations as follows:
TO BE COMPLETED AFTER RELEASE OF THE FINAL VERSION OF IA STUDY
1.3. Transparency of the Consultation Process
Expertise was gathered in particular through a study providing a technical,
environmental and economic analysis (from here on referred to as "preparatory study"), carried
out by a consortium of external consultants6 on behalf of the Commission's Directorate General
for Enterprise and Industry (DG ENTR). The preparatory study followed the structure of the
"MEEuP" Ecodesign methodology7 developed for the Commission's Directorate General for
Enterprise and Industry (DG ENTR). MEEuP has been endorsed by stakeholders and is used by all
Ecodesign preparatory studies.
The preparatory study took into account input from all relevant stakeholders including
manufacturers and their associations, environmental NGOs, consumer organizations, and EU
Member State experts. Information on the preparatory study was made publicly available
through a dedicated website 8 where interim results and further relevant materials were
published regularly for timely stakeholder consultation and input. The study website was
promoted on the Ecodesign-specific websites of DG TREN and DG ENTR.
Open consultation meetings for directly affected stakeholders were organised on 6 July
2009, 19 May 2010 and 24 August 2010 for discussing and validating the preparatory results of
the study.
On 20 April 2012 the Meeting of the Ecodesign Consultation Forum took place in
Brussels, in
which the Commission Service's proposals, building on the results of the
6
EuP preparatory studies "Lot 2: Distribution and Power Transformers, by Paul Van Tichelen and
Shailendra Mudgal, final report of 9 February, 2011;
documentation available on the Ecodesign website of the Commission's Directorate General Energy and
Transport http://ec.europa.eu/energy/demand/legislation/eco_design_en.htm.
7
"Methodology for the Ecodesign of Energy Using Products", Methodology Report, final of 28 November
2005, VHK, available on DG TREN and DG ENTR Ecodesign websites:
http://ec.europa.eu/energy/demand/legislation/eco_design_en.htm and
http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/eco_design/index_en.htm.
8
Available on: http://www.ecotransformer.org/.
2
preparatory study9, were presented. Minutes of the Meeting of the Ecodesign Consultation
Forum are annexed (Annex 1).
1.4.Preliminary Results of Stakeholder Consultation
The positions of the main stakeholders, as expressed before, during and after the
Consultation Forum meeting on 20 April 2012 as a reaction to the Commission services' working
document can be summarised as follows:
-The general approach to set mandatory minimum requirements in the framework of
Ecodesign is largely supported by industry associations but the level of requirements and the
timing were questioned. While industry preferred lower minimum energy efficiency levels with
slower introduction of the measures, environmental NGOs and some Member States requested
higher performance levels and faster implementation than proposed.
Further details on these issues are given in Annex 1.
9
Available on DG TREN’s Ecodesign website:
http://ec.europa.eu/energy/demand/legislation/eco_design_en.htm#consultation_forum.
3
2. Problem Definition
2.1 Market and Regulatory Failures
The underlying challenge in the transformer market transformation can be summarised
in the following way: technical solutions exist on the market leading to reduced energy
consumption of transformers, but the market penetration of high efficient transformers is lower
than it could be. As requested by Article 15 of the Ecodesign Directive, the preparatory study
identified the relevant energy and environmental aspects associated with the improvement of
efficiency levels. The analysis showed that the most significant factor for improving the
environmental performance of the power, distribution and small transformers is the life cycle
energy consumption, and in particular their electricity consumption in the use phase.
Transformers run 24 hours/7 days, 365 days a year and have very long lifetimes of
typically over 30 years, so energy consumption is a dominant factor in their environmental
impact. Increased use of electronic equipment and other non-linear loads leads to increased
harmonic circulating currents and hence further increasing the losses in transformers.
Unbalanced loads in 3-phase systems are another user factor that increases losses with negative
impacts on “real life” transformer performance. Lifetime is strongly influenced by the operating
temperature (itself a function of the load and of the ambient temperature), and also on the type
of insulation system used. The choice between the two dominant technologies (oil filled and dry
transformers) is actually dictated by fire hazards and ecological impact issues. Transformer
efficiency is mostly characterised by two factors – standing (magnetic) losses and load
dependent (resistive) losses (see Figure 1), both of which need to be characterised separately in
order to give total losses over a wide range of loads.
4
Figure 1 - Transformer efficiency and different losses for 75 kVA oil immersed transformer (VITO
& BIOIS, 2011).
Figure 2 - Transformer efficiency for different classes of 400 kVA oil immersed transformers
(D0Ck, B0CK, A0Ck (top), (VITO & BIOIS, 2011).
5
A projected large increase in distributed generation will impact the design and sales of
distribution transformers, in which reverse power flows can in some cases occur. Transformers
are very often replaced before their technical end of life, since the load they have to serve
increases steadily (e.g. in urban areas) or stepwise (e.g. Industrial plants) and may exceed the
transformer capacity long before its lifetime.
Because of the long transformer lifetime, the installation of inefficient products will have
an adverse environmental impact for a long time, and low stock rotation will make the impact of
the ecodesign measures to take a long time to reach the full potential.
The European distribution transformer fleet and market is still largely dominated by
traditional technology. The average distribution transformers’ operating efficiency in Europe is
98.38% (VITO, 2011). Total losses of transformers in the distribution network are substantial and
sum up to 38 TWh/year in EU-27, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1 - EU-27 distribution transformer losses (SEEDT, 2008).
The power transformer losses are 55 TWh, whereas the losses of small industry
transformers are only 0.4 TWh (VITO & BIOIS, 2011).
The distribution transformer market has been characterised by an emphasis on first
cost and reduced concerns with operating cost, largely because of the split incentives between
purchasers of equipment on the one hand, and owners/operators and users on the other.
Additionally, the cost of transmission and distribution losses are passed on to consumers and
the electricity distribution utilities who are responsible for purchasing a large number of
6
transformers are not motivated to invest in more efficient distribution transformers. In small
industries the restricted capital availability and short term perspective also favour low initial
cost solutions. Other relevant market barriers are existing long term contracts for supplying
equipment, products already held in storage as spares and consulting engineers who use
previous design specifications. Decisions based on these criteria can be rational from the
perspective of the individual decision-maker but may incur higher societal costs.
The utility market has historically been more concerned with minimizing lifetime
owning costs, but changes in the structure of the electricity industry are changing the basis of
distribution network asset management, in a way that is less conducive to the selection of
energy efficient transformers.
Even if the EU has produced an impressive number of energy policy measures on energy
efficiency and CO2 reductions over the last ten years, an integrated framework to accelerate the
use of energy-efficient transformers and to support a respective high quality European industry
sector still does not exist. In general less effort has been made in the energy efficiency supply
side, namely electricity distribution grid losses which are often neglected when talking about
increasing energy efficiency. Due to the current regulatory framework in most of the EU-27
countries, only part of the electricity savings potential of energy-efficient distribution
transformers is economically attractive for an electricity distribution company. Therefore,
existing disincentives in regulatory schemes should be removed, reporting on transformers and
distribution losses should be strengthened, and additional incentives should be introduced.
Table 2 gives an overview on the main barriers and obstacles, that the different market
stakeholders face.
7
Table 2- Barriers and obstacles towards increase energy efficiency of distribution transformers in the EU (Wuppertal
Institute for Climate, Environment, Energy and SEEDT Partners, 2008).
Based on the analysis of the existing European framework of national policies and
measures and of the barriers and obstacles the different market actors are facing, the following
list of policy instruments that might be applicable to foster energy efficiency of transformers,
were considered:
8

Lack of knowledge is a significant barrier to the purchase of energy-efficient
transformers. Labelling overcomes the information gap, by providing the purchaser
with key criteria for the purchasing decision. Even if the final user is not the purchaser,
the performance visibility acts as deterrent for the purchaser of the equipment. A
labelling system that indicated the efficiency of transformers under specific load profiles
would cause a significant movement in the market promoting a healthy competition
among manufacturers. While there are obvious difficulties in creating a labelling system
for transformers, given the variability of losses depending upon application, it is possible
to develop a labelling system that in most instances provides the user with appropriate
guidance.

The mandatory MEPS option would address the key market barriers, by removing
inefficient products from the market and by forcing investment in more efficient
products. Finally, dynamic standards will give a signal to suppliers in which direction
the market will develop.
Figure 3 gives an idea how these policies and measures might address the different market
actors to overcome the existing barriers and obstacles in the market ( (Wuppertal Institute for
Climate, Environment, Energy and SEEDT Partners, 2008); (UNEP & International Copper
Association Southest Asia Ltd., 2011); (AEA Technology, 2011)).
9
Figure 3 - Policy model for the distribution transformer market (SEEEDT, 2008).
2.2 Baseline Scenario
The preparatory study for power, distribution and small transformers provided a
technical, environmental and economic analysis of different technologies and efficiency levels.
The study provided, amongst others, the following key elements:

The
scope of power, distribution and small transformers in detail by analysing further
types and functionalities;

The annual sales plus sales expectations up to 2020, the typical product life, and the
installed base (“stock”) and definition of typical or average products (referred to as base
cases);

The bill of materials, weight, packaging etc. in order to evaluate the life cycle environmental
impact of each transformers categories;

Description of technologies yielding reduced electricity consumption and the additional
costs for applying them compared to the current “market average” (base case).
10

Potential trade-offs between electricity consumption and material related environmental
impacts.
The structure of the methodology of the technical, environmental and economic analysis
is displayed in Annex 3.
The following sections describe in more detail the inputs used to define the baseline
scenario for calculating future economical and environmental impacts.
2.2.1. Scope of Transformers Covered (VITO & BIOIS, 2011)
The scope was decided on the basis of the Ecodesign Directive Articles 15 and 1610. The
scope and product categorising were refined during the preparatory study together with
stakeholders based on functional approach11.
The definitions used in the impact assessment report are the same definitions used during
the preparatory study, for the products select in the base-case scenario, as follows:
1. MV/LV Distribution transformers installed by DSO refer to any transformer that takes
voltage from a primary distribution circuit and “steps down” or reduces it to a secondary
distribution circuit or a consumer‘s service circuit at e.g. 400 VAC or 230 VAC with an
input voltage of at least 1.1 kV. Distribution transformers can vary in size, with the most
common ranging from 50 kVA to 2.5 MVA, with an input voltage between 1.1 and 36 kV.
(EN 50464-1). Distribution transformers are operated by the DSO (Distribution System
Operator) or Utilities. Sometimes these transformers are also referred as Utility
transformers. Those transformers are three phase transformers. International standards
are developed within IEC/TC 14 and CENELEC CLC TC 14. Please note that a more specific
parameter is the MV or LV rated voltage. In general the European continent uses three
phase transformers and single phase transformers are not generally used in Europe.
2. DER LV/MV connecting transformers are used to connect Distributed Energy Resources
(DER) to the distribution grid, e.g.: wind turbines, photovoltaic, fuel cells. They might be
designed with higher rated power than Distribution transformer (especially for wind
turbines). Those transformers might also be optimized for a particular load profile and
shape for integration (e.g. wind turbine). International standards are developed within
IEC/TC 14 and standard IEC 60076-16 is in progress.
10
11
In particular Point 2 of Article 16.
Ecodesign Directive Article 15, Point 2(ii).
11
3. MV/LV distribution transformers by non DSO (industry, ...) are used by the industry to
purchase electricity at high voltage (HV) or medium voltage (MV) grid and step it down
for use on site at Low Voltage (230/400 VAC). The size of industrial transformers is
higher compared to distribution transformers. These transformers connect to the DSO.
Also the tertiary sector (e.g. large retailer stores, hospitals, office buildings...) frequently
installs these transformers. They range from 100 kVA until 4 MVA. Please note that
smaller industrial consumers are connected to the distribution grid. International
standards are developed within IEC/TC 14 and CENELEC CLC TC 14. Sometimes these
transformers are also referred as Industry transformers.
4. Power transformers installed by TSO (DSO) or power plant owner refer to those
transformers used between the generator and the distribution circuits and are usually
rated at 5 to 1500 MVA or even higher, with an input voltage mostly above 36kV. They
are used in the MV and/or HV electrical grid. It ranges from the maximum size of 2 large
distribution transformers (i.e. 5 MVA) until the largest power plant (about 500 MVA).
Power transformers are available for step-up operation, primarily used at the generator
and referred to as generator step-up transformers, and for step-down operation, mainly
used to feed distribution circuits. Power transformers are operated by the TSO
(Transmission System Operator) or the generator (power plant owner). International
standards are developed within IEC/TC 14. Sometimes these transformers are also
referred as Transmission system transformers.
5. General purpose small power transformer means a transformer designed for use in
electricity distribution grids with rated power from 1 up to 100 kVA and with a highest
voltage for equipment not exceeding 1 kV, specifically designed or marketed for
electrical power distribution. These are in general smaller transformers used in
industrial LV electricity distribution. Identified relevant categories are:
i. Separating transformer: Is a transformer that has primary and
secondary windings electrically isolated by means of basic insulation, so
as to limit, in the circuit fed by the secondary winding, the risks in the
event of accidental simultaneous contact with earth and live parts.
Typical size for three phase transformers is from 1 kVA up to 63 kVA.
Please not that this is not common practice in industry and they are only
used in cases of strong safety and availability requirements.
ii. Isolating transformer: Is a separating transformer that has primary and
secondary windings electrically isolated by means of double or
12
reinforced insulation. Frequent applications are a change of earthing
system or a critical load protection in distorted systems. Typical size for
these three phase transformers is from 1 kVA up to 63 kVA. Please note
that this is not common practice in industry and they are only used in
cases of severe electromagnetic compatibility requirements (e.g. also in
medical equipment).
Exemptions
The draft Regulation does not apply to certain categories of small and special transformers
such as:

transformers which are not power transformers according to the definition given in EN
60076-1;

single-phase transformers with rated power less than 1 kVA and three-phase
transformers less than 5 kVA;

instrument transformers;

transformers for static convertors;

traction transformers mounted on rolling stock;

starting transformers;

testing transformers;

welding transformers.
2.2.2. Relevance of Product Group for Eco-design Implementing Measures
As requested by Article 1512 of the Ecodesign Directive, the preparatory study identified
that the all the covered transformers fulfill the criteria for setting ecodesign requirements
because they:
(1) Have a significant economical and environmental impact within the Community;
(2) Present significant potential for improvement without entailing excessive costs;
(3) Are not addressed properly by market forces;
(4) Are not sufficiently addressed by other relevant Community legislation.
12
Art. 15, par. 2, sub a, of the Energy-related-Products Directive 2009/125/EC.
13
2.2.3. Market Structure
The main European industry players for the distribution and power transformers are big
international groups like ABB, Siemens, Areva, Schneider Electric, and some large/medium size
companies like Cotradis, Efacec, Pauwels, SGB/Smit and Transfix. Transformer manufacturers
from outside the EU include GE, Hitachi (Japan) and Vijai (India).
Their respective material suppliers for winding wires and foil are a multitude of
European and non-European companies and for electrical steel. For Grain Oriented electrical
steel there are 4 suppliers in the EU (ThyssenKrupp Electrical Steel, Orb Electrical Steels,
ArcelorMittal Frydek Mistek, Stalprodukt) and 8 producers outside the EU (NLMK/Russia, Nippon
Steel/JP, JFE/JP, AK Steel/USA, ATI/USA, Baosteel/CHN, Wisco/CHN, Anshan/CHN, Posco/S.
Korea), ArcelorMittal Inox/Brazil).
Nevertheless, SMEs are also active in transformer production, especially for niche
smaller industrial applications transformers.
Today, amorphous steel transformers are manufactured in significant quantities by
American, Asian and Indian companies, such as Hitachi, Zhixin and Kotsons. In Europe
investments in amorphous steel transformers equipment are likely to increase.
Transformers for industrial applications are most often sold and installed by SMEs in a
B2B market and in some cases SMEs have service contracts with utilities for installation. They
are not subject to any public tender.
T&D Europe is the representative of the European Transformer Manufacturers,
regrouping the Austrian, Belgian, British, French, German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese,
Netherlands and Turkish’s National Associations. Smaller industrial transformers are mainly
produced by European SMEs. It is a niche market and clients often directly order with the
manufacturer. It is estimated that there should be about 50 SMEs active in production; often
these companies have only a few employees.
2.2.4. Sales and Stock
The EU statistics and figures from the EU transformer industry (T&D Europe), show that
the production/sales figures for distribution, industry and power transformers comply with the
eligibility criterion from the Ecodesign Directive, viz. more than 200000 units sold per year and
smaller industrial transformer sales was estimated at about 75000 units per year. As a
consequence, for the total figure of distribution and power transformers there should be no
14
doubt that the eligibility criterion (Art. 15, par. 2, sub a, of the Energy-related-Products Directive
2009/125/EC) is met as annual sales is well above 200000 units. Moreover, this is certainly the
case when the ‘unit‘ is defined as the ‘functional unit‘ used within this study being 1 kVA as
shown in Table 3. Distribution transformers represent the largest share of both the stock and
sales.
Table 3 - Summary of the market and stock data for 1990 – 2005 – 2020 (VITO & BIOIS, 2011).
Stock
Transformer
type
Smaller
Industrial
Transformers
MV/LV
Distribution
transformer
DER LV/MV
transformers
Industry
MV/LV oil
transformer
Industry
MV/LV dry
transformer
Power
transfomer
Phase
S type
New installed
sales
199020052005
2020
Replacement
sales
Total sales
Total sales
19902005
20052020
1990
2005
2020
% p.a.
% p.a.
% p.a.
units p.a.
units
p.a.
units
p.a.
0
10
10
10
750000
750000
75000
1,9
1,4
2,50
4,40
3,90
119.438
140.400
173,891
89
34
10,5
4,00
38,00
14,50
94
2,900
12,967
800
991
1,9
1,4
4,00
5,90
5,40
35.590
43,200
53,505
128
170
211
1,9
1,4
3,33
5,23
4,73
6,708
8,047
9,966
100000
49
64,35
80
1,9
1,4
3,33
5,23
4,73
2,539
3,046
3,772
100000
0,49
0,65
0.81
1,9
1,4
3,33
5,23
4,73
26
31
38
1990
2005
2020
KVA
K
units
K
units
K units
% p.a.
% p.a.
16
750
750
750
0
250
2,714
3,600
4.459
2000
0,25
20
630
603
800
The population of distribution transformers in Europe is about 4,5 million units which
about 3,6 million of these units are owned by electricity distribution companies. On average, in
recent years, about 137.000 distribution transformers (MV/LV) have been sold annually in
Europe. Together with small transformers below 25 kVA and power transformers > 20MVA, the
number of transformers sold in Europe per year exceeds the threshold of 200.000 pieces set by
the Ecodesign Directive. Almost all MV/LV distribution transformers are oil-immersed. For
industry, transformers about 80% are oil-immersed transformers.
From Table 3 it is can be seen that utilities operate at lower ratings, while industry and
particularly dry type transformers have on average much higher ratings. The lower rating of
utilities can be explained by transformers that are installed in residential and rural areas.
The average rating of power transformers is about 100 MVA. This figure is reported as
the average rating for power transformers by the sector organisation (members of T&D Europe,
04/06/2009). This does not mean that values corresponds to the most sold transformer, but it is
15
in between the product range, and it is also the borderline between the so-called medium and
large power transformers. In some reports from electricity network operators (France and
Belgium) the average ratings of a power transformer seems to be higher, at about 180 MVA per
unit.
Based on the wind turbines installed capacity by in 2005 (about 34 GW) and an average
installed capacity of 2000 kVA (members of T&D Europe, 04/06/2009), the installed capacity is
estimated to amount about 20 000 units (LOT 2 – Preparatory study, VITO, 2011; SEEDT, 2008).
The numbers in the preparatory study for DER transformers seem to have largely
underestimated the market. It must emphasized the very large growth of photovoltaic (PV)
distributed generation in recent years (2005 to 2012). In Germany the installed capacity of 24
GW is approaching the wind power capacity. In Italy PV generation is already larger than wind
power.
Importations of transformers far outweigh by number the EU-27 production. For the
years 2004 – 2007, imports exceed production by an average of 6.18 million units and a ratio of
9.23 import to production units.
However, the opposite happens in terms of monetary value. The value of production
over the 2004-2007 period is €3.28 billion far greater than import value, which is a produced to
imported ratio of 13.6.
2.2.5. Definition of Base-cases
The number of base-cases defined in the preparatory study was small enough to enable a
simplified analysis of the market but large enough to deal with the technological spectrum of
transformers. Based on the European market analysis, seven base-cases were defined:

BC 1 – Distribution Transformer (400kVA);

BC 2 – Industry Transformer: Oil-immersed (1MV);

BC 3 – Industry Transformer: Dry-type (1.25MVA);

BC 4 – Power Transformer (100MVA, primary voltage 132kV, secondary voltage 33kV);

BC 5 – DER Transformer : Oil-immersed (2MVA);

BC 6 – DER transformer : Dry-type (2MVA);

BC 7 – Separation/Isolation Transformer (16kVA).
Despite the small number of power transformers in stock, these transformers are
responsible for about half of the overall impacts of the whole market of power and distribution
16
transformers in EU (see Table 4). DER transformers still represent a very small share of the
overall environmental impacts but it is expected to grow in the near future because of the rising
stock of this type of transformer.
Table 4 - Environmental impacts of the EU-27 stock in 2005 for all base-cases (VITO & BIOIS, 2011) .
Environmental Impact
Total Energy [PJ]
Of which electricity [TWh]
Waste, hazardous/ incinerated [kton]
BC1
199
17,9
41,9
BC2
151
13,8
24,7
BC3
47,3
4,36
2,38
Greenhouse Gases [Mt Co2 eq.]
Volatile Organic Compounds [kt]
Heavy Metals [ton Ni eq.]
Particulate Matter [kt]
8,8
0,15
5,8
6,6
6,7
0,09
4,1
3,9
Eutrophication [kt Po4]
0,049
0,026
BC4
BC5
BC6
591
2,6
10,6
55,0 0,24
0,96
61,7 0,40
0,52
Emissions to air
2,1
25,9 0,12
0,48
0,02 0,31 0,002 0,005
0,95 13,1 0,07
0,22
0,63
9,3
0,06
0,20
Emissions to water
0,015 0,06 0,00 0,003
BC7
4,6
0,38
0,09
0,21
0,004
0,25
0,39
0,001
In general, the share of electricity in the Life Cycle Cost (LCC) analysis is significant: from
62% for distribution transformer up to 86% for DER dry-type transformers. Separation and
isolation transformers have a larger share related for the product price (77%) because of their
lower operating hours (lower availability factor and their shorter lifetime). Of the total consumer
expenditure in 2005, electricity represents 72% of the global amount of money, estimated at 7
453 million Euros. Half of this annual expenditure is due to power transformers, which are much
more expensive than the other types of transformers (see table below).
Table 5 - Summary of Life Cycle Cost Analysis (VITO & BIOIS, 2011).
Item
EU-27 sales [units]
Share of the EU-27
sales
Product Price [M €]
Electricity [M €]
Total [M €]
BC1
140.400
BC2
43.200
BC3
8.047
BC4
1.802
BC5
420
BC6
1.680
BC7
75.000
Total
270.549
51,9%
16,0%
3,0%
0,7%
0,2%
0,6%
27,7%
100%
860
1.385
2.244
472
1.068
1.540
131
338
470
1.297
4.277
5.574
8
71
79
47
284
331
101
30
131
2.916
7.453
10.369
17
2.3 Future Trends
The following sections provide insights in the latest market trends which will be useful to
identify potential base-cases and evaluating their improvement potential.
2.3.1 Energy Price Evolution
Electricity prices vary significantly in EU. In each country also these prices are influenced
by the consumer voltage/ contracted power level. For this study it is proposed to use the
Eurostat average price of 0.0935 €/kWh for the industry sector for EU-27, in 2011, except for
DER transformers and power transformers. In the case of DER transformers, it makes sense to
use the average feed-in-tariff, which has been decreasing in the last 10 years. The value of 0.15
€/kWh will be used in this case. In the case of power transformers the value 0.05 €/kWh will be
used as suggested by T&D Europe (T&D Europe position on Power Transformers, April 2012).
For industrial consumers (with an annual electricity consumption between 500 and
2.000 megawatt hours (MWh)), electricity prices during the first half of 2011 were highest in
Malta, Cyprus and Slovakia while the lowest prices were found in Estonia, Bulgaria and Finland:
the price of electricity for industrial consumers in Malta was almost 3 times high as that in
Estonia. In the second half of 2011, Cyprus had the highest increase in the electricity price,
becoming the member state with the highest price of electricity, in general, almost half of the
member states had an increase in electricity prices in the second half of 2011 (see Figure 4).
Figure 4 - Half-yearly electricity prices excluding taxes for Industrial consumers (new methodology from 2007
onwards) *including former GDR from 1991 (based on EUROSTAT data).
18
Within the next three to seven years important developments are expected to take
place in European wholesale electricity markets. These developments will influence the
competitive market position of each country and the net exchange flows between the countries
in Europe.
Besides the expected demand growth and increasing fuel and CO2 prices, new
investments in power generation capacity (including wind and solar energy) are foreseen as well
as decommissioning of old power plants and nuclear power plants in Germany.
In the coming years, the perspective for European Union is that energy prices will
increase significantly, in 2020 it is possible that the price may achieve 1,5 higher than today, as
shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5 - Evolution of electricity price (€/kWh) in European Union (27 countries) – (based on EUROSTAT data).
There is considerable uncertainty in projecting energy prices, and it is much more
difficult to forecast prices for large energy users than for residential customers. While the effect
of a low and high carbon price is captured, there is uncertainty in the increases projected for
each of the components of the price. For example, wholesale electricity prices may be subject to
upward pressure beyond what is included in the projections because of potential fuel supply
competition (in particular the gas price), but the consideration of these factors was beyond the
scope of this report.
19
2.3.2 Aluminium vs. Copper in the Windings
Copper has traditionally been used in most transformers due its higher conductivity (for
the same size of conductor), better mechanical properties (higher short circuit strength), and
reliable electrical contact resistance.
The amount of copper in the windings directly affects the load losses, having a direct
impact in the manufacturing cost of the transformers. Copper prices have escalated rapidly in
the last decade, due to fast growth in demand in emerging economies.
Although copper has better conductivity than aluminium, copper is becoming much
more expensive than aluminium and copper prices fluctuate widely trend to making cost
forecasting difficult (see Figure 6), while aluminium is one of the most abundantly available
metals in the earth.
Figure 6 - Evolution of the price of Aluminium and Copper.
Aluminium wiring was used quite extensively in residential homes from 1965 to 1976. It
was also used in other applications such as commercial, industrial, and institutional buildings.
After the late 1970's aluminium wire became unpopular, mainly due to poor electrical contacts
leading reliability and safety (fire hazards) problems. It was not until the early 1990's that it
started to be used again, although still not as much as copper.
Aluminium wire in itself is safe, the main problem it is in the connections. Oxidation is
the build up of a thin layer of aluminium oxide which creates a thin insulating layer increasing
the electrical resistance of the connection and thus increasing heat build up - copper does
oxidize but copper oxide does not act as an insulator and copper does not expand or contract as
much when under load as does aluminium. When aluminium wiring was first used the
20
connection points on electrical equipment such as panel board breakers, receptacle and light
switches etc. had copper terminations. Aluminium has different properties than copper and
both react differently and expand and contract differently when under electrical load, which
may cause the connections to become loose. When the connections become loose this can
result in electric arc, arcing, oxidation and heat build up and finally the possibility of a fire
through the ignition of surrounding combustibles such as the insulation on the wire, wall
insulation or wallpaper in the area of the electrical box.
A comparison of some of the properties of copper and aluminium are given in the
following table.
Table 6 - Copper and aluminium physical characteristics.
3
Density (g/cm )
Resistivity (Ω.m)
Copper
8,90
1,72E-08
Aluminum
2,70
2,82E-08
Ratio Δ
3,30
6,10E-01
For a more concrete example, assume that both materials have a length of 1.000 m, and
a cross section of 100 mm2 for the use of copper windings, then the resistance is 1,72E-01 Ω.
Then, to ensure the same electrical resistance the following conditions are required for the
aluminium conductor:
Table 7- Physical properties and prices of two pieces of copper and aluminium with similar electrical resistance.
Length (m)
Resistance (Ω)
Section (mm2)
Weight (kg)
Price (€/ton) – June 2012
Price Ratio
Copper
1.000
1,72E-01
100
0,890
5.930,46
Aluminum
1.000
1,71E-01
164
0,443
1.505,32
Ratio Δ
0,61
2,01
3,94
7.91
For applications where weight is a concern, aluminium may be the better choice,
approximately half the weight of copper. If space and size are a consideration, copper may be
the better choice, i.e., about 40% less volume.
Regarding the material price, for the same electrical resistance the aluminium is almost
eight times cheaper than copper, and there is trend is to continue with this difference, as it can
be seen in Figure 6.
21
2.3.3. Grain Oriented Steel vs. Amorphous steel (Main Source (DoE, 2011))
Grain Oriented Steels are used in most transformer cores and have experience
significant improvements over the last decades. Amorphous core materials can slash the noload losses by 60-70%, and may play a very important role to build very high efficiency
distribution transformers. In USA the share of amorphous core materials distribution
transformers is close to 10% and in Japan about 30%.
However, there are some concerns, which seem to being addressed by the market and
by material improvement:

The World market is largely dominated by a single player;

Amorphous core materials are not yet made in the EU;

A different manufacturing line is required to process the new material;

Higher cost compared with Grain Oriented Steels models;

Size and weight;

Higher noise.
Amorphous core material has been in existence for more than 35 years. Hitachi Metals is
the only global supplier of the material. While Hitachi Metals is based in Japan, it also has a
facility in the United States where amorphous metal is produced. The U.S. facility currently has
three production lines, and can produce approximately 41,000 tons of amorphous steel per
year. The Hitachi facility in Japan has two production lines, and can produce 30,000 tons per
year. However, Hitachi is upgrading its Japanese facility to add two additional production lines,
which will bring its capacity to 100,000 metric tons per year.
In addition to Hitachi Metals, one other supplier is known to be producing amorphous
metal commercially. A company based in China called Advanced Technology & Materials
(AT&M) has production capacity of 40,000 tons per year. However, this company is not
considered a global supplier, because it is not known to supply amorphous metal outside the
Chinese market. Several other companies have attempted to produce amorphous metal in
recent years. In Korea Posco has recently started the manufacturing of amorphous metals.
Therefore, the current total global capacity for amorphous metal is over 140,000 tonnes
per year, of which 40,000 tons are exclusively available to the Chinese marketplace. The
remaining 100,000 tons are sold in the global marketplace.
Compared to the 2.5 million of grain-oriented electrical steel produced in 2009,
amorphous metal constitutes is less than six percent of the global supply for electrical steel.
22
Figure 7 illustrates the historical price trends of these steels from 2006 to 2010. Note
that the amorphous material (SA1) represents the cost per pound of a finished core, while the
other two steels represent the raw material price. DOE only considered the amorphous price
from 2008 to 2010 because this is when North American amorphous core manufacturers began
production.
Figure 7 - Average Annual Prices for Specialty Steels in the US (2010$/lb, note: SA1 is finished core) (DoE, 2011) .
The noise level of amorphous metals is similar to conventional steels up to 1.3 T,
growing very substantially above that value, as shown in Figure 8.
Amorphous metal cores are used up to 5MVA in oil filled transformers and 3 MVA in dry
type transformers today.
23
Figure 8 - Weighted sound power level at 60 Hz as a function of operating induction on SA1 amorphous material core
and M3 silicon steel-based core (Azuma & Hasegawa, 2008).
2.4 Policies and Measures supporting energy efficiency of distribution
transformers in non-EU countries
Across Europe, transformers are manufactured to individual national and European
standards. Unlike many countries around the world, Europe has no mandatory standard on
energy efficiency of distribution transformers. The two main documents which describe losses in
transformers are: the European Standard EN 50464-1, which has superseded the harmonised
document HD428 for oil cooled transformers, and the harmonised document HD538 for dry type
transformers, which are still valid (or their various country equivalents, e.g., DIN, etc.), as it can
be seen in Annex 8. Recently, a new EN Standard is on the way, the “Three-phase medium
voltage transformer 50 Hz, with highest voltage for equipment not exceeding 36kV”, which will
supersede EN 50541-1 and 50464-1 in the next twelve months.
Efficiency standards outside Europe may be expressed in terms of electrical efficiency, at
a certain load level, or in terms of maximum values for no-load and load losses. Some examples
follow below:

Australia “recalculated” the American 60 Hz efficiency NEMA TP-1 standard - which has
never become mandatory in USA at federal level - to 50 Hz and also interpolated linearly
24
the efficiencies for ratings which are different from those used in the USA. New Zealand
follows the Australian regulations for distribution transformers as a matter of policy.

In China, the standards are regularly upgraded since 1999 with the Standard S7 and then
S9 having been replaced by the current standard S11, which defines allowable levels for
no-load and load losses slightly below Europe’s AC’ level (losses mix according to HD428
standard). S11 will soon be replaced by S13 which is expected to specify lower loss
levels.

The Indian Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE), classifies distribution transformers in the
range from 25 up to 200 kVA into 5 categories from 1 Star (high loss) to 5 Stars (low
loss). 5 Stars represents world class performance. 3 Stars is being proposed as a
minimum efficiency standard, and is being widely followed by utilities.

Japan has a different type of distribution system, with the last step of voltage
transformation much closer to the consumer. The majority of units are pole mounted
single phase transformers. The driver for setting up minimum efficiency standards was
the Kyoto commitment. Transformers, together with 17 other categories of electrical
equipment, should meet minimum efficiencies. In the case of transformers, the
efficiency is defined at 40% load. Target average efficiency has been defined for the year
2006 (oil) or 2007 (dry type), based on the best products on the market in 2003 (Top
Runner Programme). The standard is designed differently from other standards, with
efficiencies for different products being described by equations.

Mexico sets the minimum efficiencies at slightly less stringent levels, at 0.1% to 0.2%
below NEMA TP-1 efficiency. As in Australia, the Mexican standard includes voluntary
and mandatory elements.

In USA, in 1997, the Oak Ridge National Laboratory performed extensive studies to
determine whether energy conservation standards for distribution transformers would
offer significant energy savings, be technically achievable and economically justified. The
energy savings potential in the USA from switching to high efficient transformers was
estimated to be 141 TWh cumulatively. One of the reasons for this high figure is the high
number of distribution transformers (over 30 million) in the utility distribution networks
in the US. To reduce these losses, the National Electrical Manufacturers Association
(NEMA) created the TP1 standard which defines a minimum efficiency for dry and oilfilled type transformers in the range from 10 to 2500 kVA. This became the basis for the
rule making process on minimum efficienct standards. NEMA TP-1 has been used as a
guideline by Canada, Australia, New Zealand and (partially) Mexico. In USA it was
25
adopted by Massachusets, Minnesota, Wisconsin, New York, Vermont, California and
Oregon. Subsequently, this standard was perceived as insufficiently demanding and, in
2006, the US Department of Energy (DoE) proposed a new standard. This proposal was a
compromise between the less stringent TP-1 level and the least life cycle cost (LLCC)
level, with the proposed loss levels set to represent one third of the improvement
between TP-1 and LLCC. More recently new 2007 standard, closely based on the DoE
proposal, has been introduced which will apply to all transformers manufactured for
sale in the USA or imported into the USA on or after
2010. The requirement of the
standard is very close to CC’ -30% or AoBk. In addition to this standard, distribution
transformers are also a part of the broader EnergyStar labelling programme. EnergyStar
is a voluntary programme that encourages the participating utilities to calculate the
total cost of ownership of their transformers to base their purchasing decisions. A third
programme in the US, set up by the Consortium for Energy Efficiency (CEE), aims to
increase the awareness of the potential of efficient transformers in industry. It consists
of a campaign to measure the efficiency of industrial transformers and to stimulate
companies to upgrade their transformer park to the best available in the market.

Canada follows TP-1 strictly but the mandatory levels apply only for dry type
transformers. As far as oil transformers are concerned Canada has conducted an
analysis of MEPS implementation potential and found that the great majority of
Canadian oil distribution transformers already comply with NEMA TP-1 so the standard
would have almost no influence on the market.
Also Energy Star products are very
actively promoted in Canada (SEEDT, 2008); (VITO & BIOIS, 2011).
Figure 9 -Comparison of international transformer standards (VITO & BIOIS, 2011).
26
2.5 Legal Basis for EU Action
The Ecodesign Directive and, more specifically, its Article 16 provides the legal basis for
the Commission to adopt an implementing measure reducing energy consumption of
transformers.
27
3. Objectives
As laid out in Section 2, the preparatory study has confirmed that a large cost-effective
potential for reducing electricity consumption of transformers exists. Further improvements of
the environmental impacts are related to the total energy consumption and waste.
The general objectives are therefore to develop a policy which corrects the regulatory and
market failures, and whose general goals are:
I.)
Significant reduction of the environmental impact related to the energy use of
transformers throughout the life cycle following Community environmental priorities,
such as those set out in Decision 1600/2002/EC or in the Commissions European Climate
Change Programme (ECCP) ;
II.)
Promote energy efficiency and contribute to the security of supply in the framework of
the Community objective of saving 20% of the EU's energy consumption by 2020.
The specific objectives are to:
I.)
Remove least efficient products from the market;
II.)
Promote market take-up of the most energy efficient transformers in the scope of the
assessment;
III.)
Define policies and measures to promote the above mentioned market transformation,
in such a way that are benefits to all key stakeholders .
While aiming at these objectives, the Ecodesign Directive, Article 15 (5), requires that
Ecodesign implementing measures also meet the following criteria:
a) There shall be no significant negative impact on the functionality of the product, from
the perspective of the user;
b) Health, safety and the environment shall not be adversely affected;
c) There shall be no significant negative impact on consumers in particular as regards the
affordability and the life cycle cost of the product;
d) There shall be no significant negative impact on industry’s competitiveness;
e) In principle, the setting of an Ecodesign requirement shall not have the consequence of
imposing proprietary technology on manufacturers;
f)
No excessive administrative burden shall be imposed on manufacturers.
28
4. Policy Options
In order to address the objectives and meet the targets identified in Section 3 it is
important that the energy losses of transformers are minimized in a cost-effective way and that
the other relevant environmental parameters are addressed.
The following policy options to improve energy efficiency of these appliances have been
assessed in the following sessions.
4.1 Option 1: Baseline (BAU)
This option would have the following implications:

The regulatory and market failures would persist. The impact of this option is described
in more detail in Section 2, as the Baseline scenario. Therefore the barriers for realizing
the potentials to improve the environmental performance of transformers would persist
(see Table 2);

In the absence of EU action, It is to be expected that Member States may want to take
individual (non-harmonised) action on transformers to speed up the increase in energy
efficiency of appliances. This possibility is further reinforced due to the rapid
introduction of minimum requirements in third countries (e.g. Australia, Canada, USA).
Such action would hamper the functioning of the internal market and lead to high
administrative burdens and costs for manufacturers, in contradiction to the goals of the
Ecodesign Directive;

There is a risk of competitive disadvantages, in particular for very price sensitive
applications, for those manufacturers designing their products to high standards vis-àvis competitors not using technology leading to such low energy consumption;

The specific mandate of the Legislator (Article 15.113) would not be respected despite
the fact that all the criteria of Article 15.2 setting the rationale for an implementing
measure are met.
The "Business-as-usual" (BAU) scenario is based upon this option and provides the reference
for comparison with other proposed scenarios.
13
Article 15.1 sets out the requirement for an implementing measure for products meeting the criteria
listed under paragraph 2 (Article 15.2).
29
4.2 Option 2: Self-regulation
Under Option 2, industry is expected to adopt measures to increase the energy efficiency of the
transformers. However, so far no initiative for self-regulation on transformers has been brought
forward by any industrial sector (refer to Table 2), so this Option is unlikely to be effective to
meet the Directive’s objectives.
The specific mandate of the Legislator (Article 15.1) would not be respected despite the fact that
all criteria of Article 15.2 setting the rationale for an implementing measure are met. Therefore
the option of voluntary agreements is discarded from further analysis.
4.3 Option 3: Energy Labelling Only
A labelling system that indicates the efficiency of transformers under specific load
profiles would assist this group of energy-using products considerably, and is likely to produce a
significant movement in the market. While there are obvious difficulties in creating a labelling
system for transformers, given the variability of losses depending upon application, in most
instances it is possible to develop a labelling system that provides the user with appropriate
guidance. The introduction of a labelling system also provides a framework from which future
minimum standards may be derived (if deemed appropriate). ). The framework could also be
used for financial incentives associated with efficiency programmes, should they be required at
a national level.
In an ideal case, the users of distribution transformers determine a specific loss combination
for the transformer they want to purchase based on the specific circumstances (load
characteristics) in which the transformer will be used, as well as on the transformer price and
energy prices, with the objective to minimise life-cycle costs. This means that while in one
situation, from an individual cost perspective, a transformer with very low load losses and
medium no-load losses might be the optimal choice, in another situation a transformer with
medium load losses and very low no-load losses might be preferred. Therefore, the following
issues deserve to be analysed:

If an energy label like the one that has been developed for household appliances in
Europe, i. e. with energy efficiency classification from A to G, will be appropriate at all;

If manufacturers will be just required to indicate the no-load and load losses clearly
visible on the nameplate of the transformer, or,
30

if another approach has to be developed that may be more appropriate.
Energy labelling pursuant to the Energy labelling Directive creates market transparency,
fosters awareness of consumers and creates incentives for manufacturers for innovation.
In general the two main objectives of labelling schemes are to increase the market
penetration of energy efficient products by providing incentives for innovation and technology
development, and to help consumers to make cost effective purchasing decision by addressing
running costs.
This option is however discarded for the following reasons:

A labelling scheme alone does not ensure that cost effective improvement potentials
are realised for all products on the market, implying that the full energy and cost savings
potential is not captured.

The speed of the market transformation is entirely determined by the voluntary take-up
of labelled products. The market transformation due to the implementation of the
labelling scheme will not be driven forward by the 'pushing' effect from Ecodesign
requirements setting minimum energy efficiency thresholds.

Member States could set minimum performance requirements individually, and the
administrative burdens for manufacturers would be higher when compared with the
burdens associated to Ecodesign requirements.

A labelling scheme alone would not prevent the entering of low-efficiency transformers
into the EU market as described in the section on ‘Market Failures’.

The specific mandate of the Legislator (Article 15.1) would not be respected: all of the
criteria listed in Article 15(2) giving grounds for an implementing measure are met.
Consequently there is a high risk that market transformation towards high-efficient
transformers would take place only very slowly at the corresponding detrimental impact on
environment and life cycle cost for consumer.
4.4 Option 4: Ecodesign MEPS Regulation on Transformers
This option aims at improving the environmental impact of transformers, i.e., either by
setting maximum levels for load and no-load losses or defining minimum performance levels.
This sub-section contains details of the rationale for the elements of the corresponding
regulation, as listed in Annex VII of the Ecodesign framework directive. This option would
achieve the following impacts:
31

Ensure cost-effective reduction of transformers losses and related CO2 mitigation;

Correct market failures and ensure proper functioning of the internal market;

Decrease the life-cycle cost of transformers for the consumer without reducing the
profit margins of retails/producers;
MEPS Regulation on Transformers allows the specific mandate of the Legislator to be
respected and does not entail heavy administrative burdens for manufacturers or retailers.
The following sub-options for the intensity of the measure are considered for comparative
impact analysis:
A. Least life cycle cost (LLCC), this option would include the setting of Ecodesign
requirements for minimum energy efficiency implementing all LLCC options under
the Ecodesign Directive;
B. Best Available Technology (BAT), this option would include the setting of
Ecodesign requirements for minimum energy efficiency implementing all BAT
options under the Ecodesign Directive;
C. Intermediate (2014 first stage MEPS) and 2019 second stage MEPS, this option
would include the setting of Ecodesign MEPS requirements implementing Top
Efficient level of EN 50464-1 for Tier 1 (2014) and LLCC for Tier 2 (2019).
4.4.1 Definition of the Types of Energy-Using Products Covered
The devices covered by the Ecodesign measure on transformers are in line with the
scope of the preparatory study and the Commission Staff Working Document and establishes
the requirements related to transformers with a minimum power rating of 1kVA used in 50Hz
electricity transmission and distribution networks and in consumers.
4.4.2 Implementation of Ecodesign Requirements
According to the 2009/125/EC, the target levels for measures should be set at least life
cycle cost (LLCC), which presumes that at some point, the price of the product increases so
much with extra design options to save energy, that the life cycle costs (purchase price plus
running costs) will start to rise again. The preparatory study has shown that the proposed level
is cost-effective for the end user and can be achieved with current or expected state-of-the-art
32
technology. However, the cost of the measure for the transformer industry must be taken in due
consideration, particularly if there is technological change in the manufacturing process.
The Directive lists a set of criteria that need to be met when designing an implementing
measure. However, the Article 15 of the Ecodesign Directive does not set the required criteria in
any hierarchy14.
4.5 Option 5: Energy Labelling + Ecodesign Requirements
This option combines the setting of minimum energy efficiency requirements with the
introduction of a labelling scheme. Energy labelling of transformes provides purchasers and
consumers with information about the energy consumption. This will help the
purchaser/consumer to choose a transformer with lower losses, which will more cost-effective
to operate.
The main benefits of simultaneous introduction of minimum efficiency standards and
energy labelling requirements are that:

Labelling scheme is adapted to the levels of the ecodesign measure ensuring the label's
long-term function as a market tool to drive up the transformers efficiency;

Removal of the least efficient models from the market is guaranteed;

Synergic impact of the pushing effect of the eco-design specific requirements and the
pulling effect of a functioning labelling scale, as demonstrated on the basis of the
qualitative but well experienced relation illustrated in Figure 10. This leads to long term
improvement of stock efficiency (minimum efficiency requirements define a threshold
that in practice will not be lowered in the future, only raised);

Complies with the demand of stakeholders for a harmonisation and rationalisation of
both measures.
14
However, it can be assumed that the criteria for a significant environmental impact precedes the criteria on
indicative volume of 200.000 (e.g. if 10.000 commercial refrigerators consume ten times more than 10 million
chargers, then there might be enough reason to base an implementing Regulation on the Art. 15.b even if in apparent
conflict with Art. 15.a, provided that the criteria listed in Art. 15.c and d are fulfilled.
33
Figure 10 - Market push and pull: How the different policy instruments can work together. Source: (SEEDT, 2007).
34
5. Impact Analysis
Given that options 1, 2 and 3 have been discarded in Section 4, this Section looks into
the impacts of option 4 (option 5 has a similar impact). To this end an assessment of possible
sub-options as regards the “intensity” of the measure — the combination of the levels of
requirements and the timing for the levels pursuant to Article 15 (4f) of the Ecodesign Directive
— is carried out.
The assessment is done to follow the criteria set out in Article 15 (5a-5f) of the
Ecodesign Directive, and also addresses the potential impacts on manufacturers. The aim is to
find a balance between the quick realisation for achieving the appropriate level of ambition
producing the associated benefits for the environment and the user (due to reduction of lifecycle costs) on the one hand, and on the other hand, the potential burdens related e.g. required
re-design of equipment for achieving compliance with Ecodesign requirements, while avoiding
negative impacts for the user, in particular as related to affordability and functionality. The
methodology of the analysis is explained in Annex 3.
The economic, environmental and social impacts are analysed and presented in a
summary table at the end of the chapter followed by a brief discussion of the sensitivity to price
changes (three levels minimum, base, maximum). The base case electricity price corresponds to
average industrial electricity price for 2011 in EU27 (Eurostat). The starting point for impacts is
the electricity (TWh) savings, which are disaggregated per seven base cases. Transformer
lifetime ranges from 20 to 40 years or more, and savings figures are provided from 2005 data
until 2025. Due to the long life time of transformers, further savings will be achieved after 2025.
The preparatory study has shown that existing cost effective technical solutions allow
for considerably lower electricity consumption levels for distribution and power transformers
than the current market average. According to the different seven base cases of the preparatory
study, the average transformer electricity consumption is associated with the lower efficiency
level of technology sold in Europe, as indicated in Table 8.
35
Table 8 - Business As Usual (BAU) transformers scenario - No load losses at rated voltage and frequency (P0)
& Load losses at rated current and reference temperature (Pk).
No load losses at rated voltage
and frequency (P0)
Load losses at rated current and
reference temperature (Pk)
D0
E0
C0
41 kW
E0
C0
110 W
Ck
Dk
Bk
326 kW
Ck
Bk
750 W
BC1
BC2
BC3
BC4
BC5
BC6
CB7
According to the Ecodesign Directive requirements on energy consumption in use, the
aim of the analysis is to identify the least life-cycle cost (LLCC) for the end-user which is carried
out (Annex 4). The BAT levels are based on the working document and on the comments from
stakeholders.
The preparatory study and additional input from stakeholders in the Consultation Forum
has shown that the lowest achievable power consumption levels can be achieved by applying
the best available transformers technology (BAT). New technologies, namely amorphous metal
transformers were not included into the analysis due to the uncertainty on the large-scale
availability of amorphous material and its market (Section 2.3.3).
The Intermediate levels (possible MEPS in 2014) are derived from the top values in EN
50464-1 for distribution transformers. For power transformers a middle point was considered in
the load losses between BAU and LLCC. For the no-load losses the LLCC value is equal to BAU,
and the Intermediate value is the same.
The simulation of more than 1000 design options of the different types of transformers
(as showed in Annex 6) using the simplified LCC analysis (described in Annex 4) has shown that
for distribution transformers, the Tier 1 level (2014) at A0Ak is a progressive intermediate stage,
while Tier 2 level (2019) can be more ambitious to reach the LLCC point around A0-20%, Ak20%. This can be achieved by the manufactures using existing technology (e.g. high grade
commercially available silicon electrical steel) and their existing manufacturing equipment.
Table 9 shows the proposed MEPS levels for 2014 and 2019 for different transformer
types. The MEPS in 2014 for distribution transformers are proposed to be at A0Ak level , and
the MEPS at 2019 are proposed to be at A0-20%Ak-20% level. These levels are strictly based on
LLCC levels for BC3, BC5 and BC6. For BC1 and BC2 the LLCC levels show very little variation for
different efficiency levels (as shown for BC1 in Figure 16 and for BC2 in Figure 18). For load
36
factors above the base value and/or for electricity prices above the base value, the A0-20%Ak20% is also the LLCC. Since the trend of electricity prices is clearly upwards, as shown in Figure 5,
the A0-20%Ak-20% level seems a robust choice for all types of distribution transformers.
For power transformers, the MEPS for 2014 and considered at a level half-way between
BAU and LLCC. In power transformers because of the high cost of improved models, the LLCC
performance is significantly lower than the BAT, leading to modest savings.
For small
transformers the scope for improvement , as well as the savings potential, seems more limited.
Therefore the MEPS at 2014 are set at BAU levels, with the 2019 MEPS based on the LLCC
showing a significant improvement for the no-load losses.
Table 9 - Losses levels corresponding to the four different scenarios (BAU, LLCC, BAT, Intermediate /MEPS 2014 and
MESP 2019).
P0Pk
BAU
LLCC
BAT
Intermediate MEPS 2014
MEPS 2019
BC1
D0Ck
A0-15%Ak
A0-20%Ak-20%
A0Ak
A0-20%Ak-20%
BC2
E0Ck
A0-15%Ak
A0-20%Ak-20%
A0Ak
A0-20%Ak-20%
BC3
C0Bk
A0-20%Ak-20%
A0-20%Ak-20%
A0Ak
A0-20%Ak-20%
BC4
41-326
41-261
20-228
41-294
41-261
BC5
E0Ck
A0-20%Ak-20%
A0-20%Ak-20%
A0Ak
A0-20%Ak-20%
BC6
C0Bk
A0-20%Ak-20%
A0-20%Ak-20%
A0Ak
A0-20%Ak-20%
BC7
110-750
65-750
65-750
110-750
65-750
Figure 11 shows the evolution of the transformer energy consumption in the 4 scenarios
with the introduction of MEPS in 2014, with different efficiency requirements.
37
Figure 11 – Energy Loss Scenarios Evolution 2005-2025 (TWh).
38
5.1 Economic analysis
5.1.1. Energy savings
For the seven different base cases the key input data considered are presented in the
following table. To identify the most attractive LLCC options for 2014 and 2019, three different
levels of electrical power price and annual load factor (i.e., minimum, base and maximum
values) were considered.
The stock growth for different types of transformers ranges from 1.4% to 10.5%,
depending on the type. The yearly sales is the sum of replacement units (stock/lifetime), plus
the annual increase.
For each type of transformer the preparatory study evaluated the price of the
transformer as a function of the loss level. For the impact assessment Table 10 shows the key
parameters used in the analysis. In some cases, different values were used for the load factor
and for the electricity prices in relation to the preparatory study. The values used seem more
realistic, but can be revised based on stakeholder comments.
Table 10 - Impact Assessment Input (adapted from VITO 2011).
INPUTS
Lifetime (Years)
Min
Electricity
rate
Base
(€/kWh)
Max
Discount rate
Min
Load
Base
Factor
Max
Load Form Factor
EU Stock (2011)
Stock Growth
Classification
Total Energy Losses
(kWh/year)
Product Price(€)
Electricity cost (€)
Life Cycle Cost (€)
BC1
Distribution
40
0,10
0,15
0,30
1,073
2.451.074
D0Ck
BC2
Industry
OIL
25
0,0468€
0,0935€
0,1403€
BC3
Industry
Dry
30
BC4
Power
BC5
DER Oil
BC6
DER Dry
30
25
25
0,035
0,075 €
0,05€
0,15 €
0,075€
0,225 €
4%
0,15
0,15
0,20
0,15
0,15
0,30
0,30
0,30
0,25
0,25
0,40
0,40
0,5
0,30
0,30
1,096
1,096
1,08
1,5
1,5
549.065
118.272
70.205
7.300
29.201
1,4%
1,5%
10,5%
Baseline Transformer Technology (for unit)
E0Ck
C0Bk
41-326
E0Ck
C0Bk
BC7
Separation/
Isolation
20
0,0468€
0,0935€
0,1403€
0,15
0,25
0,35
1,096
750.000
0%
110-750
7.859
30.091
39.727
724.886
59.093
62.415
5.738
6.334€
14.544€
20.877€
10.239€
43.953€
54.192€
27.378€
64.231€
91.609€
743.886€
839.561€
1.773.011€
18.248€
230.791€
249.039€
28.191€
146.258€
174.449€
1.153€
7.827€
8.980€
39
As shown in Table 11 and Table 12 to Table 14, the power consumption levels start to
drop with the first MEPS stage (2014). These savings are provided by readily available
technologies (Top levels in EN 50464-1) which lead to a considerable reduction of the
transformers life-cycle cost from the end-user perspective. Additional reduction is achieved
with the second MEPS stage (2019). With the natural evolution of technology and market, the
2019 proposed scenario will be quite acceptable and feasible.
Table 11 - Minimum Energy Performance Standard (MEPS) Adopt for 2014 and 2019.
BC1
BC2
BC3
BC4
BC5
BC6
BC7
BAU
MEPS 2014
MEPS 2019
P0PK
D0Ck
E0Ck
C0Bk
41-326
E0Ck
C0Bk
110-750
P0PK
A0Ak
A0Ak
A0Ak
41-294
A0Ak
A0Ak
110-750
P0PK
A0-20%Ak-20%
A0-20%Ak-20%
A0-20%Ak-20%
41-261
A0-20%Ak-20%
A0-20%Ak-20%
65-750
Figure 12-Energy Evolution for MEPS Scenario (1st stage: 2014 & 2nd stage:2019).
40
Table 12 - Energy consumption of existing transformers (old stock) and of new transformers (new stock installed after
2014), with the corresponding energy savings in TWh due to the transformers purchased in the period 2014-2025.
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
BAU
98,7
100,3
102,1
103,9
105,7
107,6
109,6
111,7
113,9
116,1
118,4
120,9
Old Stock
98,7
95,5
92,2
88,9
85,6
82,2
78,6
74,9
71,2
67,4
63,5
59,6
1StMEPS
-
3,9
7,8
11,9
16,0
20,2
20,2
20,2
20,2
20,2
20,2
20,2
2ndMEPS
Annual
Savings
-
-
-
-
-
-
3,9
7,9
11,9
16,1
20,4
24,8
0,00
1,00
2,02
3,07
4,14
5,25
6,94
8,68
10,48
12,34
14,26
16,25
Table 13 - Cumulative impacts and savings in the period 2014-2025.
Scenario
Savings
MEPS 2014*
46,98 TWh
MEPS 2019**
37,45 TWh
TOTAL
84,43 TWh
*Savings due to the transformers purchased in the period 2014-2018
**Savings due to the transformers purchased in the period 2019-2025
Savings CO2
12,5 Mton
9,3 Mton
21,8 Mton
Table 14 - Cumulative Savings and Yearly savings in 2025 for Minimum Energy Performance Standard (MEPS) adopted
in 2014 and 2019.
MEPS2014
MEPS2019
Total
Yearly Savings in 2025
∆%*
BC1
BC2
BC3
BC4
BC5
BC6
BC7
14,79 TWh
16,59 TWh
2,99 TWh
6,00 TWh
1,84 TWh
4,77 TWh
0,00 TWh
9,58 TWh
10,56 TWh
2,55 TWh
6,00 TWh
1,82 TWh
5,88 TWh
1,06 TWh
24,37 TWh
27,15 TWh
5,54 TWh
12,00 TWh
3,66 TWh
10,65 TWh
1,06 TWh
4,42 TWh
4,90 TWh
1,07 TWh
2,40 TWh
0,78 TWh
2,37 TWh
0,30 TWh
5,7%
8,2%
5,3%
1,1%
22,7%
15,6%
2,7%
Total
46,98 TWh
37,45 TWh
84,43 TWh
16,25 TWh
4,0%
*Note: Percentage of savings in 2025 relatively to the BAU scenario.
The overall impact is limited because of the very slow rotation of the transformer stock,
with the exception of distribution generation transformers. The impact for power transformers
is very small since the LLCC losses (with the assumed transformer costs, load factor and
electricity prices) are similar to BAU. Small transformer also present a small potential because of
their much lower energy consumption (TWh value).
41
5.2 Administrative Costs
The form of the legislation is a regulation which is directly applicable in all Member
States.
This ensures no costs for national administrations for transposition of the implementing
legislation into national legislation.
The costs for carrying out the verification procedure for market surveillance purposes
depends mainly on the product price (assuming a purchase by public authority), and the possible
need for a second test on a sample of three additional products in the case that the power
consumption levels established in the first test are excessive.
It is to be expected that a product is tested not only for its conformity with Ecodesign
requirements, but also with further applicable requirements, and the part of the costs required
for testing the energy losses of a transformer is expected to be acceptable because the
measurement on transformer efficiency is generally used.
5.3 Social impacts
Social impacts due to potential Implementing Measures may affect employment of
skilled and semi-skilled workforce, if Europe loses market share. The production of high
efficiency units should lead to a more competitive EU industry in the World market. Higher
efficiency units are more expensive leading to higher turnover and potentially higher
profitability of the EU transformer industry.
Businesses may decide to leave the marketplace depending on the compliance costs and
this could affect employment negatively if businesses leave the EU. Of concern among
stakeholders is the use of amorphous technology in production of the transformer cores, of
which there is currently no production capacity within Europe, although this situation may
change if the demand picks up. However, the expected performance requirements in the shortmedium term are not expected to mandate efficiency levels that are attainable only with
amorphous metal technology (required to
go beyond A0-20%), thus still allowing for
manufacturers of high performance grain oriented steel to meet the requirements.
It is foreseen that more specialised processes and manufacturing equipment may be
needed to produce more efficient products. This could result in training requirements and a
more skilled workforce.
42
5.4 Greenhouse gas emission reduction
The accumulated electricity savings and the reduction of CO2 emissions depend on the
timing of the first and of the second stage of the regulatory measures. Qualitatively, the sooner
the requirements become effective and the shorter the delay between first and second stage,
the higher the accumulated electricity savings and the related CO2 emissions. The accumulated
CO2 savings by 2020 and 2025 are shown in the graph and in the table below.
Figure 13 - Projected CO2 emissions per unit of electricity in the EU (adapted from (EURELECTRIC, 2010)).
The estimated cumulative CO2 emission savings between 2014 and 2025 will be about
21,8 Mton.
Figure 14 - Evolution of CO2 emissions between 2005 and 2025.
43
The significant decrease of the carbon emissions, shown in Figure 14 and Table 16, is a
result of the combined effect of the transformer MEPS, as well as of the progressive
decarbonisation of the electricity generation in the EU.
Table 15 - Cumulative CO2 savings 2014-2025.
Scenario
MEPS 2014
MEPS 2019
TOTAL
CO2 Savings
12,5 Mton
9,3 Mton
21,8 Mton
Table 16 – CO2 Emissions and CO2 Savings (Mton) due to the transformers purchased in the period 2014-2025.
CO2 (Mton)
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2025
BAU
30.586
30.103
30.113
30.122
30.395
30.354
30.148
29.599
29.600
29.602
28.422
28.404
Old Stock
30.586
28.645
27.212
25.794
24.606
23.169
21.608
19.855
18.511
17.186
15.244
13.996
1.160
2.306
3.439
4.598
5.704
5.563
5.360
5.259
5.158
4.855
4.753
1.068
2.083
3.104
4.111
4.901
5.836
1.909
2.301
2.725
3.146
3.422
3.819
1StMEPS
2ndMEPS
Annual Savings
-
299
595
889
1.191
1.481
5.5 Technology, functionality and innovation
New technologies and improved processes in the production of transformers could
significantly reduce the power losses and the associated CO2 emissions in the electricity sector.
The
transformer industry is a mature sector with consolidated manufacturers, and most
improvements have been made gradually (e.g. improved insulation materials, lower loss
magnetic steel, optimized electromagnetic design, increased amount of conductor materials)
A relatively new technology which is widely used in Japan and in a smaller scale in North
America uses amorphous magnetic cores. Using amorphous metal core, the no-load losses can
be reduced by an additional 70 % compared to the best silicon steel. The initial purchase price
of the amorphous metal based transformer is still higher than the initial price of conventional
magnetic materials transformer, but the prices are coming down (see Figure 7). Comparing the
use of conventional silicon steel core transformers to the use of amorphous metal based
transformers, an overall financial savings during the life span of the transformer may be
achieved if amorphous metal supply becomes readily available (e.g. multiple suppliers) with
cost-competitive prices ( Opetuk, Zolo, & Dukic, 2010).
44
5.6 Health and safety
There are no significant changes if more efficient transformers are produced, since the
manufacturing process is the same.
No impacts of the considered sub-options on health or safety have been identified during
the preparatory study or the impact assessment.
5.7 Uncertainties and Sensitivity Analysis
The robustness of the outcomes of this impact assessment study depends on the
underlying assumptions. A sensitivity analysis, covering some of the most relevant factors (such
as the price of energy and annual load factor) is carried out and discussed for each base case
scenario. It is considered that electricity prices already incorporate external environmental
costs. The analysis includes:

The annual load factors that has a direct influence on the environmental impacts
and LLCC of the base-cases;

The electricity tariff which have an influence on the LLCC when implementing
the Ecodesign measures.
5.7.1 Assumptions related to the load factors
As stated in the preparatory study, average load factors were defined for each type of
transformer. However, some factors can be lower or higher (see Table 17), as mentioned in the
preparatory study or by stakeholders. Therefore, a sensitivity analysis is carried out for each
base case to see the impact of the load factor on the electricity consumption.
Table 17 – Annual Load factors used in this study.
BC2
BC3
BC1
Industry Industry
Distribution
OIL
Dry
Load
Factor
Min
Base
Max
0,10
0,15
0,30
0,15
0,30
0,40
0,15
0,30
0,40
BC4
Power
BC5
DER
Oil
BC6
DER
Dry
BC7
Separation/
Isolatio
0,20
0,30
0,50
0,15
0,25
0,30
0,15
0,25
0,30
0,15
0,25
0,35
45
5.7.1.1 Base Case 1
Figure 15 and Figure 16 present the results, for Base Case 1, of the sensitivity analysis on
variation of the load factor. As the load factor increases, the more efficient options become
more cost-effective, as the electrical losses become more significant.
Figure 15 - Annual energy losses for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC1.
Figure 16 -LCC for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC1
46
Therefore, it can be concluded that the LLCC for the base load factor shows little
variation for a range of efficiency levels (from A0-10%Ak to A0-20%Ak-20%), but a variation in
the load factors can shift up or down the efficiency values of the LLCC.
5.7.1.2 Base Case
Figure 17 - Annual energy losses for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC2.
Figure 18 - LCC for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC2.
Therefore, it can be concluded that the LLCC for the base load factor shows little
variation for a range of efficiency levels (from B0Ak-10% to A0-20%Ak-20%), but again a
variation in the load factors can shift up or down the efficiency values of the LLCC.
47
5.7.1.3 Base Case 3
Figure 19 - Annual energy losses for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC3.
Figure 20 - LCC for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC3.
Therefore, it can be concluded that the LLCC for the base load factor is A0-20%Ak-20%.
48
5.7.1.4 Base Case 4
Figure 21 and Figure 22 present the results, for Base Case 4, of the sensitivity analysis on
variation of load factor. As the load factor increases, the more efficient options become more
cost-effective as the electrical losses become more significant.
Figure 21-Annual energy losses for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC4.
Figure 22-LCC for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC4.
Therefore, it can be concluded that the LCC for the base load factor shows a significant
variation for the range of different efficiency levels. With the base load factor, the LLCC level
corresponds to P0-41 Pk-277. For higher load factors the load losses decrease to Pk-228, but
there is no improvement in the no-load losses .
49
5.7.1.5 Base Case 5
In the Base Case 5, Figure 23 and Figure 24 show the impact of the load factor on the
losses and on the LLCC.
Figure 23-Annual energy losses for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC5.
Figure 24-LCC for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC5.
Therefore, it can be concluded that the LLCC for the base load factor is A0-20%Ak-20%.
The LLCC shows little variation for a range of efficiency levels (from A0-10%Ak-20% to A020%Ak-20%), and the LLCC is robust with minimum and maximum values of load factors.
50
5.7.1.6 Base Case 6
With the Base Case 6, Figure 25 and Figure 26 show the impact of the load factor
variation on the losses and on the LLCC.
Figure 25-Annual energy losses for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC6.
Figure 26-LCC for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC6.
Based on the above figures, it can be concluded that the LLCC for the base load factor is
A0-20%Ak-20%. The LLCC shows little variation with minimum and maximum values of load
factors.
51
5.7.1.7 Base Case 7
In the Base Case 7, Figure 27
Figure 27 and Figure 28 show
the impact of the load factor on the losses and on the LLCC.
Figure 27 - Annual energy losses for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC7.
52
Figure 28 - LCC for three different cases of load factor (min, base and max)- BC7
Therefore, it can be concluded that the LLCC for the base load factor (P0-60W Pk-750W)
shows a strong variation with the load factors, but the lowest value for the non-load losses (P060W) is robust in all cases. For larger load factors the designs with lower load losses (Pk in the
range 500-600 W), may be cost-effective.
5.7.2 Assumptions related to the electricity tariff
For the distribution transformers (excluding distributed generation DER), an average EU27 electricity tariff of 0,0935 €/kWh was used, based on the data from Eurostat. For sensitivity
analysis, a plus or minus 50% variation was considered around the base price. If the lowest
electricity tariff (i.e. 0,0468 €/kWh (0,5*0,0935 €/kWh)) and the highest electricity tariff (i.e.
0,1403 €/kWh (1,5*0,0935 €/kWh)) are applied, this could lead to different LLCC for the basecases load factor. The same reasoning is applicable for DER transformers (base-cases 5 and 6)
when an electricity tariff of 0,1500 or 0,2250 €/kWh is used (see Table 18).
Table 18- Assumptions related to electricity tariff.
BC1
Distribution
BC2
BC3
Industry Industry
OIL
Dry
BC4
Power
BC5
BC6
BC7
DER
DER
Separation/
Oil
Dry
Isolation
53
Electricity
Min
0,0468€
0,035
0,0750 €
0,0468€
rate
Base
0,0935€
0,05€
0,1500 €
0,0935€
(€/kWh)
Max
0,1403€
0,075€
0,2250 €
0,1403€
5.7.2.1 Base Case 1 and Base Case 2
In the Base Case 1 and 2 as electricity rate increases, more efficient transformers
become more economical, reducing their LCC in relation to less efficient models, as shown
Figure 29 and Figure 30.
Figure 29 - LCC for three different cases of electricity price (min, base and max)- BC1
54
Figure 30 - LCC for three different cases of electricity price (min, base and max)- BC2.
In the near future, the trend is for electricity to become more expensive (as shown in
Figure 5), so it seems very important to progressively increase the transformers efficiency . In
these conditions the A0-20%Ak-20% efficiency level seems the most advantageous in the
medium-long term.
5.7.2.2 Base Case 3
As in previous cases, the price of energy contributes significantly to the LCC variation, as
shown in Figure 31.
55
Figure 31 - LCC for three different cases of electricity price (min, base and max)- BC3.
The A0-20%Ak-20% efficiency level is the LLCC for the base electricity price. Because of
the trend is for electricity to become more expensive the choice of that value becomes even
more pertinent.
56
5.7.2.3 Base Case 4
As in previous cases, the price of energy contributes to the LCC variation, as shown in
Figure 32. However, it can be concluded that there are minor changes in the LLCC for the
different electricity prices.
Figure 32-LCC for three different cases of electricity price (min, base and max)- BC4.
The LLCC for the base load factor and electricity price is P0-41,Pk-277. In the near
future, the trend is for electricity to become more expensive. The reduction of the transformer
no-load losses does not seem to be cost-effective, even with high electricity prices, whereas the
reduction of the transformer load losses to Pk-228 may become cost effective, with high
electricity prices.
5.7.2.4 Base Case 5 and Base Case 6
In the Base Cases 5 and 6, the LCC as a function of the electricity rates is shown in
Figures 33 and 34.
57
Life Cycle Cost for different Energy Prices-BC5
300000
250000
EUROS
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
Ck
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
Ak-20%
Figure 33-LCC for three different cases of electricity price (min, base and max)- BC5.
Figure 34-LCC for three different cases of electricity price (min, base and max)- BC6.
The LLCC value for BC5 and BC6 for the base load factor and electricity price at the level
of A0-20% Ak-20% is robust and shows little variation, becoming even more justifiable with
higher electricity prices.
58
5.7.2.5 Base Case 7
As in previous cases, the price of energy contributes strongly to the LCC variation, as
shown in Figure 35.
Figure 35 - LCC for three different cases of electricity price (min, base and max)- BC7.
Therefore, it can be concluded that the LLCC for the base electricity prices P0-60,Pk-750
shows small variation for the different efficiency levels. The reduction of the transformer noload losses is robust and cost-effective in all cases, whereas the reduction of the transformer
load losses to Pk-500-600 may become marginally cost effective, with high electricity prices.
5.8 Pole mounted transformers
Pole mounted transformers are less reliable and sensitive to damage, and also to theft.
Thus, they are being increasingly replaced by transformers mounted on the ground in safe
compartments. Since the market for small pole mounted transformers
is decreasing, as
overhead lines are becoming less popular compared to underground cables, the potential
impact of potential regulatory measures becomes less important.
The reason mentioned to keep these transformers unregulated is based on the fact that
pole mounted transformers need to be light to be fitted in a pole construction, when the need
for replacement comes. However, if the choice is still to replace the transformer on a pole, it
should be replaced by an efficient one. Obviously, pole mounted transformers can technically
also achieve class A0Ak, which is the proposed in MEPS 2014. Nevertheless, weight might be a
59
problem to mount them on some poles as currently specified by some stakeholders. Aluminum
windings may be an option to decrease weight and to make theft less attractive. Heavier weight
means that the specifications for sturdier poles and installers (cranes and transport) need to be
modified, which can take some time to implement in tender specifications. The time horizon of
2014 seems appropriate for this purpose. Therefore the reinforcement of a pole and related
costs should not be an argument to waste energy during the transformer lifetime.
In summary, discarding the creation of a subcategory for pole mounted transformers
avoids the risk for creating loopholes for future regulation.
60
6. Conclusions
6.1 Proposed Efficiency Levels Based and Sensitivity Analysis Results
The simulation of more than 1000 design options of the different types of transformers
using the simplified LCC analysis has shown that for distribution transformers, the Tier 1 level
(2014) at A0Ak is a progressive intermediate stage, while Tier 2 level (2019) can be more
ambitious to reach the LLCC point around A0-20%Ak-20%. For power transformers, using the
base case load factor and electricity prices, the LLCC is quite similar to BAU. The customers of
power transformers will many times (e.g. applications with high load factor) order better
transformers than BAU, based on total cost of ownership. For small transformers the scope for
improvement , as well as the savings potential, seems more limited. Therefore the MEPS at 2014
are set at BAU levels, with the 2019 MEPS showing a significant improvement for the no-load
losses.
The improved transformers can be achieved by the manufacturers using existing
technology (e.g. high grade commercially available silicon electrical steel) and their existing
manufacturing equipment. Table 19 shows the proposed MEPS levels for 2014 and 2019.
Table 19- Losses levels corresponding to the four different scenarios (BAU, LLCC, BAT, Intermediate /MEPS 2014 and
MESP 2019) and cumulative impacts and savings 2014-2025.
Business As Usual
2014-2025
from 1 January
2014 - 2025
P0Pk
Total Energy
(TWh)
P0Pk
Energy
Savings
(TWh)
BC1
D0Ck
206,44
A0Ak
14,79
BC2
E0Ck
143,70
A0Ak
16,59
BC3
C0Bk
47,49
A0Ak
2,99
BC4
41-326
515,03
41-294
6,00
BC5
E0Ck
4,76
A0Ak
1,84
BC6
C0Bk
20,12
A0Ak
4,77
BC7
110-750
20,72
110750
0,00
958,26
Total
46,98
Total
from 1 January
2019 - 2025
P0Pk
Total
2014 - 2025
Energy
Savings
(TWh)
Energy
Savings
(TWh)
A0-20%Ak20%
A0-20%Ak20%
A0-20%Ak20%
9,58
24,37
10,56
27,15
2,55
5,54
41-261
6,00
12,00
1,82
3,66
5,88
10,65
65-750
1,06
1,06
Total
37,45
84,43
A0-20%Ak20%
A0-20%Ak20%
61
6.2 General Conclusions
Following the principle of proportionality in the analysis, policy options 1 to 3 (Option 1: No
EU Action; Option 2: Self-regulation; Option 3: Energy Labelling Only) were discarded at an
earlier phase of the analysis.
Regarding the Option 4 (Ecodesign MEPS Regulation on Transformers) three sub-options
were analysed:
-Sub-optionA - Least life cycle cost (LLCC);
-Sub-option B - Best Available Technology (BAT);
-Sub-option C - Intermediate 2014 first stage MEPS and 2019 second stage MEPS for the
intensity of an Ecodesign regulation on transformers.
The analysis carried out shows that in general, sub-option C (Intermediate 2014 first stage
MEPS and 2019 second stage MEPS) optimally fulfills the objectives as set out in Section 3Objectives. The above mentioned regulation has several positive impacts, in particular the
following:

cost-effective reduction of transformer electricity losses;

cumulative reduction of the electricity consumption of about 85 TWh, corresponding to
savings of 22 Mton of CO2 by 2025 compared to the “no action” option;

although there is an increased purchase cost, it will be largely compensated by savings
during the use-phase of the product;

reduction of the costs by economies of scale for cost-effective technologies,

correction of market failures and proper functioning of the internal market;

no significant administrative burdens for manufacturers or retailers;

the specific mandate of the Legislator is respected;

a clear legal framework for product design which leaves flexibility for manufacturers to
achieve the energy efficiency levels of the 2nd stage either in two steps, or earlier
(before the 2nd stage comes into effect);

fair competition by creation of a level playing field;

no negative impact on employment;

no identified negative impact on trade.
62
Another option with similar and/or complementary impacts of sub-option C (Intermediate
2014 first stage MEPS and 2019 second stage MEPS) is to set a minimum energy efficiency
requirements accompanied by a labelling scheme. A labelling system that indicates the
efficiency of transformers under specific load profiles would cause a significant movement in the
market promoting a healthy competition among manufacturers.
The main benefits of simultaneous introduction of minimum efficiency performance
standards and energy labelling requirements are the following:

removal of the least efficient models from the market is guaranteed;

labelling scheme is adapted to the levels of the ecodesign measure ensuring the
label's long-term function as a market tool to drive up the transformers efficiency;

synergistic impact of the pushing effect of the eco-design specific requirements and
the pulling effect of a functioning labelling scale;

complies with the demand of stakeholders for a harmonisation and rationalisation
of both measures.
63
7. Monitoring and Evaluation
The main monitoring element will be the tests carried out for new product conformity.
Products placed on the Community market have to comply with the requirements set by the
proposed regulation, as expressed by the CE marking. Monitoring of the impacts is mainly done
by market surveillance carried out by Member State authorities ensuring that the requirements
are met.
The appropriateness of scope, definitions and concepts will be monitored by the
ongoing dialogue with stakeholders and Member States. Input is also expected from work
carried out in the context of upcoming Ecodesign activities on further product categories, and
related activities.
The main issues for a possible revision of the proposed regulation are:

The appropriateness of the levels for the specific Ecodesign requirements;

The appropriateness of the product scope;

The possibility to enhance other environmental impacts than energy in the use phase.
Taking into account the time necessary for collecting, analysing and complementing the data
and experiences in order to properly assess the technological progress, a review can be
presented to the Consultation Forum no later than six years after entry into force of the
regulation (as required by Annex VII.9 of the Ecodesign Directive and laid down in the
implementing measure).
64
8. References
Opetuk, T., Zolo, I., & Dukic, G. (2010). Greening elements in the distribution networks. Journal of
Industrial Engineering and Management.
AEA Technology. (2011). Impact Assessment study for Sustainable Product Measures Refrigerating and freezing equipment,Transformers, Sound and imaging equipment.
European Commission – DG Enterprise and Industry.
Azuma, D., & Hasegawa, R. (2008). Audible Noise From Amorphous Metal and Silicon SteelBased Transformer Core. VOL. 44, NO. 11.
DoE. (2011). PRELIMINARY TECHNICAL SUPPORT DOCUMENT (TSD): ENERGY EFFICIENCY
PROGRAM FOR COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL EQUIPMENT:DISTRIBUTION
TRANSFORMERS. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy.
EURELECTRIC. (2010). Power Statistics – 2010 Edition – Synopsis. Brussels.
Olivares-Galva, J., de Leo, F., Georgilakis, P., & Escarela-Pérez, R. (2009). Selection of copper
against aluminium windings for distribution transformers. IET Electric Power
Applications.
Pryor, L., Schlobohm, R., & Brownell, B. (s.d.). A COMPARISON OF ALUMINUM VS. COPPER AS
USED IN ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT. GE Consumer & Industrial.
SEEDT. (2007). Strategies for development and diffusion of Energy Efficient Distribution
Transformers. EU-program “Intelligent Energy Europe".
SEEDT. (2008). Selecting Energy Efficient Distribution Transformers A Guide for Achieving LeastCost
Solutions.
Intelligent
Energy
Europe
programme
(Project
no.
EIE/05/056/SI2.419632).
SEEDT.
(2008). Strategies for development and diffusion of
DistributionTransformers. EU-program “Intelligent Energy Europe".
Energy
Efficient
SEEEDT. (2008). Strategies for development and diffusion of
DistributionTransformers. EU-program “Intelligent Energy Europe".
Energy
Efficient
UNEP & International Copper Association Southest Asia Ltd. (2011). Technical Study Report
Energy Efficient Transformers. SEAN-CC.
VITO & BIOIS. (2011). LOT 2: Distribution and power transformers. European Commission DG
ENTR unit B1.
Wuppertal Institute for Climate, Environment, Energy and SEEDT Partners. (2008). Policies and
Measures Fostering Energy-Efficient Distribution Transformers. Intelligent Energy Europe
programme (Project no. EIE/05/056/SI2.419632).
65
List of Annexes
ANNEX 1: Minutes of Consultation Forum meeting ...........Error! Bookmark not defined.
ANNEX 2: Commission Staff Working Document ...............Error! Bookmark not defined.
ANNEX 3: Structure of the methodology used for establishing the technical,
environmental and economic analysis ..............................Error! Bookmark not defined.
ANNEX 4: Methodology to Calculate the Life Cycle Cost (LCC)Error!
defined.
Bookmark
not
ANNEX 5: Sensitive Analysis Tables ...................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
ANNEX 6: Life Cycle Cost Shaded Diagram .........................Error! Bookmark not defined.
ANNEX 7: Environmental Impacts (VITO & BIOIS, 2011) .....Error! Bookmark not defined.
ANNEX 8: European Distribution Transformer Loss standardsError!
defined.
Bookmark
not
ANNEX 1: Minutes of Consultation Forum meeting
EUROPEAN COMMISSION
DIRECTORATE-GENERAL FOR ENERGY AND TRANSPORT
DIRECTORATE D - New and Renewable Energy Sources, Energy Efficiency & Innovation
Energy efficiency of products & Intelligent Energy – Europe
Brussels, 20.04.2012
MINUTES
of the
Consultation Forum on small, distribution and power transformers under Article 18 of the
Ecodesign of Energy-related Products Directive (2009/125/EC) on 20 April 2012
Attendees/ Presentation
The list of attendees to the meeting and the Commission’s presentation are available in CIRCA as
separate documents.
Introductions
Kirsi Ekroth-Manssila (KEM), acting Head of Unit, ENTR B.1, welcomed the Consultation Forum
members and invitees to the meeting, and introduced the responsible Policy Officer for ENTR
Lot 2, Cesar Santos Gil (CSG), and attending colleague, Michael Bennett (MJB).
Overall Agenda – Structuring of Discussion Points
CSG outlined the main purpose of the day: to inform attendees regarding the draft Ecodesign
regulation for small, distribution and power transformers, and to seek feedback.
Although transformers are efficient devices already, there seems to be wide consensus that an
EU Ecodesign regulation establishing minimum performance requirements would be beneficial
for European industry, as well for society and the environment. The details of such a proposed
regulation would be presented via a structured PowerPoint presentation, based on the
previously-circulated draft ENTR Lot 2 regulation working document15.
CSG thanked organisations for helpful contributions received prior to the Consultation Forum,
and indicated a deadline of a further 4 weeks after today's Consultation Forum for additional
comments to be submitted.
After an initial first round of short interventions on generic issues, the main areas of the draft
document, and discussions points, would be organised according to the following structure:
o
o
o
o
o
15
Scope of the proposed regulation & exceptions
Definitions
Ecodesign requirements for small transformers
Requirements for distribution transformers
Requirements for pole mounted transformers
Annex 2.
I
o
o
o
o
o
o
Generic Issues
Requirements for power transformers (including a discussion on Total Cost of
Ownership analyses)
Product information requirements
Standardisation needs
Verification procedure
Other issues & potential loopholes
AOB
Comment (Anthony Walsh, Irish Electricity Board/ Eurelectric): Firstly, re. stakeholders
invited to the Consultation Forum, the European Commission should explicitly consider
inviting electricity utilities from Member States, plus Eurelectric. Secondly, have EU
regulating bodies received the draft proposals on "Ecodesign ENTR Lot 2 –
Transformers"? Thirdly, A. Walsh requests a period of more than four weeks to submit
feedback, owing to the need for prior internal/ Member State-level discussions.
Answer, CSG: (i, ii) – Utilities are not formally members of the Ecodesign Consultation
Forum, but this could and should be addressed as they are stakeholders with a legitimate
interest in the Ecodesign discussion on transformers. The Ecodesign Consultation
membership was officially "frozen" at the status of 2007 (iii) It would be better to adhere to
the four week deadline, wherever possible, in order to maintain the overall timeline for
ENTR Lot 2.
Specific Issues – Addressed Slide by Slide
Re. Slide 7 – Proposed Exceptions to the Regulation
CSG opens the floor for comments.
Comment (Paul Jarman, National Grid, UK & Michel Sacotte, T&D Europe):
Autotransformers are a simple means of increasing energy efficiency overall. Where
they could be used, they should be used, i.e., they should not be excluded.
Comment (Anthony Walsh, Irish Electricity Board/ Eurelectric): On the distribution side,
autotransformers are not normally used. Therefore, might it be useful to classify
transformers according to use by "utilities" and "non-utilities"? Technical point:
differences between a "line voltage restorer" (which compensates for very short
duration "sags" in voltage) and an "autotransformer". The numbers of line voltage
transformers are very low.
Comment (Angelo Baggini, University of Bergamo, Italy): (i) Autotransformers should be
included in the measure; (ii) Any exclusions might be better addressed regarding one
element of either power or function.
Comment (Hans Paul Siderius, Netherlands): (i) Supports above Italian comment, and would
prefer the scope to be determined by kVA; (ii) Regarding material efficiency and
resource efficiency aspects, the text should be amended to state that these issues are
II
significant, but that they are dealt with by the functioning of the transformers market
itself.
Comment (Anibal de Almeida, University of Coimbra, Portugal): Supports (i) kVA approach;
(ii) that autotransformers should not be excluded. Additionally, (iii) magnetic halogen
lighting transformers should not be excluded.
Regarding Slide 8 (Proposed Ecodesign Requirements) & Slide 9 (Proposed Definitions)
Comment (Paul Jarman, National Grid, UK): The use that a transformer is put to
dramatically affects its power during its lifetime, re. "load", and "on/off" usage.
Therefore, denoting definitions via "rating" vs. "type of use" might be problematic.
Regarding standards bodies, definitions via "rating" only would be preferred.
Comment (both representatives from T&D Europe): (i) For transformers in the range 1kVA
to 20 kVA, it is relatively easy to define losses. The current relevant EN & ISO standards
should be taken into consideration. (ii) For "large power transformers", these are more
specialised machines; T&D Europe suggests mapping their use and place in the market.
(iii) Re. recyclability, most transformers are close to 95% or even 100% recyclability, and
they are indeed recycled. (iv) 16.5 Hz transformers should be considered (point raised by
Sweden) - however, there is the need for a study regarding their volume and total
impact.
Comment (Marie Baton (CLASP), & Simonetta Fumagalli (ENEA, Italy)): Care needs to be
exercised to avoid double-regulation with other applicable regulations, including
Ecodesign (e.g., lighting transformers, and lamp control gear).
Summary (CSG): The overview conclusions seem to be to (i) exclude transformers of power
<1kVA; (ii) Keep the list of function-driven exemptions as short as possible; (iii) Transformers
are viewed as not being difficult to recycle - further comment on this would be appreciated
from the Schneider Electric colleagues, in writing, from their experience.
Regarding Slide 8, and Energy Labelling
Comment (Hans Paul Siderius, NL, Stamatis Sivitos, ECOS & Roman Targosz): All express
the opinion that business-to-business labelling could be useful, to indicate Best Available
Technologies (BAT), with regard to resource efficiency and recyclability as well as energy
performance.
Comment (Michael Scholand, CLASP): Labelling is probably not appropriate re. utilities
transformers, but is useful for "supply side", e.g., supply to buildings, at customer level.
Industry does perform labelling, in the form of "AO, BO, AK", etc, and suggests that for
ENTR Lot 2 the consideration for this Consultation Forum is whether a definition of
"better than AO" could be feasible.
Comment (T&D Europe, & Ireland): For the larger transformer products, market aspects
already ensure recycling. An investigation to examine where a useful "borderline" might
III
be drawn could be useful, re. the larger transformers being recycled, vs. smaller
transformers not being so successfully recycled.
Regarding Slide 9 (Proposed Definitions)
Comment (T&D Europe): Re. pole mounted transformers, the power rating should be 50315 kVA, because 50kVA is used in France for such transformers.
Comment (University of Bergamo, Italy): Additional size grouping definitions could be
usefully added, e.g., "medium power transformer", and "large/ very large power
transformer". This comment was opposed by the National Grid (UK), on the grounds
that all definitions should be aligned with standards.
Comment (Netherlands): The European Commission should explicitly include to all relevant
definitions in the Working Document, to assist consistency-checking.
Comment (ENEA, Italy?): Three groups could be considered: <36kVA, >36kVA and "very
high" (e.g., 1200kVA, etc).
CSG, Summary: There seem to be two classes of transformers: "Distribution", and "Large
Power". Regarding the 36kVA boundary issue, CSG asks Sweden to submit comments in
writing.
Regarding Slide 10 (Table with Proposed Ecodesign Requirements - Small Power Transformers)
Comment (NL & University of Bergamo): Owing to non-linearity, from 64kVA upwards,
interpolation instead of extrapolation should be required.
Comment (T&D Europe): Suggest adding 80 kVA and 100 kVA extra categories to the table.
Re. timeline, 2016 generally acceptable, but Tier 2 should be 2022, with respect to the
changes needed to implement these requirements.
CSG, Summary – Small Power Transformers: (i) The table will be extended to cover the
suggested two additional categories for 80kVA and 100kVA rating. (ii) DG ENTR would
appreciate contributions from stakeholders re. "rounding up" of figures. (iii) Interpolation
will be required, where necessary, rather than extrapolation.
Regarding Slide 11 (Table with Proposed Ecodesign Requirements – Distribution Transformers)
Comment (Anthony Walsh, Irish Electricity Board/ Eurelectric): The "Total Cost of
Ownership" model should be used, as kWh losses are proportional to the prices of the
electricity in each Member State. If higher investment is necessary for transformers,
other elements (e.g., circuits) may receive less investment. Loading patterns may change
according to both transformer types, and an increased renewables component. In
addition, the Tier 2 draft extra performance requirement of "-20%" in reality means that
a specific type of technology is being specified, and that technology is presently largely
available only outside the EU.
IV
Re. loading put on transformers, if, in certain areas, there is a high load, then utilities
would install a second transformer to cope with this higher load. The revised scenario
would mean that the average load per individual transformer would be lower over its
life.
Comment (Sweden): The ambition should be set higher, namely that the present "Stage 2"
should become "Stage 1". For stage 2 in 2018, SE is proposing losses of Ao(-40%) for all
categories in Table 2.
Comment (Hitachi EU): The values in the table can be achieved with technologies available
today. The timing therefore seems to be too slow, echoing Sweden's comment. AOBk is
needed, because the EU is lagging behind other regions, internationally, and the
timelines proposed should be strict, because of the inevitable additional time (over 2
years) for implementation to take place, for each Tier of ambition.
Comment (T&D Europe): (i) Disagrees with the above two comments, and asks that the
draft 2014/2018 timetable be changed to 2014 (Tier 1)/ 2020 (Tier 2). (ii) Re. losses,
Member State-specific frequencies should be taken into account. (iii) The Load factor
rather than "load losses" is more relevant. (iv) AOBk implies that the mass of the
transformers is increased, meaning more resources are required and so the price of the
transformer is likely to increase – how does this affect the overall life cycle impacts, re.
embedded energy in the additional metals?
Comment (CLASP Europe): Would like AOAk to be in Tier 1. Asks why Stage 2 does not
demand energy improvement regarding winding losses. CLASP contends that what the
Irish Electricity Board is asking for, via an approach to regulation less based on Minimum
Energy Performance Standards, is no better than the status quo, and may in fact be
worse than the status quo.
Comment (University of Bergamo): The "Total Cost of Ownership" (TCO) approach is not
mutually exclusive to the approach defining maximum losses. Legislation could define
level(s) of minimum losses. Then, a "TCO" approach could be applied by utilities above
these minima.
Comment (Sweden): (i) Ecodesign measures must put environmental and energy
requirements on products. (ii) Future-thinking is important, because new transformers
will be used in the grid typically for 40 years.
Question (Belgium Ministry): The TCO approach is useful, but there will be potentially
always missing information. Therefore, all variables need to be included in any "TCO"
approach. How may this be handled? Also, what about market surveillance and legal
measures?
Summary, CSG: (i) The economic figures from the preparatory study will be further explored
during the Impact Assessment phase now being commenced, for large power
transformers as well as distribution transformers. (ii) The ecodesign aim is that
proprietary technology should not be stipulated. (iii) Comments from other utilities, in
V
addition to those from the Irish Electricity Board, are sought, to attempt to get a wider
view from EU utilities. (iv)
It should be remembered that we are discussing product policy here. The Ecodesign
process is not designed to mandate public or private utilities how to conduct their
procurement process; therefore, it is important to identify and specify permitted
maximum losses to manufacturers, where possible. (v) It seems that not all of the
conclusions from the contractor of the preparatory study (VITO) are correct, re. the Bk/
Ck discussions. (vi) The level of ambition of a recently proposed US rulemaking at
present is in the region of "AOCk", allowing for frequency variations and other
differential parameters, etc. (vii) For Stage 1, from the discussions it seems that there is
no consensus. However, for Stage 2, there appears to be consensus on "(Ao -20%)Bk".
Comment (NL & CLASP): Disagree with point (vii) above. This consensual conclusion is
premature, and not ambitious enough.
Answer, CSG & KEM: (i) The aim is to define maxima and minima re. EU-wide parameters.
(ii) NL and CLASP comments are carefully noted. (iii) There are four more weeks in which to
submit comments, so nothing is finalised. (iv) The Impact Assessment is another stage
where all the facts and submissions, plus additional enquiries, will be taken into account/
initiated.
LUNCH BREAK.
Regarding Slide 12 – Proposed Requirements for Pole-Mounted Transformers
CSG introduced Slide 12 with the overview question: Do we need a pole-mounted category?
Is it a necessary sub-category?
Comment (T&D Europe): Option 2 is preferred; Option 1 has too many detailed
specifications. T&D will send comments in writing re. changes sought for Option 2
contents: amongst them is a request for a delay for Stage 2 from 2018 to 2020 (there
are important numbers of these devices in France, and more time is needed for
adaptation).
Comment (Anthony Walsh, Irish Electricity Board/ Eurelectric): Option 2 is to be favoured.
There are mass issues re. Option 1 in Ireland. Notes that 1.2 million poles are present in
Ireland, of which 10% have transformers on them. Emphasises that Ireland will still very
much need pole-mounted transformers after 2018.
Comment (T&D Europe): Invites Ireland to participate in the relevant CENELEC TC 14
Working Group, re. masses of pole mounted transformers.
Comment (NL): Also favours Option 2, on the grounds of being as technology-neutral as
possible.
Comment (CLASP, Polish Copper Promotion Centre, University of Bergamo): CLASP can
accept either Option 1 or Option 2, but comments that Option 2 losses should be
VI
stricter, as the requirements date from 1993. CLASP favours the Stage 2 phase-out of
the subcategory for pole-mounted transformers. Polish CPC also backs stricter
measures, citing stricter industry proposals from 5 years previously. University of
Bergamo: the values in the table are now out of scope in the EU since April 2012, apart
from the worst classes .
Comment (Sweden): favours combining Table 2 (Slide 11) with Table 3, Option 2 (Slide 12).
Comment (Hitachi, & Anthony Walsh, Ireland): Both seek clarification re. single-phase and
three-phase pole mounted transformers.
CSG – clarification: ALL the values in Tab le 3 (Slide 12) refer to three-phase transformers.
Comment (CLASP): Notes that the US Dept of Energy opted for an "LLCC" approach, and did
not make a separate pole-mounted category for transformers. This should be examined
within the Impact Assessment study for ENTR Lot 2.
Comment (Anthony Walsh, Ireland): Contends that the (current/ voltage?) load is not the
same in Ireland as it is in the USA; there are different wind speeds in Ireland, and
different loading on power/ cables.
CSG – Summary re. Pole-Mounted Transformers/ Distribution Transformers
 Ambition to be stepped up, as noted by stakeholders.
 For single-phase transformers, a separate table may be needed.
 Table 2 and Table 3 to be integrated; phasing out of pole-mounted category to be
examined during the IA.
Regarding Slides 13 & 14, and Slides 15-19 – Power Transformers
Comment (T&D Europe): A Position Paper has been sent to the Commission re. a "TOC"
approach (Total Cost of Ownership). In 3-4 months, T&D Europe hopes to compile a
"map" of utilities' behaviour and the real market situation of power transformers.
T&D Europe notes that the price of (electricity) energy varies considerably throughout
the EU, and may be more volatile in some MSs (citing a smaller amount of volatility in
FR, compared to IT & DE). Nordic countries have a "TOC" approach which is more
heavily-weighted towards energy costs.
Manufacturers are very willing to promote energy saving in the EU via stricter standards,
especially if this also ensures that jobs and technology development are maintained in
the EU.
Comment (UK): Option 2 is better, regarding minimum efficiency, based on TCO. This should
be agreed with CENELEC. Prefers TCO plus a minimum energy efficiency standard.
VII
Comment (SWE): Favours either Option 1 or 2. A solution that Sweden would support is to
set a price per kWh lost. This is set politically, in Sweden. This could be an interim
solution re. Ecodesign requirements.
Comment (Hitachi): Supports minimum efficiency measures. This could also be extended to
distribution transformers.
Comment (Polish CPC): Favours Option 2. However, does not agree with combining/
discussing together power transformers and distribution transformers., as a consensus
on using maximum losses for distribution transformers is very close.
Comment (University of Bergamo): Medium-sized transformers are more homogeneous.
Large transformers are more heterogeneous. Thus, owing to this lack of mass-scale
homogeneity, an approach similar to the Energy Performance of Buildings Directive
might be useful, i.e., assess each site on its own merits.
Comment (CLASP): Supports Option 2. Re. the role of CENELEC, comments that CENELEC's
role should be re. the equation and method for energy efficiency, but not the level of
efficiency stipulated in the ecodesign regulation.
CLASP supports the setting up of a Technical Committee/ Working Group, because in its
opinion, much of the information sought is actually available within organisations – it
just needs to be discussed meaningfully by relevant practitioners.
Comment (Oekopol): Supports Option 2, but timing must not be delayed. Rejects Option 3.
Comment (UK): Recommends examining the CENELEC and IEC available equations. Also
recommends extending the provisions for large transformers to those which are <36kV,
where loading makes this suitable/ necessary.
Comment (Anthony Walsh, Irish Electricity Board/ Eurelectric): Notes the absence of
distribution/ transmission stakeholders during today's discussions, and comments that
some design parameters of the electricity networks could have important ramifications
for transmission stakeholders. Another point is whether, and to what amount, the
effects of a higher proportion of renewables in the grid might have to be evaluated, re.
when excess electricity is available.
Summary – CSG:
 Cites the US use of load and non-load losses combined in a single formula for energy
efficiency, so it must be possible to do it.
 Option 2 – to try, for large power transformers. Aiming for Autumn 2012 solution
availability.
 Expert Group – to be convened, with limited numbers, and expert participants.
VIII
Regarding Slides 20-22 – Product Information Requirements, Standardisation Needs,
Verification Procedure (Annex IV)
Comment (Sweden, UK): Mineral oils in transformers, plus other fluids and gases. Need to
be addressed, re. fire precautions also, and care must be exercised not to make
technology-specific requirements in Ecodesign measures. UK: Care also is needed re.
definitions on declared losses, as opposed to measured losses or design losses..
Comment (DE, AT): Re. market surveillance, there might be more of an issue re. "putting
into service", rather than "placing on the market".
Summary, CSG: Notes that Special Small Powered Transformers are out of scope for specific
ecodesign requirements, but are in scope re. product information requirements. This
will be clarified in the draft regulation.
Notes that the "caution mark" is addressed to market surveillance authorities, as this is a
subcategory product with different provisions in the regulation.
Asks for clarification from stakeholders re. "plates" where losses are indicated, vis-à-vis
measured losses, and associated liabilities.
Comment (T&D Europe): "Declared value" should instead be termed "Guaranteed value".
Comment (NL): Re. B2B deals, "guaranteed value" is the term to be preferred, generally.
However, in ecodesign, the terminology would be "declared value", for one individual
transformer, rather than (e.g., in B2B contracts) the average performance over a batch.
Comment (University of Bergamo): The parameter rated power should be included as a
measured parameter in the verification procedure in order to avoid false declarations. A
value of 5% is considered reasonable as a tolerance for all measured parameters.
Summary – CSG: The phrase "on the nameplate" will be added to the sentence, re. Slide 22
specifications. Rated power will be included as a parameter and tolerances of 5% will be
specified.
Comment (Anthony Walsh, Ireland): Retrofitting – should be looked at, re. existing size
constraints in, e.g., the nacelle of a wind turbine, or an existing substation.
Comment (NL): Strong disagreement with the position of A.Walsh. Such potential
exemptions could create loopholes, which would render the whole Ecodesign process
meaningless for transformers. Such exemptions re. retrofitting taking into account sitespecific requirements etc, should only be allowed re. historic, listed buildings. See, for
example, the recent Air-conditioning Ecodesign Regulation, which did this.
Comment (Polish CPC): As the rate of refurbishment of transformers is low, especially where
transformers are aged over 20 years, a refurbishment maximum of 10 years could be
considered.
IX
Comment (UK, ?or UK National Grid?): Notes that the time period between specification
and construction for bespoke transformers can be over 1 year. Therefore, UK requests a
period of "stability" of 3-5 years, re. regulations in which specifications can be made, re.
losses and production requirements.
Second point (UK, and Polish CPC): "rated power" for larger transformers – care re.
definitions are needed. In the UK, there is a "base rating", and an "emergency rating".
This could be important in other MSs. "Emergency rating" is important re. over-loading,
in certain instances, as required.
Comment (Oekopol): Public procurement – GPP should link up with Ecodesign
requirements, to ensure a coherent approach.
Summary – CSG: (i) Asks for responses by 18 May (ii) Reminds stakeholders that he will
contact stakeholders re. their interest for participating in the Technical Group. (iii) Next
Ecodesign Consultation Forum will be held in Autumn 2012, which will hopefully be able to
take into account the recommendations of the Technical Group (point ii) by that time.
17.00: Close of meeting.
X
ANNEX 2: Commission Staff Working Document
Working document on a Commission Regulation implementing
Directive 2009/125/EC with regard to small, medium and large
power transformers
18/10/2012
Brussels
THE EUROPEAN COMMISSION,
Having regard to the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union,
Having regard to Directive 2009/125/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council
of 21 October 2009 establishing a framework for the setting of ecodesign requirements
for energy-related products ( 1 ) and in particular Article 15(1) thereof,
After consulting the Ecodesign Consultation Forum,
Whereas:
(1) The Commission has carried out a preparatory study which analysed the
environmental and economic aspects of transformers. The study has been
developed together with stakeholders and interested parties from the Community
and the results have been have made publicly available.
(2) The study showed that energy in the use phase is the most significant
environmental aspect which can be addressed through product design. Significant
amounts of raw materials (copper, iron) are used in the manufacturing of
transformers, but market mechanisms seem to be ensuring an adequate end-of-life
treatment, and therefore, for the time being, related mandatory ecodesign
requirements are not being set out.
(3) Mandatory ecodesign requirements apply to products placed on the market or put
into service wherever they are installed, therefore such requirements cannot be
made dependant on the application in which the product is used.
(4) Ecodesign requirements for the energy performance of medium power
transformers and for the energy efficiency of large power transformers should be
set with a view to harmonising ecodesign requirements for these devices
throughout the Community and contributing to the functioning of the internal
market and to the improvement of their environmental performance.
(5) This Regulation should increase the market penetration of technologies and
design options improving the energy performance of medium power transformers
and the energy efficiency of large power transformers. The cost-effective
improvement potential through design is about XX TWh per year in 2020, which
corresponds to XX Mt of C02 emissions (to be completed once requirements are
stable).
XI
(6) A staged entry into force of the ecodesign requirements should provide an
appropriate timeframe for manufacturers to redesign their products. The timing of
the stages should be set in such a way that cost impacts for manufacturers, in
particular SMEs, are taken into account, while ensuring timely achievement of the
policy objectives.
(7) In the procurement of medium and large power transformers, most end-users
(including public and private utilities and industrial site owners) perform loss
capitalisation calculations in order to determine the financially optimal levels of
energy losses. Wide variations in the estimates for wholesale electricity prices and
capital discount rates make it difficult for economic operators to compare design
options across Member States. End-users and manufacturers are therefore advised
to use reliable sources for the estimates of wholesale electricity prices, such as the
Statistics and Market observatory provided by the European Commission16.
(8) In order to facilitate compliance checks, manufacturers should be requested to
provide information in the technical documentation referred to in Annexes IV and
V to Directive 2009/125/EC.
Subject matter and scope
This working document pursuant to Directive 2009/125/EC establishes ecodesign
requirements related to small, medium and large power transformers with a minimum
power rating of 1 kVA used in 50Hz electricity transmission and distribution.
This Regulation shall not apply to the following categories of transformers:







Instrument transformers
Traction transformers on rolling stock
Starting transformers
Testing transformers
Welding transformers
Explosion-proof and underground mining transformers
Transformers for deep water (submerged) applications
Definitions
Transformers are considered as energy related products within the meaning of Article 2
(1) of Directive 2009/125/EC.
For the purpose of this working document and its annexes the following definitions shall
apply.
“Power transformer” means a static piece of apparatus with two or more windings which,
by electromagnetic induction, transforms a system of alternating voltage and
16
http://ec.europa.eu/energy/observatory/electricity/electricity_en.htm
XII
current into another system of alternating voltage and current usually of different
values and at the same frequency for the purpose of transmitting electrical power.
“General purpose small power transformer” means a power transformer with a highest
voltage for equipment not exceeding 1 kV..
“Medium power transformer” means a power transformer with a high voltage winding
with a rated voltage higher than 1 kV, but not exceeding 36 kV.
“Large power transformer” means a power transformer with a high voltage winding
having a rated voltage exceeding 36 kV.
“Liquid-immersed transformer” means a power transformer in which the magnetic circuit
and windings are immersed in liquid.
“Dry-type transformer” means a power transformer in which the magnetic circuit and
windings are not immersed in an insulating liquid.
“Pole mounted transformer” means a power transformer connected by open bushings
suitable for outdoor service and designed to be mounted on the support structures
of overhead power lines.
(1)
“Winding” refers to the assembly of turns forming an electrical circuit associated
with one of the voltages assigned to the transformer.
(2)
Rated voltage of a winding (Um) is the voltage assigned to be applied, or
developed at no-load, between the terminals of an untapped winding, or of a
tapped winding connected on the principal tapping.
(3)
“High-voltage winding” refers to the winding having the highest rated voltage.
(4)
“Rated power” (S) is a conventional value of apparent power assigned to a
winding which, together with the rated voltage of the winding, determines its
rated current.
(5)
“Load factor” means the ratio of energy supplied by a transformer during a given
period of time to the energy it would have supplied if it had been operating at its
maximum rated power for the same period of time.
(6)
“Load loss” (Pk) means the active power absorbed at rated frequency and
reference temperature associated with a pair of windings when the rated current
(tapping current) is flowing through the line terminal(s) of one of the windings
and the terminals of the other windings are in short-circuit with any winding fitted
with tappings connected to its principal tapping (any other windings, if existing,
are open-circuited).
(7)
“No load loss” (Po) means the active power absorbed at rated frequency when the
transformer is energised and the secondary circuit is open. The applied voltage is
the rated voltage, and if the energized winding is fitted with a tapping, it is
connected to its principal tapping.
Eco-design requirements
Energy losses in the use phase are by far the dominating environmental impact over the
lifecycle of transformers.
XIII
Products falling under the definitions of paragraph "Definitions" above shall meet the
ecodesign requirements set out in Annex I, including:

Minimum energy performance requirements for medium power transformers

Peak efficiency requirements for large power transformers

Product information requirements
Form of the Implementing measure
The Commission intends to propose a directly applicable Implementing Regulation under
Directive 2009/125/EC. The proposed Regulation is not expected to have a particular
impact on the EU acquis. There are no overlaps with other Ecodesign regulations, as far
as is known.
Conformity Assessment
A conformity assessment shall be carried out according to Chapter 8 of Directive
2009/125/EC, Annex IV (Internal design control) or Annex V (Management system for
assessing conformity).
Verification procedure for market surveillance purposes
When performing the market surveillance checks referred to in Directive 2009/125/EC,
Chapter 3 (2), Member State authorities shall apply the verification procedure set out in
Annex III.
Benchmarks
The indicative benchmarks for the best available technology currently available on the
market are identified in Annex IV.
Revision
No later than six years after entry into force of this Regulation, the Commission shall
review it in the light of technological progress and present the results of this review to the
Consultation Forum.
Entry into force
The Regulation shall enter into force on the 20th day following its publication in the
Official Journal of the European Union.
The requirements set out in Annex I shall apply in accordance with the timetable
provided for therein.
XIV
Annex I: Ecodesign requirements
a) Specific requirements for general purpose small power transformers
The minimum energy performance requirements for small power transformers consist of
maximum allowed load and no-load losses given in Table I.1.
Table I.1: Maximum load and no-load losses requirements for general purpose
small power transformers
Tier 1 (1 July 2014)
Maximum
Rating (S) (kVA) Maximum
no-load
load losses
losses (W)*
(W)*
25
100
1
55
200
4
Tier 2 (1 July 2018)
Maximum noMaximum
load losses (W)* load losses
(W)*
21
85
45
170
16
110
400
90
340
32
165
600
135
510
64
220
800
180
680
80
285
1025
230
875
100
345
1245
280
1060
*Maximum losses for kVA ratings that fall in between the ratings in Table I.1 shall be obtained
by linear interpolation. Maximum losses for kVA ratings that fall outside the ratings in Table I.1
shall be obtained by linear extrapolation.
XV
b) Specific requirements for medium power transformers
The minimum energy performance requirements for medium power transformers consist
of maximum allowed load and no-load losses given in Tables I.2 to I.7
b.1) Specific requirements for medium power transformers with rated power
<4000kVA
Table I.2: Maximum load and no-load losses for liquid-immersed medium power
transformers with the high-voltage winding rated ≤ 24 kV and the other winding rated ≤
1,1 kV
Tier 1 (from 1 July 2014)
RATED
POWER (kVA)
Short-circuit
impedance in ()
Maximum load losses (in
Watts) *
Tier 2 (from 1 July 2018)
Maximum no-load losses
(in Watts)*
Pole
mounted
Pole mounted
Maximum load
losses (inWatts)*
Maximum no-load
losses (in Watts)*
(Pole mounted sub-category disappears)
25 (4%)
Bk(725)
Ao(70)
Ao(70)
Ak(600)
Ao-20%(56)
50 (4%)
Bk(875)
Ao(90)
Ao(90)
Ak(750)
Ao-20%(72)
100 (4%)
Bk(1250)
Ao(145)
Ao(145)
Ak(1250)
Ao-20%(116)
Ao(210)
Ao(210)
Ak(1750)
Ao-20%(168)
160 (4%)
Bk(2000)
Ck+32%(3100)**
250 (4%)
Bk(2750)
Ao(300)
Co(425)**
Ak(2350)
Ao-20%(240)
315 (4%)
Bk(3250)
Ao(360)
Co(520)**
Ak(2800)
Ao-20%(288)
400 (4%)
Bk(3850)
Ao(430)
Ak(3250)
Ao-20%(344)
500 (4%)
Bk(4600)
Ao(510)
Ak(3900)
Ao-20%(408)
630 (4%)
Bk(5400)
Ao(600)
Ak(4600)
Ao-20%(480)
800 (6%)
Ak(6000)
Ao(650)
Ak(6000)
Ao-20%(520)
1000 (6%)
Ak(7600)
Ao(770)
Ak(7600)
Ao-20% (616)
1250 (6%)
Ak(9500)
Ao(950)
Ak(9500)
Ao-20%(760)
1600 (6%)
Ak(12000)
Ao(1200)
Ak(12000)
Ao-20%(960)
2000(6%)
Ak(15000)
Ao(1450)
Ak(15000)
Ao-20%(1160)
2500(6%)
Ak(18500)
Ao(1750)
Ak(18500)
Ao-20%(1400)
3150(6%)
Ak(23000)
Ao(2200)
Ak(23000)
Ao-20%(1760)
*Maximum losses for kVA ratings that fall in between the ratings given in Table I.2 shall be
obtained by linear interpolation. Maximum losses for kVA ratings falling outside those given in
this table shall be obtained by exponential extrapolation with exponent 0,75.
** These levels of load and no load losses represent concessions made because of the weight
limitations for mounting transformers on poles. In order to avoid misuse of transformers
specifically manufactured for pole-mounted operation, they should include a visible display “For
pole-mounted operation only”, so as to facilitate the work of national market surveillance
authorities.
XVI
Table I.3: Maximum load and no-load losses for dry-type medium power transformers
with the high-voltage winding rated ≤ 24 kV and the other winding rated ≤ 1,1kV
Tier 1 (1 July 2014)
Tier 2 (1 July 2018)
RATED POWER (kVA)
Short-circuit impedance
6%
Maximum load losses
(in Watts)*
Maximum no-load
losses (in Watts)*
Maximum load losses
(in Watts)*
Maximum no-load
losses (in Watts)*
50
Ak(1500)
Ao(200)
Ak(1500)
Ao-20%(160)
100
Ak(1800)
Ao(280)
Ak(1800)
Ao-20%(224)
160
Ak(2600)
Ao(400)
Ak(2600)
Ao-20%(320)
250
Ak(3400)
Ao(520)
Ak(3400)
Ao-20%(416)
400
Ak(4500)
Ao(750)
Ak(4500)
Ao-20%(600)
630
Ak(7100)
Ao(1100)
Ak(7100)
Ao-20%(880)
800
Ak(8000)
Ao(1300)
Ak(8000)
Ao-20%(1040)
1000
Ak(9000)
Ao(1550)
Ak(9000)
Ao-20%(1240)
1250
Ak(11000)
Ao(1800)
Ak(11000)
Ao-20%(1440)
1600
Ak(13000)
Ao(2200)
Ak(13000)
Ao-20%(1760)
2000
Ak(16000)
Ao(2600)
Ak(16000)
Ao-20%(2080)
2500
Ak(19000)
Ao(3100)
Ak(19000)
Ao-20%(2480)
3150
Ak(22000)
Ao(3800)
Ak(22000)
Ao-20%(3040)
*Maximum losses for kVA ratings that fall in between the ratings given in Table I.3 shall be
obtained by linear interpolation. Maximum losses for kVA ratings falling outside those given in
this table shall be obtained by exponential extrapolation with exponent 0,75.
Table I.4: Maximum load and no-load losses for other combinations of winding voltages
(rated power < 4000kVA)
One winding with Um ≤ 24 kV and the other with
Um > 1,1 kV
The levels of losses indicated in Tables I.2 and I.3 can be increased by 10% for
no load losses and by 10% for load losses
One winding with Um = 36 kV and the other with
Um ≤ 1,1 kV
The levels of losses indicated in Tables I.2 and I.3 can be increased by 15% for
no load losses and by 10% for load losses
One winding with Um = 36 kV and the other with
Um > 1,1 kV
The levels of losses indicated in Tables I.2 and I.3 can be increased by 20% for
no load losses and by 15% for load losses
Case of dual voltage on the same winding
The levels of losses indicated in Tables I.2 and I.3 can be increased by 15% for
no load losses and by 10% for load losses in case of one dual voltage on one
winding
Case of dual voltage on both windings
The levels of losses indicated in Tables I.2 and I.3 can be increased by 25% for
no load losses and by 25% for load losses in case of dual voltage on both
windings (the level of losses for this kind of transformer is given on higher
voltage)
XVII
b.2) Specific requirements for medium power transformers with rated power
≥4000kVA
Table I.5: Maximum load and no-load losses for liquid immersed medium power
transformers with the high-voltage winding rated ≤ 24 kV and the other winding rated ≥
1,1 kV
Tier 1 (1 July 2014)
Tier 2 (1 July 2018)
RATED
POWER
(kVA)
Short-circuit
impedance (%)
Maximum load
losses (in Watts)*
Maximum no-load
losses (in Watts)*
Maximum load
losses (in Watts)*
Maximum no-load
losses (in Watts)*
4000
8-10
Ak(30000)
Ao(2800)
Ak(30000)
Ao-20%(2240)
5000
8-10
Ak(33000)
Ao(3300)
Ak(33000)
Ao-20%(2640)
6300
8-10
Ak(37000)
Ao(4000)
Ak(37000)
Ao-20%(3200)
8000
8-10
Ak(42000)
Ao(4800)
Ak(42000)
Ao-20%(3840)
10000
8-10
Ak(48000)
Ao(5800)
Ak(48000)
Ao-20%(4640)
12500
9-11
Ak(55000)
Ao(7000)
Ak(55000)
Ao-20%(5600)
16000
9-11
Ak(66000)
Ao(8500)
Ak(66000)
Ao-20%(6800)
20000
9-11
Ak(78000)
Ao(10500)
Ak(78000)
Ao-20%(8400)
25000
9-12
Ak(92000)
Ao(13000)
Ak(92000)
Ao-20%(10400)
31500
9-12
Ak(112000)
Ao(16000)
Ak(112000)
Ao-20%(12800)
36000
9-12
Ak(125000)
Ao(18000)
Ak(125000)
Ao-20%(14400)
40000
9-12
Ak(136000)
Ao(20000)
Ak(136000)
Ao-20%(16000)
*Maximum losses for kVA ratings that fall in between the ratings given in Table I.5 shall be
obtained by linear interpolation. Maximum losses for kVA ratings falling outside those given in
this table shall be obtained by exponential extrapolation with exponent 0,75.
Table I.6: Maximum load and no-load losses for dry type medium power transformers
with the high-voltage winding rated above 1,1 kV but below 24 kV and the other winding
rated ≥ 1,1kV
Tier 1 (1 July 2014)
Tier 2 (1 July 2018)
RATED
POWER
(kVA)
Short-circuit
impedance (%)
Maximum load
losses (in Watts)*
Maximum no-load
losses (in Watts)*
Maximum load
losses (in Watts)*
Maximum no-load
losses (in Watts)*
4000
7
Ak(28000)
Ao(5000)
Ak(28000)
Ao-20%(4000)
5000
8
Ak(35000)
Ao(6000)
Ak(35000)
Ao-20%(4800)
6300
8
Ak(44000)
Ao(7500)
Ak(44000)
Ao-20%(6000)
8000
8
Ak(55000)
Ao(9500)
Ak(55000)
Ao-20%(7600)
10000
8
Ak(68000)
Ao(12000)
Ak(68000)
Ao-20%(9600)
*Maximum losses for kVA ratings that fall in between the ratings given in Table I.6 shall be
obtained by linear interpolation. Maximum losses for kVA ratings falling outside those given in
this table shall be obtained by exponential extrapolation with exponent 0,75.
XVIII
Table I.7: Maximum load and no-load losses for medium power transformers with other
combinations of winding voltages (rated power > 4000kVA)
One winding with Um = 36 kV and the other one
with 1,1 kV < Um ≤ 24 kV
The levels of losses indicated in Tables I.5 and I.6 can be increased by 15%
for no load losses and by 10% for load losses
Both windings with 24 kV < Um ≤ 36 kV
The levels of losses indicated in Tables I.5 and I.6 can be increased by 25%
for no load losses and by 15% for load losses
b.3) Specific requirements for medium power transformers with other
characteristics
b.3.1) Load and no load losses for transformers equipped with tapping +/-5%
When transformers are equipped with tap changers, the levels of load and no load losses
in the relevant table of this Annex I, can be increased by 10%.
XIX
c) Specific requirements for large power transformers (>36kV)
The minimum peak energy efficiency requirements for large power transformers are set
out in Table I.8. The methodology for calculating the peak energy efficiency is available
in Annex II.
Table I.8 Minimum peak energy efficiency requirements for large power transformers
RATED POWER (kVA)
Tier 1 (1 July 2014)
Tier 2 (1 July 2018)
η max (%) *
η max (%) *
4000
5000
10000
25000
40000
50000
80000
100000
150000
250000
350000
*Minimum peak efficiency levels for kVA ratings that fall in between the ratings given in this
table shall be obtained by linear interpolation. Minimum peak efficiency levels for kVA ratings
falling outside those given in this table shall be obtained by exponential extrapolation with
exponent 0,75.
The Technical Subgroup on Large Power Transformers will present to the Ecodesign
Consultation Forum options to be considered for setting out mandatory minimum peak
efficiency requirements.
XX
d) Product information requirements
From 01.07.2014 the following product information requirements apply:
(1)
Information on rated power, load loss17 and no-load loss18 and the electrical power
of any cooling system required at no load shall be mandatory in any related
product documentation, as well as on the transformer’s rating plate.
(2)
For large power transformers, the peak efficiency and the power at which it occurs
shall be marked on the rating plate.
(3)
Information on the weight of all the main components of a transformer (including
the conductor, the nature of the conductor and the core material) shall be
mandatory in any related product documentation.
(4)
Special small power purpose transformers with well defined target applications
shall have their application identified in any related product documentation and
shall include the ISO caution mark to read the product documentation.
(5)
Pole mounted distribution transformers as defined in this Regulation shall have
their application mentioned in any related product documentation and shall
include the ISO caution mark to read their documentation. In order to avoid
misuse of transformers specifically manufactured for pole-mounted operation,
they should also include a visible display “For pole-mounted operation only”, so
as to facilitate the work of national market surveillance authorities.
17 17
Corrected to reference temperature
XXI
Annex II: Measurement methods
1. For the purpose of compliance with the requirements of this Regulation, measurements
shall be made using a reliable, accurate and reproducible measurement procedure, which
takes into account the generally recognised state of the art measurement methods,
including methods set out in documents the reference numbers of which have been
published for that purpose in the Official Journal of the European Union.
A European Standard EN xxxx for “Three-phase medium voltage transformers 50Hz,
with highest voltage for equipment not exceeding 36 kV” is likely to be voted by
CENELEC in the next six months. This European Standard should then become a
harmonized standard) in support of this Ecodesign Regulation (through the publication
of its reference in the OJEU) by the time it has been adopted.
2. Calculation method for the energy efficiency η
max of
large power transformers.
The methodology for calculating the energy efficiency of a specific transformer is based
on the load and no load losses that occur at the operation point of maximum efficiency.
The formula includes the apparent power at which the losses are measured.
where
Po is the no load losses (*)
Pco is the electrical power required by the cooling system for no load operation
Pk is the load losses(*) corrected to reference temperature(**)
Sr is the (apparent) rated power of the transformer at which Pk is measured.
(*)
(**)
measured at rated voltage and rated frequency, on the rated (nominal?) tap
as defined in EN IEC 60076-1:2011
XXII
Annex III: Verification procedure for market surveillance
purposes
When performing the market surveillance checks referred to in Article 3(2) of Directive
2009/125/EC, the authorities of the Member States shal apply the following verification
procedure for the requierements set out in Annex I.
1. The authorities of the Member State shall test one single unit
2. The model shall be considered to comply with the povisions set out in this
Regulation if the measured parameters meet the values declared by the supplier
within the ranges set out in Table 1
3. If the result referred to in point 2 is not achieved:
− For models that are produced in lower quantities than x per year, the model shall
be considered not to comply with this Regulation
− For models that are produced in quantities of x or more per year, the market
surveillace authority shall randomly test x additional units
4. The model shall be considered to comply with the provisions set out in this
Regulation if the averages of all the measured parameters referred to in Table 1
do not vary from the values set out in Annex I by more than 5%
5. If the results referred to in point 4 are not achieved, the model shall be
considered not to comply with this Regulation.
For the pruposes of checking conformity with the requierements of this Regulation,
Member States authorities shall use reliable, accurate and reproducible measurement
procedures, which take into account the generally recognised state-of-the-art
measurement methods, including methods set out in documents the reference numbers of
which have been published for that purpose in the Official Journal of the European
Union.
Table 1.
Measured parameter
Load losses
No load losses
Verification tolerances
The measured value shall not be greater
than the declared value by more than 5 %.
The measured value shall not be greater
than the declared value by more than 5 %.
XXIII
Annex IV: Indicative benchmarks
At the time of adoption of this Regulation, the best available technology widely available
in the EU market for the products concerned has been identified as follows:
- Liquid-immersed medium power transformer: No-load losses Ao-20%, load losses Ak20%
- Dry-type medium power transformer: No-load losses Ao-20%, load losses Ak-20%
The Commission seeks confirmation from stakeholders as to whether the above
benchmarks identified in the preparatory study and the impact assessment study are
adequate.
XXIV
ANNEX 3: Structure of the methodology used for establishing the
technical, environmental and economic analysis
Following the "Methodology Study Eco-design of Energy Using Products" ("MEEuP"), the
tasks listed below are carried out for developing the technical, environmental and economic
analysis referred to in Annex II of the Ecodesign Directive:
Task 1: Definition
Task 2: Economic and market analysis
Task3: User Behaviour
Task 4: Assessment of Base-Case
Task 5: Technical Analysis BAT and BNAT
Task 6: Improvement Potential
Task 7: Policy and Impact Analysis
ANNEX 4: Methodology to Calculate the Life Cycle Cost (LCC)
XXV
The methodology followed was based on a wide range of core and coil losses for each
transformer analysed, including from the highest allowable level (usually Co and Ck) to a point
beyond the most efficient levels (i.e., called Ao and Ak). The combinations of core and coil losses
combine to create several combinations of Po and Pk. For each combination, the kWh/year
consumed is calculated, along with the Life Cycle Cost (LCC) of those losses. Then, the cost of the
transformer is calculated for each design based on the equation associated with a curve‐fit of
the Preparatory Study designs. Finally, with first cost and operating cost known, the respective
LCC is calculated for the entire matrix of designs.
The following text discusses the steps involved in more detail:
1. Establishing the Range of Losses: each of the base case transformers analysed has a
range of losses that are given in the Preparatory Study. The spreadsheet starts with the
least efficient design, which constitutes the baseline unit for analysis, and then extends
out to lower maximum loss levels until the A0 and Ak levels are surpassed. Going
beyond the A0, Ak level (A0-20% and Ak-20%) is important because it offers some
insight into the economics of models slightly above the highest conventional levels
considered in the Preparatory Study.
2. Calculate kWh/year consumption: given the known losses for the transformer (P0, Pk), it
is known that the P0 losses will be occurring 8.760 hours per year, thus those can be
deducted from the kWh/year total consumption reported in the Preparatory Study. The
remaining kWh/year is then divided by Pk, and a constant is derived, which is a function
of the transformer loading determined by VITO for the Preparatory Study.
3. Calculate purchase price of the transformer: each of the Preparatory Study designs is
plotted on a graph showing purchase price over kWh/year of energy consumption. This
metric is used for the X‐axis because it takes into account both P0 and Pk, as well as the
embedded assumptions about average loading. A curve is fit to those data, using either
a 2nd or 3rd order polynomial or exponential equation, which is a function of the
kWh/year losses. The equation is then multiplied by the different kWh/year calculated
for each P0, Pk combination to estimate a price for each of the designs.
4. Calculate LCC of operating costs: the LCC of operating the transformer can be calculated
by multiplying the different kWh/year calculated for each P0, Pk combination with the
energy prices and adding to this result the purchase price of transformer.
5. Calculate the LCC relative to the baseline model and provide colour coding: the
LCC is then derived by summing together the purchase price and the operating LCC,
resulting in a total LCC for the transformer.
XXVI
In order to perform these calculations for the base case models, there are certain key data
points taken from the Preparatory Study that drive the whole simplified LCC model. The
following key data points are given in Chapter 6 of the Preparatory Study for each base case unit
and each of the more efficient designs prepared at that same kVA rating:

Maximum watts of core loss (P0);

Maximum watts of coil loss (Pk);

Annual energy consumption from the transformer (kWh/year);

Price of the transformer (Euro);

Total electricity cost (Euro/year);

LCC for the lifetime of the transformer.

Polynomial fit-curve overlays used to estimate the purchase price of each transformer
design
-BC1
-BC2
XXVII
-BC3
-BC4
XXVIII
-BC5
XXIX
-BC6
-BC7
XXX
ANNEX 5: Sensitive Analysis Tables
BC1
LIFE CYCLE COST
D0
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
4600
Ck
13606
12581
12368
12502
12689
12809
12956
Price Energy- Min (€)
3850 3250 2925 2763
Bk
Ak Ak-10% Ak-15%
13370 13200 13114 13073
12490 12435 12412 12402
12369 12389 12406 12416
12597 12690 12747 12778
12828 12957 13033 13073
12970 13116 13202 13246
13139 13303 13399 13448
2600
Ak-20%
13033
12394
12427
12809
13114
13292
13499
D0
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
4600
Ck
20877
18718
17775
17180
17019
16969
16937
Price Energy - Base (€)
3850 3250 2925 2763
Bk
Ak Ak-10% Ak-15%
20448 20122 19952 19869
18433 18222 18115 18063
17582 17446 17379 17347
17080 17018 16991 16979
16963 16936 16929 16926
16935 16925 16927 16929
16925 16934 16946 16953
2600
Ak-20%
19786
18012
17316
16969
16925
16933
16962
D0
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
4600
Ck
28149
24855
23183
21858
21348
21128
20917
Price Energy - Max (€)
3850 3250 2925 2763
Bk
Ak Ak-10% Ak-15%
27525 27043 26789 26664
24375 24009 23818 23724
22795 22504 22352 22278
21564 21346 21235 21181
21098 20916 20824 20780
20899 20735 20652 20612
20712 20565 20492 20458
2600
Ak-20%
26540
23631
22205
21128
20736
20574
20424
W
750
610
520
430
387
366
344
W
750
610
520
430
387
366
344
W
750
610
520
430
387
366
344
ENERGY LOSSES
D0
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
4600
Ck
7143
5916
5128
4340
3963
3779
3586
Total Losses - Min (kWh)
3850 3250 2925
2763
2600
Bk
Ak Ak-10% Ak-15% Ak-20%
7049 6975 6934
6914
6894
5823 5748 5708
5688
5667
5035 4960 4919
4899
4879
4246 4171 4131
4111
4091
3869 3795 3754
3734
3714
3686 3611 3570
3550
3530
3493 3418 3378
3357
3337
D0
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
4600
Ck
7859
6632
5844
5056
4679
4495
4302
Total Losses - Base (kWh)
3850 3250 2925
2763
2600
Bk
Ak Ak-10% Ak-15% Ak-20%
7649 7481 7389
7344
7298
6422 6254 6163
6118
6072
5634 5466 5375
5329
5284
4845 4677 4586
4541
4495
4469 4301 4210
4164
4119
4285 4117 4026
3980
3935
4092 3924 3833
3788
3742
D0
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
4600
Ck
11725
10498
9710
8922
8545
8361
8168
Total Losses - Max (kWh)
3850 3250 2925
2763
2600
Bk
Ak Ak-10% Ak-15% Ak-20%
10884 10212 9848
9666
9484
9658 8986 8621
8440
8257
8870 8197 7833
7651
7469
8081 7409 7045
6863
6680
7705 7032 6668
6486
6304
7521 6848 6484
6302
6120
7328 6655 6291
6110
5927
W
750
610
520
430
387
366
344
W
750
610
520
430
387
366
344
W
750
610
520
430
387
366
344
XXXI
BC2
LIFE CYCLE COST
E0
D0
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
13000
Dk
32215
30928
29493
28782
28142
27907
27806
27714
10500
Ck
30768
29337
28130
27693
27459
27448
27466
27503
Price Energy- Min (€)
9000 7600 6840
Bk
Ak Ak-10%
29805 28949 28531
28486 27869 27636
27614 27445 27508
27447 27601 27870
27570 28133 28654
27744 28514 29161
27859 28736 29449
27998 28989 29770
6460
Ak-15%
28340
27551
27586
28058
28977
29551
29872
30231
6080
Ak-20%
28163
27490
27698
28284
29343
29986
30344
30739
E0
D0
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
13000
Dk
54192
50985
47631
45897
44169
43441
43097
42756
10500
Ck
50610
47260
44133
42673
41352
40847
40623
40410
Price Energy - Base (€)
9000 7600 6840
Bk
Ak Ak-10%
48366 46315 45248
45128 43316 42433
42337 40972 40386
41146 40105 39724
40181 39549 39421
39862 39437 39435
39734 39416 39480
39624 39420 39552
6460
Ak-15%
44732
42024
40140
39588
39419
39500
39579
39688
6080
Ak-20%
44231
41638
39927
39490
39461
39611
39726
39872
E0
D0
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
13000
Dk
76169
71043
65769
63011
60196
58975
58388
57797
10500
Ck
70452
65182
60137
57652
55244
54247
53779
53317
Price Energy - Max (€)
9000 7600 6840
Bk
Ak Ak-10%
66927 63680 61965
61770 58762 57231
57059 54499 53264
54845 52608 51579
52793 50965 50188
51981 50360 49709
51610 50096 49511
51250 49850 49334
6460
Ak-15%
61125
56497
52694
51118
49861
49450
49286
49145
6080
Ak-20%
60299
55787
52156
50695
49579
49237
49108
49005
W
1700
1400
1100
940
770
693
655
616
W
1700
1400
1100
940
770
693
655
616
W
1700
1400
1100
940
770
693
655
616
ENERGY LOSSES
E0
D0
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
13000
Dk
18692
16064
13436
12034
10545
9871
9538
9196
10500
Ck
17961
15333
12705
11304
9814
9140
8807
8465
Total Losses - Min (kWh)
9000 7600 6840
Bk
Ak Ak-10%
17523 17113 16891
14895 14485 14263
12267 11857 11635
10865 10456 10234
9376 8967 8745
8701 8292 8070
8368 7959 7737
8027 7618 7395
6460
Ak-15%
16780
14152
11524
10123
8633
7959
7626
7284
6080
Ak-20%
16669
14041
11413
10012
8522
7848
7515
7173
E0
D0
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
13000
Dk
30091
27463
24835
23434
21945
21270
20937
20596
10500
Ck
27168
24540
21912
20511
19022
18347
18014
17673
Total Losses - Base (kWh)
9000 7600 6840
Bk
Ak Ak-10%
25415 23778 22889
22787 21150 20261
20159 18522 17633
18757 17120 16232
17268 15631 14742
16593 14956 14068
16260 14624 13735
15919 14282 13393
6460
Ak-15%
22445
19817
17189
15787
14298
13624
13291
12949
6080
Ak-20%
22001
19373
16745
15343
13854
13179
12846
12505
E0
D0
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
13000
Dk
41913
39285
36657
35256
33766
33092
32759
32417
10500
Ck
36717
34089
31461
30059
28570
27895
27563
27221
Total Losses - Max (kWh)
9000 7600 6840
Bk
Ak Ak-10%
33599 30689 29109
30971 28061 26481
28343 25433 23853
26941 24031 22452
25452 22542 20962
24778 21868 20288
24445 21535 19955
24103 21193 19613
6460
Ak-15%
28319
25691
23063
21662
20173
19498
19165
18824
6080
Ak-20%
27530
24902
22274
20872
19383
18708
18375
18034
W
1700
1400
1100
940
770
693
655
616
W
1700
1400
1100
940
770
693
655
616
W
1700
1400
1100
940
770
693
655
616
XXXII
BC3
LIFE CYCLE COST
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
13000
Bk
59493
59463
59750
59866
59241
58632
Price Energy- Min (€)
11000
9900
9350
8800
Ak
Ak-10% Ak-15% Ak-20%
59366 59357 59369 59391
59709 59905 60020 60145
60156 60440 60599 60768
60369 60706 60890 61086
59791 60155 60353 60561
59230 59620 59831 60053
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
13000
Bk
91609
86622
84784
83484
81442
79417
Price Energy - Base (€)
11000
9900
9350
8800
Ak
Ak-10% Ak-15% Ak-20%
89592 88543 88035 87537
84978 84134 83728 83334
83300 82544 82183 81832
82096 81394 81058 80734
80102 79426 79104 78793
78125 77475 77166 76868
13000
Bk
123725
113780
109818
107102
103644
100202
Price Energy - Base (€)
11000
9900
9350
Ak
Ak-10% Ak-15%
119817 117729 116700
110246 108363 107437
106444 104648 103767
103824 102081 101226
100414 98698 97856
97020 95330 94501
W
2800
2100
1800
1620
1530
1440
W
2800
2100
1800
1620
1530
1440
W
2800
2100
1800
1620
1530
1440
ENERGY LOSSES
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
8800
Ak-20%
115683
106522
102896
100382
97025
93684
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
13000
Bk
28328
22196
19568
17816
16064
14312
Total Losses - Min (kWh)
11000
9900
9350
8800
Ak
Ak-10% Ak-15% Ak-20%
27743 27422 27261 27100
21611 21290 21129 20968
18983 18662 18501 18340
17231 16910 16749 16588
15479 15158 14997 14836
13727 13406 13245 13084
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
13000
Bk
39727
33595
30967
29215
27463
25711
Total Losses - Min (kWh)
11000
9900
9350
8800
Ak
Ak-10% Ak-15% Ak-20%
37389 36103 35460 34817
31257 29971 29328 28685
28629 27343 26700 26057
26877 25591 24948 24305
25125 23839 23196 22553
23373 22087 21444 20801
13000
Bk
51549
45417
42789
41037
39285
37533
Total Losses - Min (kWh)
11000
9900
9350
8800
Ak
Ak-10% Ak-15% Ak-20%
47392 45106 43962 42819
41260 38974 37830 36687
38632 36346 35202 34059
36880 34594 33450 32307
35128 32842 31698 30555
33376 31090 29946 28803
W
2800
2100
1800
1620
1530
1440
W
2800
2100
1800
1620
1530
1440
W
2800
2100
1800
1620
1530
1440
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
XXXIII
BC4
P0-41
P0-34
P0-28
P0-20
Load factor - Min (kWh)
326000
277100
Pk-326
Pk-277
519272
494598
466055
441381
412838
388164
341882
317208
P0-41
P0-34
P0-28
P0-20
Load factor - Base (kWh)
326000
277100
228200
Pk-326
Pk-277
Pk-228
724886
669371 613855
671669
616154 560638
618452
562937 507421
547496
491981 436465
P0-41
P0-34
P0-28
P0-20
Load factor - Max (kWh)
326000
277100
228200
Pk-326
Pk-277
Pk-228
1382854
1228643 1074432
1329637
1175426 1021215
1276420
1122209 967998
1205464
1051253 897042
P0-41
P0-34
P0-28
P0-20
Electricity Price-Min (€)
326000
277100
Pk-326
Pk-277
724886
669371
671669
616154
618452
562937
547496
491981
P0-41
P0-34
P0-28
P0-20
Electricity Price-Max (€)
326000
277100
228200
Pk-326
Pk-277
Pk-228
724886
669371 613855
671669
616154 560638
618452
562937 507421
547496
491981 436465
W
40500
34425
28350
20250
W
40500
34425
28350
20250
W
40500
34425
28350
20250
W
40500
34425
28350
20250
W
40500
34425
28350
20250
LCC
228200
Pk-228
469924
416707
363490
292534
228200
Pk-228
613855
560638
507421
436465
P0-41
P0-34
P0-28
P0-20
Load factor - Min (kWh)
326000
277100
Pk-326
Pk-277
1192850
1200180
1239363
1294026
1390974
1492969
1756606
1921711
P0-41
P0-34
P0-28
P0-20
Load factor - Base (kWh)
326000
277100
228200
Pk-326
Pk-277
Pk-228
1370625
1351288 1356490
1417138
1445134 1500160
1568749
1644077 1748927
1934380
2072819 2244101
P0-41
P0-34
P0-28
P0-20
Load factor - Max (kWh)
326000
277100
228200
Pk-326
Pk-277
Pk-228
1939504
1834836 1754706
1986017
1928682 1898375
2137628
2127625 2147142
2503260
2556367 2642316
P0-41
P0-34
P0-28
P0-20
Electricity Price-Min (€)
326000
277100
Pk-326
Pk-277
1182603
1177666
1242920
1285316
1408334
1498063
1792370
1945209
P0-41
P0-34
P0-28
P0-20
Electricity Price-Max (€)
326000
277100
228200
Pk-326
Pk-277
Pk-228
1683994
1640658 1621860
1707501
1711498 1742524
1836106
1887435 1968285
2171064
2285503 2432785
W
40500
34425
28350
20250
W
40500
34425
28350
20250
W
40500
34425
28350
20250
W
40500
34425
28350
20250
W
40500
34425
28350
20250
XXXIV
228200
Pk-228
1232048
1375717
1624484
2119658
228200
Pk-228
1197268
1354741
1617312
2130890
BC5
E0
C0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
Annual Energy losses
Load factor - Min (kWh)
21000
15000
13500
12750
12000
Ck
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
Ak-20%
38654
35369
34547
34137
33726
29894
26609
25787
25377
24966
24200
20915
20093
19683
19272
22929
19644
18823
18412
18002
22294
19009
18188
17777
17367
21659
18374
17553
17142
16732
E0
C0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
21000
Ck
59094
50334
44640
43369
42734
42099
Load factor - Base (kWh)
15000
13500
12750
12000
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
Ak-20%
49969
47687
46547
45406
41209
38927
37787
36646
35515
33233
32093
30952
34244
31963
30822
29682
33609
31328
30187
29047
32974
30693
29552
28412
E0
C0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
21000
Ck
73146
64386
58692
57422
56787
56152
Load factor - Max (kWh)
15000
13500
12750
12000
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
Ak-20%
60006
56721
55079
53436
51246
47961
46319
44676
45552
42267
40625
38982
44282
40997
39354
37712
43647
40362
38719
37077
43012
39727
38084
36442
W
3100
2100
1450
1305
1232,5
1160
W
3100
2100
1450
1305
1232,5
1160
W
3100
2100
1450
1305
1232,5
1160
E0
C0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
21000
Ck
169210
137918
118649
114466
112390
110325
Load factor - Min (€)
15000
13500
12750
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
159465
157368
156370
130255
128678
127940
112339
111101
110532
108458
107295
106764
106533
105408
104896
104619
103531
103038
12000
Ak-20%
155406
127236
109997
106267
104418
102579
E0
C0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
21000
Ck
249039
217746
198478
194295
192219
190154
Load factor - Base (€)
15000
13500
12750
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
216486
208687
204838
187275
179996
176407
169360
162419
159000
165478
158613
155231
163554
156726
153363
161639
154849
151505
12000
Ak-20%
201023
172853
155614
151883
150034
148195
E0
C0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
21000
Ck
303921
272629
253360
249177
247101
245036
Load factor - Max (€)
15000
13500
12750
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
255688
243968
238159
226477
215278
209729
208561
197701
192321
204680
193895
188553
202755
192008
186684
200841
190131
184827
12000
Ak-20%
232384
204214
186975
183245
181395
179556
E0
C0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
21000
Ck
225960
198089
181044
177357
175529
173712
Energy Price - Min (€)
15000
13500
12750
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
196971
190062
186659
171181
164793
161650
155490
149440
146466
152104
146130
143194
150427
144491
141573
148761
142862
139964
12000
Ak-20%
183289
158541
143526
140291
138690
137099
E0
C0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
21000
Ck
272118
237404
215912
211233
208909
206596
Energy Price - Min (€)
15000
13500
12750
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
236001
227311
223017
203369
195199
191165
183230
175398
171533
178853
171096
167269
176680
168961
165153
174517
166837
163047
12000
Ak-20%
218756
187165
167702
163476
161378
159291
W
3100
2100
1450
1305
1232,5
1160
W
3100
2100
1450
1305
1232,5
1160
W
3100
2100
1450
1305
1232,5
1160
Electrity price
W
3100
2100
1450
1305
1232,5
1160
E0
C0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
W
3100
2100
1450
1305
1232,5
1160
E0
C0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
21000
Ck
59094
50334
44640
43369
42734
42099
Energy Price - Min (kWh)
15000
13500
12750
12000
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
Ak-20%
49969
47687
46547
45406
41209
38927
37787
36646
35515
33233
32093
30952
34244
31963
30822
29682
33609
31328
30187
29047
32974
30693
29552
28412
21000
Ck
272118
237404
215912
211233
208909
206596
Energy Price - Max (kWh)
15000
13500
12750
12000
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
Ak-20%
236001
227311
223017 218756
203369
195199
191165 187165
183230
175398
171533 167702
178853
171096
167269 163476
176680
168961
165153 161378
174517
166837
163047 159291
W
3100
2100
1450
1305
1232,5
1160
W
3100
2100
1450
1305
1232,5
1160
XXXV
BC6
Total losses
Load factor min
W
4000
3000
2600
2340
2210
2080
LCC
18000
Bk
44895
36135
32631
30353
29215
28076
Load factor - Min (kWh)
16000
14400
13600
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
43800
42924
42486
35040
34164
33726
31536
30660
30222
29258
28382
27944
28120
27244
26806
26981
26105
25667
12800
Ak-20%
42048
33288
29784
27506
26368
25229
Co
Bo
Ao
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
18000
Bk
62415
53655
50151
47873
46735
45596
Load factor - Base (kWh)
16000
14400
13600
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
59373
56940
55723
50613
48180
46963
47109
44676
43459
44832
42398
41182
43693
41260
40043
42554
40121
38904
12800
Ak-20%
54507
45747
42243
39965
38826
37687
Co
Bo
Ao
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
18000
Bk
74460
65700
62196
59918
58780
57641
Load factor - Max (kWh)
16000
14400
13600
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
70080
66576
64824
61320
57816
56064
57816
54312
52560
55538
52034
50282
54400
50896
49144
53261
49757
48005
12800
Ak-20%
63072
54312
50808
48530
47392
46253
18000
Bk
62415
53655
50151
47873
46735
45596
Energy Price - Min (kWh)
16000
14400
13600
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
59373
56940
55723
50613
48180
46963
47109
44676
43459
44832
42398
41182
43693
41260
40043
42554
40121
38904
12800
Ak-20%
54507
45747
42243
39965
38826
37687
18000
Bk
62415
53655
50151
47873
46735
45596
Energy Price - Max (kWh)
16000
14400
13600
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
59373
56940
55723
50613
48180
46963
47109
44676
43459
44832
42398
41182
43693
41260
40043
42554
40121
38904
12800
Ak-20%
54507
45747
42243
39965
38826
37687
Co
Bo
Ao
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
Co
Bo
Ao
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
18000
Bk
133394
116815
110973
107418
105712
104053
Load factor - Min (€)
16000
14400
13600
12800
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
Ak-20%
131879 130912
130510 130163
116279 116096
116086 116131
110829 110960
111106 111307
107529 107863
108112 108415
105950 106386
106686 107040
104419 104957
105308 105712
Co
Bo
Ao
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
18000
Bk
174449
157869
152028
148472
146766
145108
Load factor - Base (€)
16000
14400
13600
12800
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
Ak-20%
168372 163756
161530 159357
152773 148940
147105 145325
147323 143803
142126 140502
144022 140707
139131 137609
142443 139230
137705 136234
140912 137801
136327 134907
Co
Bo
Ao
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
18000
Bk
202674
186095
180253
176698
174992
173333
Load factor - Max (€)
16000
14400
13600
12800
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
Ak-20%
193461 186336
182855 179429
177862 171520
168431 165396
172412 166384
163451 160573
169111 163287
160456 157680
167533 161810
159031 156305
166002 160381
157652 154978
Co
Bo
Ao
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
18000
Bk
101320
95004
93268
92381
92010
91686
Energy Price - Min (€)
16000
14400
13600
12800
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
Ak-20%
98807
97042
96241
95494
93471
92490
92080
91726
92127
91459
91206
91008
91495
91030
90880
90784
91250
90888
90788
90743
91054
90793
90744
90750
Co
Bo
Ao
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
18000
Bk
247578
220735
210787
204564
201523
198531
Energy Price - Max (€)
16000
14400
13600
12800
Ak
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
Ak-20%
237937 230470
226818 223221
212074 205390
202130 198924
202518 196148
193045 189996
196550 190383
187382 184434
193637 187572
184621 181725
190771 184809
181909 179064
W
4000
3000
2600
2340
2210
2080
Load factor base
W
4000
3000
2600
2340
2210
2080
W
4000
3000
2600
2340
2210
2080
Electricity price min
W
4000
3000
2600
2340
2210
2080
Co
Bo
Ao
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
W
4000
3000
2600
2340
2210
2080
W
4000
3000
2600
2340
2210
2080
W
4000
3000
2600
2340
2210
2080
Electricity price max
W
4000
3000
2600
2340
2210
2080
Co
Bo
Ao
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
W
4000
3000
2600
2340
2210
2080
XXXVI
BC7
LIFE CYCLE COST
P0-110 W
P0-90 W
P0-70 W
P0-60 W
Price Energy- Min (€)
Pk-750 W Pk-600 W Pk-500 W Pk-400 W
2226
2284
2344
2425
2217
2305
2392
2510
2232
2361
2486
2655
2250
2405
2555
2760
P0-110 W
P0-90 W
P0-70 W
P0-60 W
Price Energy - Base (€)
Pk-750 W Pk-600 W Pk-500 W Pk-400 W
3298
3274
3278
3304
3170
3175
3207
3269
3065
3111
3181
3295
3024
3096
3190
3340
P0-110 W
P0-90 W
P0-70 W
P0-60 W
Price Energy - Max (€)
Pk-750 W Pk-600 W Pk-500 W Pk-400 W
4371
4263
4212
4183
4123
4046
4022
4028
3899
3862
3876
3935
3798
3786
3826
3920
ENERGY LOSSES
P0-110 W
P0-90 W
P0-70 W
P0-60 W
Total Losses - Min (kWh)
Pk-750 W Pk-600 W Pk-500 W Pk-400 W
1183
1139
1110
1081
1008
964
935
905
832
789
759
730
745
701
672
643
P0-110 W
P0-90 W
P0-70 W
P0-60 W
Total Losses - Base (kWh)
Pk-750 W Pk-600 W Pk-500 W Pk-400 W
1573
1451
1370
1288
1397
1276
1194
1113
1222
1100
1019
938
1135
1013
932
850
P0-110 W
P0-90 W
P0-70 W
P0-60 W
Total Losses - Max (kWh)
Pk-750 W Pk-600 W Pk-500 W Pk-400 W
2157
1918
1759
1600
1982
1743
1584
1425
1807
1568
1409
1250
1719
1480
1321
1162
XXXVII
ANNEX 6: Life Cycle Cost Shaded Diagram
XXXVIII
BASE CASE 1
Ck
D0
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
750
725
700
675
650
625
610
600
575
550
525
520
500
475
450
430
425
400
387
375
366
350
344
325
300
275
250
225
200
4600
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
9%
10%
11%
12%
14%
15%
15%
16%
16%
17%
18%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
Bk
4550
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
10%
11%
12%
14%
15%
15%
16%
17%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
4500
0%
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
11%
11%
12%
14%
15%
15%
16%
17%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
4450
0%
3%
5%
6%
8%
10%
11%
11%
13%
14%
15%
15%
16%
17%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
4400
1%
3%
5%
7%
8%
10%
11%
11%
13%
14%
15%
15%
16%
17%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
4350
1%
3%
5%
7%
8%
10%
11%
11%
13%
14%
15%
15%
16%
17%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
4300
1%
3%
5%
7%
8%
10%
11%
11%
13%
14%
15%
15%
16%
17%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
4250
1%
3%
5%
7%
9%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
15%
16%
17%
18%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
4200
1%
3%
5%
7%
9%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
15%
16%
17%
18%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
4150
1%
3%
5%
7%
9%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
15%
16%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
4100
1%
3%
5%
7%
9%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
15%
16%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
4050
2%
4%
5%
7%
9%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
16%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
4000
2%
4%
6%
7%
9%
11%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
16%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
18%
17%
3950
2%
4%
6%
8%
9%
11%
12%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
16%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
18%
17%
3900
2%
4%
6%
8%
9%
11%
12%
12%
13%
15%
16%
16%
16%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
17%
3850
2%
4%
6%
8%
9%
11%
12%
12%
13%
15%
16%
16%
16%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
17%
Ak
3800
2%
4%
6%
8%
9%
11%
12%
12%
14%
15%
16%
16%
17%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
17%
3750
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
11%
12%
12%
14%
15%
16%
16%
17%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
17%
3700
2%
4%
6%
8%
10%
11%
12%
12%
14%
15%
16%
16%
17%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
17%
3650
3%
5%
6%
8%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
16%
17%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
17%
3600
3%
5%
7%
8%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
16%
17%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
17%
3550
3%
5%
7%
8%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
16%
17%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
16%
3500
3%
5%
7%
8%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
16%
17%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
16%
3450
3%
5%
7%
9%
10%
12%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
16%
17%
18%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
16%
3400
3%
5%
7%
9%
10%
12%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
16%
17%
18%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
16%
3350
3%
5%
7%
9%
10%
12%
13%
13%
14%
15%
16%
16%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
16%
3300
3%
5%
7%
9%
10%
12%
13%
13%
14%
15%
16%
16%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
16%
3250
4%
6%
7%
9%
11%
12%
13%
13%
14%
15%
16%
16%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
16%
Ak-10%
3200
4%
6%
7%
9%
11%
12%
13%
13%
14%
15%
16%
16%
17%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
18%
17%
16%
3150
4%
6%
8%
9%
11%
12%
13%
13%
14%
16%
16%
17%
17%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
18%
17%
16%
3100
4%
6%
8%
9%
11%
12%
13%
13%
15%
16%
16%
17%
17%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
17%
16%
3050
4%
6%
8%
9%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
16%
17%
17%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
17%
16%
3000
4%
6%
8%
9%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
17%
17%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
17%
16%
2925
4%
6%
8%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
17%
17%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
17%
16%
Ak-15%
2950
4%
6%
8%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
17%
17%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
17%
16%
2900
4%
6%
8%
10%
11%
13%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
17%
17%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
17%
16%
2850
5%
6%
8%
10%
11%
13%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
17%
17%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
17%
16%
2800
5%
7%
8%
10%
11%
13%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
17%
17%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
16%
16%
2763
5%
7%
8%
10%
11%
13%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
17%
17%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
16%
16%
Ak-20%
2750
5%
7%
8%
10%
11%
13%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
17%
17%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
16%
16%
2700
5%
7%
9%
10%
12%
13%
14%
14%
15%
16%
17%
17%
17%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
16%
16%
2650
5%
7%
9%
10%
12%
13%
14%
14%
15%
16%
17%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
16%
15%
2600
5%
7%
9%
10%
12%
13%
14%
14%
15%
16%
17%
17%
18%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
16%
15%
2550
5%
7%
9%
10%
12%
13%
14%
14%
15%
16%
17%
17%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
16%
15%
XIX
2500
5%
7%
9%
10%
12%
13%
14%
14%
15%
16%
17%
17%
18%
18%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
19%
18%
18%
17%
16%
15%
BASE CASE 2
Dk
E0
D0
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
1700
1650
1600
1550
1500
1450
1400
1350
1300
1250
1200
1150
1100
1050
1000
940
950
900
850
800
770
750
700
693
655
650
616
600
13000
0%
1%
2%
3%
4%
5%
6%
7%
8%
9%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
15%
16%
17%
18%
18%
19%
20%
20%
20%
21%
21%
21%
Ck
11700
3%
4%
5%
6%
7%
8%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
17%
19%
18%
19%
20%
21%
21%
22%
22%
23%
23%
23%
24%
24%
11050
5%
6%
7%
8%
9%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
20%
21%
22%
22%
23%
23%
24%
24%
24%
24%
25%
25%
10500
7%
8%
9%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
19%
20%
21%
21%
22%
23%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
25%
25%
25%
26%
Bk
10400
7%
8%
9%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
21%
21%
22%
23%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
25%
25%
26%
26%
10300
7%
8%
9%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
22%
22%
23%
24%
24%
24%
25%
25%
25%
25%
26%
26%
10200
7%
8%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
22%
22%
23%
24%
24%
24%
25%
25%
25%
25%
26%
26%
10100
8%
9%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
19%
20%
21%
22%
22%
23%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
26%
10000
8%
9%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
21%
22%
22%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
26%
9900
8%
9%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
22%
22%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
26%
9800
9%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
23%
23%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
26%
26%
26%
9700
9%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
20%
21%
22%
23%
23%
23%
24%
25%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
26%
26%
26%
9600
9%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
21%
22%
23%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
26%
26%
27%
9500
9%
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
22%
23%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
9400
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
19%
20%
21%
22%
23%
23%
23%
24%
25%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
9300
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
20%
21%
22%
23%
24%
23%
24%
25%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
9200
10%
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
21%
22%
23%
24%
24%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
9100
10%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
22%
23%
24%
24%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
9000
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
19%
20%
21%
22%
23%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
Ak
8900
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
21%
22%
23%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
8800
11%
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
22%
23%
24%
24%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
8700
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
22%
23%
24%
25%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
8600
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
20%
21%
22%
23%
23%
24%
25%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
8500
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
21%
22%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
8400
12%
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
22%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
8300
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
23%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
8200
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
20%
21%
22%
23%
23%
24%
25%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
8100
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
21%
22%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
25%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
8000
13%
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
22%
23%
24%
24%
25%
26%
25%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
7900
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
19%
20%
21%
22%
23%
23%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
7800
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
20%
21%
22%
23%
23%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
7700
14%
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
21%
22%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
7600
15%
16%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
22%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
Ak-10%
7500
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
19%
20%
21%
22%
23%
23%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
7400
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
21%
22%
23%
23%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
7300
15%
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
22%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
7200
16%
17%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
22%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
7100
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
20%
21%
22%
23%
23%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
7000
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
21%
22%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
6900
16%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
22%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
6840
17%
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
22%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
Ak-15%
6800
17%
18%
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
23%
23%
24%
24%
25%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
6700
17%
18%
19%
20%
20%
21%
22%
23%
23%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
6600
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
21%
22%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
6500
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
22%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
6460
17%
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
22%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
Ak-20%
6400
18%
19%
19%
20%
21%
22%
23%
23%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
XX
6300
18%
19%
20%
20%
21%
22%
23%
23%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
6080
18%
19%
20%
21%
22%
22%
23%
24%
24%
25%
25%
26%
26%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
27%
26%
26%
BASE CASE 3
Bk
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
Ak
13000 12800 12600 12400 12200 12000 11800 11600 11400 11200 11000 10800 10600 10400 10200 10000
2800 0% 0% 0% 1% 1% 1% 1% 2% 2% 2% 2% 2% 3% 3% 3% 3%
2700 1% 1% 1% 2% 2% 2% 2% 2% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 4% 4% 4%
2600 2% 2% 2% 2% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 5% 5%
2500 2% 3% 3% 3% 3% 3% 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5%
2400 3% 3% 4% 4% 4% 4% 4% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 6% 6% 6% 6%
2300 4% 4% 4% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 6% 6% 6% 6% 6% 6% 7% 7%
2200 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 6% 6% 6% 6% 6% 7% 7% 7% 7% 7% 7%
2100 5% 6% 6% 6% 6% 6% 7% 7% 7% 7% 7% 7% 8% 8% 8% 8%
2000 6% 6% 6% 7% 7% 7% 7% 7% 8% 8% 8% 8% 8% 8% 9% 9%
1900 7% 7% 7% 7% 7% 8% 8% 8% 8% 8% 8% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9%
1800 7% 8% 8% 8% 8% 8% 8% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 10% 10% 10%
1700 8% 8% 8% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10%
1600 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 11% 11%
1500 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 11% 11% 11%
1400 9% 9% 9% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11%
1300 9% 9% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11%
1200 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 12% 12%
1100 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 12% 12% 12%
1000 10% 10% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12%
900 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 13% 13%
800 11% 11% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13%
700 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 14%
600 12% 12% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 14% 14% 14% 14%
Ak-10%
Ak-15%
9900 9800 9600 9400
3% 3% 4% 4%
4% 4% 4% 5%
5% 5% 5% 5%
6% 6% 6% 6%
6% 6% 6% 7%
7% 7% 7% 7%
8% 8% 8% 8%
8% 8% 8% 9%
9% 9% 9% 9%
9% 9% 10% 10%
10% 10% 10% 10%
10% 10% 11% 11%
11% 11% 11% 11%
11% 11% 11% 11%
11% 11% 11% 12%
11% 11% 12% 12%
12% 12% 12% 12%
12% 12% 12% 12%
12% 12% 13% 13%
13% 13% 13% 13%
13% 13% 13% 13%
14% 14% 14% 14%
14% 14% 14% 14%
9350 9200 9000
4% 4% 4%
5% 5% 5%
5% 5% 6%
6% 6% 6%
7% 7% 7%
7% 7% 8%
8% 8% 8%
9% 9% 9%
9% 9% 9%
10% 10% 10%
10% 10% 11%
11% 11% 11%
11% 11% 11%
11% 11% 12%
12% 12% 12%
12% 12% 12%
12% 12% 12%
12% 12% 12%
13% 13% 13%
13% 13% 13%
13% 14% 14%
14% 14% 14%
14% 14% 14%
Ak-20%
8800 8600 8400 8200 8000 7800 7600 7400 7200 7000 6800 6600 6400 6200 6000 5800 5600 5400 5200 5000 4800 4600
4% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 6% 6% 6% 6% 6% 7% 7% 7% 7% 7% 7% 8% 8% 8% 8% 8%
5% 5% 6% 6% 6% 6% 6% 6% 7% 7% 7% 7% 7% 7% 8% 8% 8% 8% 8% 8% 9% 9%
6% 6% 6% 6% 7% 7% 7% 7% 7% 7% 8% 8% 8% 8% 8% 8% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9%
7% 7% 7% 7% 7% 7% 8% 8% 8% 8% 8% 8% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 10% 10% 10%
7% 7% 8% 8% 8% 8% 8% 8% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10%
8% 8% 8% 8% 8% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 11% 11% 11% 11%
8% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 9% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11%
9% 9% 9% 9% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 12% 12% 12% 12%
10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 10% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12%
10% 10% 10% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 13% 13% 13%
11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 11% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13%
11% 11% 11% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 14%
12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 14% 14% 14% 14%
12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14%
12% 12% 12% 12% 12% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14%
12% 12% 12% 12% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14%
12% 12% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14%
13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 15% 15%
13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 13% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15%
13% 13% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15%
14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15%
14% 14% 14% 14% 14% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 16% 16% 16%
14% 14% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 15% 16% 16% 16% 16% 16% 16% 16%
XXI
BASE CASE 4
326
277
228
326000 323500 321000 318500 316000 313500 311000 308500 306000 303500 301000 298500 296000 293500 291000 288500 286000 283500 281000 278500 277100 276000 273500 271000 268500 266000 263500 261000 258500 256000 253500 251000 248500 246000 243500 241000 238500 236000 233500 231000 228500 228200 226000 223500 221000
40500 0,0% 0,2% 0,4% 0,6% 0,7% 0,9% 1,1% 1,3% 1,4% 1,6% 1,7% 1,9% 2,1% 2,2% 2,4% 2,5% 2,6% 2,8% 2,9% 3,1% 3,1% 3,2% 3,3% 3,4% 3,6% 3,7% 3,8% 3,9% 4,0% 4,1% 4,2% 4,3% 4,4% 4,5% 4,6% 4,7% 4,8% 4,8% 4,9% 5,0% 5,1% 5,1% 5,1% 5,2% 5,3%
39500 0,3% 0,5% 0,7% 0,8% 1,0% 1,1% 1,3% 1,4% 1,6% 1,7% 1,9% 2,0% 2,1% 2,3% 2,4% 2,5% 2,6% 2,7% 2,9% 3,0% 3,0% 3,1% 3,2% 3,3% 3,4% 3,5% 3,6% 3,7% 3,8% 3,8% 3,9% 4,0% 4,1% 4,1% 4,2% 4,3% 4,3% 4,4% 4,5% 4,5% 4,6% 4,6% 4,6% 4,6% 4,7%
38500 0,5% 0,6% 0,8% 0,9% 1,1% 1,2% 1,3% 1,4% 1,6% 1,7% 1,8% 1,9% 2,0% 2,1% 2,3% 2,4% 2,5% 2,6% 2,6% 2,7% 2,8% 2,8% 2,9% 3,0% 3,1% 3,1% 3,2% 3,3% 3,3% 3,4% 3,5% 3,5% 3,6% 3,6% 3,7% 3,7% 3,8% 3,8% 3,8% 3,9% 3,9% 3,9% 3,9% 3,9% 4,0%
37500 0,5% 0,6% 0,8% 0,9% 1,0% 1,1% 1,2% 1,3% 1,4% 1,5% 1,6% 1,7% 1,8% 1,9% 2,0% 2,1% 2,1% 2,2% 2,3% 2,4% 2,4% 2,4% 2,5% 2,5% 2,6% 2,7% 2,7% 2,7% 2,8% 2,8% 2,9% 2,9% 2,9% 3,0% 3,0% 3,0% 3,0% 3,1% 3,1% 3,1% 3,1% 3,1% 3,1% 3,1% 3,1%
36500 0,4% 0,5% 0,6% 0,7% 0,8% 0,9% 1,0% 1,0% 1,1% 1,2% 1,3% 1,4% 1,4% 1,5% 1,6% 1,6% 1,7% 1,7% 1,8% 1,8% 1,8% 1,9% 1,9% 1,9% 2,0% 2,0% 2,0% 2,1% 2,1% 2,1% 2,1% 2,1% 2,2% 2,2% 2,2% 2,2% 2,2% 2,2% 2,1% 2,1% 2,1% 2,1% 2,1% 2,1% 2,1%
35500 0,1% 0,2% 0,3% 0,4% 0,4% 0,5% 0,6% 0,6% 0,7% 0,7% 0,8% 0,8% 0,9% 0,9% 1,0% 1,0% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,2% 1,2% 1,2% 1,2% 1,2% 1,2% 1,2% 1,2% 1,2% 1,2% 1,2% 1,2% 1,2% 1,2% 1,2% 1,2% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,1% 1,0% 1,0% 1,0% 0,9% 0,9%
34500 -0,3% -0,2% -0,2% -0,1% -0,1% 0,0% 0,0% 0,1% 0,1% 0,1% 0,2% 0,2% 0,2% 0,2% 0,3% 0,3% 0,3% 0,3% 0,3% 0,3% 0,3% 0,3% 0,3% 0,3% 0,3% 0,3% 0,3% 0,3% 0,2% 0,2% 0,2% 0,2% 0,1% 0,1% 0,1% 0,0% 0,0% -0,1% -0,1% -0,2% -0,2% -0,2% -0,3% -0,4% -0,4%
34425 -0,3% -0,3% -0,2% -0,2% -0,1% -0,1% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% 0,1% 0,1% 0,1% 0,2% 0,2% 0,2% 0,2% 0,2% 0,2% 0,2% 0,2% 0,2% 0,2% 0,2% 0,2% 0,2% 0,2% 0,2% 0,2% 0,2% 0,1% 0,1% 0,1% 0,0% 0,0% 0,0% -0,1% -0,1% -0,2% -0,2% -0,3% -0,3% -0,3% -0,4% -0,5% -0,5%
33500 -0,9% -0,8% -0,8% -0,8% -0,7% -0,7% -0,7% -0,7% -0,6% -0,6% -0,6% -0,6% -0,6% -0,6% -0,6% -0,6% -0,6% -0,6% -0,6% -0,7% -0,7% -0,7% -0,7% -0,7% -0,8% -0,8% -0,8% -0,9% -0,9% -1,0% -1,0% -1,1% -1,1% -1,2% -1,2% -1,3% -1,4% -1,4% -1,5% -1,6% -1,6% -1,7% -1,7% -1,8% -1,9%
32500 -1,6% -1,6% -1,6% -1,5% -1,5% -1,5% -1,5% -1,5% -1,5% -1,5% -1,6% -1,6% -1,6% -1,6% -1,6% -1,7% -1,7% -1,7% -1,8% -1,8% -1,8% -1,8% -1,9% -1,9% -2,0% -2,0% -2,1% -2,1% -2,2% -2,3% -2,3% -2,4% -2,5% -2,6% -2,6% -2,7% -2,8% -2,9% -3,0% -3,1% -3,2% -3,2% -3,3% -3,4% -3,5%
31500 -2,5% -2,5% -2,5% -2,5% -2,5% -2,5% -2,5% -2,6% -2,6% -2,6% -2,6% -2,7% -2,7% -2,8% -2,8% -2,8% -2,9% -2,9% -3,0% -3,1% -3,1% -3,1% -3,2% -3,3% -3,3% -3,4% -3,5% -3,6% -3,7% -3,7% -3,8% -3,9% -4,0% -4,1% -4,2% -4,3% -4,4% -4,5% -4,7% -4,8% -4,9% -4,9% -5,0% -5,2% -5,3%
30500 -3,5% -3,5% -3,5% -3,6% -3,6% -3,6% -3,7% -3,7% -3,8% -3,8% -3,9% -3,9% -4,0% -4,0% -4,1% -4,2% -4,3% -4,3% -4,4% -4,5% -4,5% -4,6% -4,7% -4,7% -4,8% -4,9% -5,0% -5,1% -5,2% -5,4% -5,5% -5,6% -5,7% -5,8% -5,9% -6,1% -6,2% -6,3% -6,5% -6,6% -6,8% -6,8% -6,9% -7,0% -7,2%
29500 -4,6% -4,7% -4,7% -4,8% -4,8% -4,9% -5,0% -5,0% -5,1% -5,2% -5,2% -5,3% -5,4% -5,5% -5,6% -5,7% -5,8% -5,9% -6,0% -6,1% -6,1% -6,2% -6,3% -6,4% -6,5% -6,6% -6,7% -6,9% -7,0% -7,1% -7,3% -7,4% -7,5% -7,7% -7,8% -8,0% -8,1% -8,3% -8,4% -8,6% -8,8% -8,8% -8,9% -9,1% -9,3%
28500 -6,0% -6,0% -6,1% -6,2% -6,2% -6,3% -6,4% -6,5% -6,6% -6,7% -6,8% -6,9% -7,0% -7,1% -7,2% -7,3% -7,4% -7,5% -7,7% -7,8% -7,8% -7,9% -8,0% -8,2% -8,3% -8,4% -8,6% -8,7% -8,9% -9,0% -9,2% -9,3% -9,5% -9,7% -9,8% -10,0% -10,2% -10,4% -10,5% -10,7% -10,9% -10,9% -11,1% -11,3% -11,5%
28350 -6,2% -6,2% -6,3% -6,4% -6,5% -6,6% -6,6% -6,7% -6,8% -6,9% -7,0% -7,1% -7,2% -7,3% -7,4% -7,6% -7,7% -7,8% -7,9% -8,0% -8,1% -8,2% -8,3% -8,4% -8,6% -8,7% -8,9% -9,0% -9,2% -9,3% -9,5% -9,6% -9,8% -10,0% -10,2% -10,3% -10,5% -10,7% -10,9% -11,0% -11,2% -11,3% -11,4% -11,6% -11,8%
27500 -7,4% -7,5% -7,6% -7,7% -7,8% -7,9% -8,0% -8,1% -8,2% -8,3% -8,5% -8,6% -8,7% -8,8% -9,0% -9,1% -9,2% -9,4% -9,5% -9,6% -9,7% -9,8% -9,9% -10,1% -10,3% -10,4% -10,6% -10,7% -10,9% -11,1% -11,3% -11,4% -11,6% -11,8% -12,0% -12,2% -12,4% -12,6% -12,8% -13,0% -13,2% -13,2% -13,4% -13,6% -13,8%
26500 -9,0% -9,1% -9,3% -9,4% -9,5% -9,6% -9,7% -9,9% -10,0% -10,1% -10,3% -10,4% -10,6% -10,7% -10,9% -11,0% -11,2% -11,3% -11,5% -11,7% -11,8% -11,8% -12,0% -12,2% -12,4% -12,5% -12,7% -12,9% -13,1% -13,3% -13,5% -13,7% -13,9% -14,1% -14,3% -14,5% -14,7% -15,0% -15,2% -15,4% -15,6% -15,7% -15,9% -16,1% -16,3%
25500 -10,8% -10,9% -11,1% -11,2% -11,3% -11,5% -11,6% -11,8% -11,9% -12,1% -12,2% -12,4% -12,6% -12,7% -12,9% -13,1% -13,3% -13,5% -13,6% -13,8% -13,9% -14,0% -14,2% -14,4% -14,6% -14,8% -15,0% -15,2% -15,4% -15,7% -15,9% -16,1% -16,3% -16,6% -16,8% -17,0% -17,3% -17,5% -17,7% -18,0% -18,2% -18,3% -18,5% -18,7% -19,0%
24500 -12,7% -12,8% -13,0% -13,2% -13,3% -13,5% -13,7% -13,8% -14,0% -14,2% -14,4% -14,6% -14,7% -14,9% -15,1% -15,3% -15,5% -15,7% -15,9% -16,1% -16,3% -16,4% -16,6% -16,8% -17,0% -17,2% -17,5% -17,7% -17,9% -18,2% -18,4% -18,7% -18,9% -19,1% -19,4% -19,7% -19,9% -20,2% -20,4% -20,7% -21,0% -21,0% -21,3% -21,5% -21,8%
23500 -14,7% -14,9% -15,1% -15,3% -15,5% -15,7% -15,8% -16,0% -16,2% -16,4% -16,6% -16,8% -17,1% -17,3% -17,5% -17,7% -17,9% -18,1% -18,4% -18,6% -18,7% -18,8% -19,1% -19,3% -19,6% -19,8% -20,1% -20,3% -20,6% -20,8% -21,1% -21,4% -21,6% -21,9% -22,2% -22,4% -22,7% -23,0% -23,3% -23,6% -23,9% -23,9% -24,2% -24,5% -24,8%
22500 -17,0% -17,2% -17,4% -17,6% -17,8% -18,0% -18,2% -18,4% -18,6% -18,8% -19,1% -19,3% -19,5% -19,8% -20,0% -20,2% -20,5% -20,7% -21,0% -21,2% -21,4% -21,5% -21,7% -22,0% -22,3% -22,5% -22,8% -23,1% -23,3% -23,6% -23,9% -24,2% -24,5% -24,8% -25,1% -25,4% -25,7% -26,0% -26,3% -26,6% -26,9% -27,0% -27,2% -27,5% -27,9%
21500 -19,3% -19,5% -19,7% -20,0% -20,2% -20,4% -20,7% -20,9% -21,1% -21,4% -21,6% -21,9% -22,1% -22,4% -22,6% -22,9% -23,2% -23,4% -23,7% -24,0% -24,1% -24,3% -24,5% -24,8% -25,1% -25,4% -25,7% -26,0% -26,3% -26,6% -26,9% -27,2% -27,5% -27,8% -28,1% -28,5% -28,8% -29,1% -29,4% -29,8% -30,1% -30,1% -30,4% -30,8% -31,1%
20500 -21,8% -22,1% -22,3% -22,5% -22,8% -23,0% -23,3% -23,6% -23,8% -24,1% -24,3% -24,6% -24,9% -25,2% -25,4% -25,7% -26,0% -26,3% -26,6% -26,9% -27,1% -27,2% -27,5% -27,8% -28,1% -28,4% -28,7% -29,0% -29,4% -29,7% -30,0% -30,3% -30,7% -31,0% -31,3% -31,7% -32,0% -32,4% -32,7% -33,1% -33,4% -33,5% -33,8% -34,2% -34,5%
20250 -22,5% -22,7% -23,0% -23,2% -23,5% -23,7% -24,0% -24,2% -24,5% -24,8% -25,0% -25,3% -25,6% -25,9% -26,2% -26,5% -26,7% -27,0% -27,3% -27,6% -27,8% -27,9% -28,3% -28,6% -28,9% -29,2% -29,5% -29,8% -30,2% -30,5% -30,8% -31,1% -31,5% -31,8% -32,2% -32,5% -32,9% -33,2% -33,6% -33,9% -34,3% -34,3% -34,7% -35,0% -35,4%
19500 -24,5% -24,7% -25,0% -25,3% -25,5% -25,8% -26,1% -26,4% -26,6% -26,9% -27,2% -27,5% -27,8% -28,1% -28,4% -28,7% -29,0% -29,3% -29,6% -29,9% -30,1% -30,3% -30,6% -30,9% -31,2% -31,6% -31,9% -32,2% -32,6% -32,9% -33,3% -33,6% -34,0% -34,3% -34,7% -35,1% -35,4% -35,8% -36,2% -36,5% -36,9% -37,0% -37,3% -37,7% -38,1%
18500 -27,3% -27,5% -27,8% -28,1% -28,4% -28,7% -29,0% -29,3% -29,6% -29,9% -30,2% -30,5% -30,9% -31,2% -31,5% -31,8% -32,2% -32,5% -32,8% -33,2% -33,3% -33,5% -33,8% -34,2% -34,5% -34,9% -35,2% -35,6% -36,0% -36,3% -36,7% -37,1% -37,4% -37,8% -38,2% -38,6% -39,0% -39,4% -39,8% -40,2% -40,6% -40,6% -41,0% -41,4% -41,8%
XXII
BC5
E0
C0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
Ck
Ak
21000 20800 20600 20400 20200 20000 19800 19600 19400 19200 19000 18800 18600 18400 18200 18000 17800 17600 17400 17200 17000 16800 16600 16400 16200 16000 15800 15600 15400 15200 15000 14800 14600 14400 14200 14000 13800 13600
3100 0,0% 0,4% 0,9% 1,3% 1,8% 2,2% 2,7% 3,1% 3,6% 4,0% 4,5% 4,9% 5,3% 5,8% 6,2% 6,6% 7,1% 7,5% 7,9% 8,4% 8,8% 9,2% 9,7% 10,1% 10,5% 11,0% 11,4% 11,8% 12,2% 12,6% 13,1% 13,5% 13,9% 14,3% 14,7% 15,2% 15,6% 16,0%
3000 1,3% 1,7% 2,2% 2,6% 3,1% 3,5% 4,0% 4,4% 4,8% 5,3% 5,7% 6,2% 6,6% 7,0% 7,5% 7,9% 8,3% 8,8% 9,2% 9,6% 10,0% 10,5% 10,9% 11,3% 11,8% 12,2% 12,6% 13,0% 13,4% 13,9% 14,3% 14,7% 15,1% 15,5% 15,9% 16,4% 16,8% 17,2%
2900 2,6% 3,0% 3,5% 3,9% 4,3% 4,8% 5,2% 5,7% 6,1% 6,5% 7,0% 7,4% 7,8% 8,3% 8,7% 9,1% 9,6% 10,0% 10,4% 10,9% 11,3% 11,7% 12,1% 12,5% 13,0% 13,4% 13,8% 14,2% 14,6% 15,1% 15,5% 15,9% 16,3% 16,7% 17,1% 17,5% 18,0% 18,4%
2800 3,9% 4,3% 4,7% 5,2% 5,6% 6,1% 6,5% 6,9% 7,4% 7,8% 8,2% 8,7% 9,1% 9,5% 9,9% 10,4% 10,8% 11,2% 11,7% 12,1% 12,5% 12,9% 13,3% 13,8% 14,2% 14,6% 15,0% 15,4% 15,8% 16,3% 16,7% 17,1% 17,5% 17,9% 18,3% 18,7% 19,1% 19,5%
2700 5,1% 5,6% 6,0% 6,4% 6,9% 7,3% 7,7% 8,2% 8,6% 9,0% 9,5% 9,9% 10,3% 10,7% 11,2% 11,6% 12,0% 12,4% 12,9% 13,3% 13,7% 14,1% 14,5% 15,0% 15,4% 15,8% 16,2% 16,6% 17,0% 17,4% 17,9% 18,3% 18,7% 19,1% 19,5% 19,9% 20,3% 20,7%
2600 6,4% 6,8% 7,3% 7,7% 8,1% 8,6% 9,0% 9,4% 9,8% 10,3% 10,7% 11,1% 11,5% 12,0% 12,4% 12,8% 13,2% 13,7% 14,1% 14,5% 14,9% 15,3% 15,7% 16,2% 16,6% 17,0% 17,4% 17,8% 18,2% 18,6% 19,0% 19,4% 19,8% 20,3% 20,7% 21,1% 21,5% 21,9%
2500 7,6% 8,1% 8,5% 8,9% 9,4% 9,8% 10,2% 10,6% 11,1% 11,5% 11,9% 12,3% 12,8% 13,2% 13,6% 14,0% 14,4% 14,9% 15,3% 15,7% 16,1% 16,5% 16,9% 17,4% 17,8% 18,2% 18,6% 19,0% 19,4% 19,8% 20,2% 20,6% 21,0% 21,4% 21,8% 22,2% 22,6% 23,0%
2400 8,9% 9,3% 9,7% 10,2% 10,6% 11,0% 11,4% 11,9% 12,3% 12,7% 13,1% 13,6% 14,0% 14,4% 14,8% 15,2% 15,6% 16,1% 16,5% 16,9% 17,3% 17,7% 18,1% 18,5% 18,9% 19,3% 19,8% 20,2% 20,6% 21,0% 21,4% 21,8% 22,2% 22,6% 23,0% 23,4% 23,8% 24,2%
2300 10,1% 10,5% 11,0% 11,4% 11,8% 12,2% 12,7% 13,1% 13,5% 13,9% 14,3% 14,8% 15,2% 15,6% 16,0% 16,4% 16,8% 17,3% 17,7% 18,1% 18,5% 18,9% 19,3% 19,7% 20,1% 20,5% 20,9% 21,3% 21,7% 22,1% 22,5% 22,9% 23,3% 23,7% 24,1% 24,5% 24,9% 25,3%
2200 11,3% 11,8% 12,2% 12,6% 13,0% 13,5% 13,9% 14,3% 14,7% 15,1% 15,5% 16,0% 16,4% 16,8% 17,2% 17,6% 18,0% 18,4% 18,8% 19,2% 19,7% 20,1% 20,5% 20,9% 21,3% 21,7% 22,1% 22,5% 22,9% 23,3% 23,7% 24,1% 24,5% 24,8% 25,2% 25,6% 26,0% 26,4%
2100 12,6% 13,0% 13,4% 13,8% 14,2% 14,7% 15,1% 15,5% 15,9% 16,3% 16,7% 17,2% 17,6% 18,0% 18,4% 18,8% 19,2% 19,6% 20,0% 20,4% 20,8% 21,2% 21,6% 22,0% 22,4% 22,8% 23,2% 23,6% 24,0% 24,4% 24,8% 25,2% 25,6% 26,0% 26,4% 26,8% 27,1% 27,5%
2000 13,8% 14,2% 14,6% 15,0% 15,4% 15,9% 16,3% 16,7% 17,1% 17,5% 17,9% 18,3% 18,7% 19,2% 19,6% 20,0% 20,4% 20,8% 21,2% 21,6% 22,0% 22,4% 22,8% 23,2% 23,6% 24,0% 24,4% 24,8% 25,1% 25,5% 25,9% 26,3% 26,7% 27,1% 27,5% 27,9% 28,3% 28,6%
1900 15,0% 15,4% 15,8% 16,2% 16,6% 17,1% 17,5% 17,9% 18,3% 18,7% 19,1% 19,5% 19,9% 20,3% 20,7% 21,1% 21,5% 21,9% 22,3% 22,7% 23,1% 23,5% 23,9% 24,3% 24,7% 25,1% 25,5% 25,9% 26,3% 26,7% 27,1% 27,4% 27,8% 28,2% 28,6% 29,0% 29,4% 29,7%
1800 16,2% 16,6% 17,0% 17,4% 17,8% 18,2% 18,6% 19,1% 19,5% 19,9% 20,3% 20,7% 21,1% 21,5% 21,9% 22,3% 22,7% 23,1% 23,5% 23,9% 24,3% 24,7% 25,1% 25,4% 25,8% 26,2% 26,6% 27,0% 27,4% 27,8% 28,2% 28,5% 28,9% 29,3% 29,7% 30,1% 30,5% 30,8%
1700 17,4% 17,8% 18,2% 18,6% 19,0% 19,4% 19,8% 20,2% 20,6% 21,0% 21,4% 21,8% 22,2% 22,6% 23,0% 23,4% 23,8% 24,2% 24,6% 25,0% 25,4% 25,8% 26,2% 26,6% 27,0% 27,3% 27,7% 28,1% 28,5% 28,9% 29,3% 29,6% 30,0% 30,4% 30,8% 31,2% 31,5% 31,9%
1600 18,5% 19,0% 19,4% 19,8% 20,2% 20,6% 21,0% 21,4% 21,8% 22,2% 22,6% 23,0% 23,4% 23,8% 24,2% 24,6% 25,0% 25,4% 25,7% 26,1% 26,5% 26,9% 27,3% 27,7% 28,1% 28,5% 28,8% 29,2% 29,6% 30,0% 30,4% 30,7% 31,1% 31,5% 31,9% 32,2% 32,6% 33,0%
1500 19,7% 20,1% 20,5% 20,9% 21,3% 21,7% 22,1% 22,5% 22,9% 23,3% 23,7% 24,1% 24,5% 24,9% 25,3% 25,7% 26,1% 26,5% 26,9% 27,3% 27,6% 28,0% 28,4% 28,8% 29,2% 29,6% 29,9% 30,3% 30,7% 31,1% 31,5% 31,8% 32,2% 32,6% 33,0% 33,3% 33,7% 34,1%
1450 20,3% 20,7% 21,1% 21,5% 21,9% 22,3% 22,7% 23,1% 23,5% 23,9% 24,3% 24,7% 25,1% 25,5% 25,9% 26,3% 26,6% 27,0% 27,4% 27,8% 28,2% 28,6% 29,0% 29,3% 29,7% 30,1% 30,5% 30,9% 31,2% 31,6% 32,0% 32,4% 32,7% 33,1% 33,5% 33,9% 34,2% 34,6%
1400 20,9% 21,3% 21,7% 22,1% 22,5% 22,9% 23,3% 23,7% 24,1% 24,5% 24,9% 25,3% 25,6% 26,0% 26,4% 26,8% 27,2% 27,6% 28,0% 28,4% 28,7% 29,1% 29,5% 29,9% 30,3% 30,7% 31,0% 31,4% 31,8% 32,2% 32,5% 32,9% 33,3% 33,7% 34,0% 34,4% 34,8% 35,1%
1305 22,0% 22,4% 22,8% 23,2% 23,6% 24,0% 24,4% 24,8% 25,2% 25,5% 25,9% 26,3% 26,7% 27,1% 27,5% 27,9% 28,3% 28,6% 29,0% 29,4% 29,8% 30,2% 30,6% 30,9% 31,3% 31,7% 32,1% 32,4% 32,8% 33,2% 33,6% 33,9% 34,3% 34,7% 35,0% 35,4% 35,8% 36,1%
1300 22,0% 22,4% 22,8% 23,2% 23,6% 24,0% 24,4% 24,8% 25,2% 25,6% 26,0% 26,4% 26,8% 27,2% 27,5% 27,9% 28,3% 28,7% 29,1% 29,5% 29,8% 30,2% 30,6% 31,0% 31,4% 31,7% 32,1% 32,5% 32,9% 33,2% 33,6% 34,0% 34,3% 34,7% 35,1% 35,4% 35,8% 36,2%
1233 22,8% 23,2% 23,6% 24,0% 24,4% 24,8% 25,2% 25,6% 26,0% 26,4% 26,7% 27,1% 27,5% 27,9% 28,3% 28,7% 29,1% 29,4% 29,8% 30,2% 30,6% 31,0% 31,3% 31,7% 32,1% 32,5% 32,8% 33,2% 33,6% 34,0% 34,3% 34,7% 35,1% 35,4% 35,8% 36,2% 36,5% 36,9%
1200 23,2% 23,6% 24,0% 24,4% 24,8% 25,2% 25,6% 25,9% 26,3% 26,7% 27,1% 27,5% 27,9% 28,3% 28,7% 29,0% 29,4% 29,8% 30,2% 30,6% 30,9% 31,3% 31,7% 32,1% 32,4% 32,8% 33,2% 33,6% 33,9% 34,3% 34,7% 35,0% 35,4% 35,8% 36,1% 36,5% 36,9% 37,2%
1160 23,6% 24,0% 24,4% 24,8% 25,2% 25,6% 26,0% 26,4% 26,8% 27,2% 27,6% 27,9% 28,3% 28,7% 29,1% 29,5% 29,9% 30,2% 30,6% 31,0% 31,4% 31,8% 32,1% 32,5% 32,9% 33,2% 33,6% 34,0% 34,4% 34,7% 35,1% 35,5% 35,8% 36,2% 36,6% 36,9% 37,3% 37,6%
1100 24,3% 24,7% 25,1% 25,5% 25,9% 26,3% 26,7% 27,1% 27,5% 27,8% 28,2% 28,6% 29,0% 29,4% 29,8% 30,1% 30,5% 30,9% 31,3% 31,6% 32,0% 32,4% 32,8% 33,1% 33,5% 33,9% 34,3% 34,6% 35,0% 35,4% 35,7% 36,1% 36,5% 36,8% 37,2% 37,5% 37,9% 38,3%
1000 25,5% 25,9% 26,2% 26,6% 27,0% 27,4% 27,8% 28,2% 28,6% 28,9% 29,3% 29,7% 30,1% 30,5% 30,8% 31,2% 31,6% 32,0% 32,4% 32,7% 33,1% 33,5% 33,8% 34,2% 34,6% 35,0% 35,3% 35,7% 36,0% 36,4% 36,8% 37,1% 37,5% 37,9% 38,2% 38,6% 38,9% 39,3%
900 26,6% 27,0% 27,4% 27,7% 28,1% 28,5% 28,9% 29,3% 29,7% 30,0% 30,4% 30,8% 31,2% 31,6% 31,9% 32,3% 32,7% 33,1% 33,4% 33,8% 34,2% 34,5% 34,9% 35,3% 35,6% 36,0% 36,4% 36,7% 37,1% 37,5% 37,8% 38,2% 38,5% 38,9% 39,2% 39,6% 40,0% 40,3%
Ak-10%
13500 13400 13200 13000 12800
16,2% 16,4% 16,8% 17,2% 17,6%
17,4% 17,6% 18,0% 18,4% 18,8%
18,6% 18,8% 19,2% 19,6% 20,0%
19,7% 19,9% 20,4% 20,8% 21,2%
20,9% 21,1% 21,5% 21,9% 22,3%
22,1% 22,3% 22,7% 23,1% 23,5%
23,2% 23,4% 23,8% 24,2% 24,6%
24,4% 24,5% 24,9% 25,3% 25,7%
25,5% 25,7% 26,1% 26,5% 26,8%
26,6% 26,8% 27,2% 27,6% 28,0%
27,7% 27,9% 28,3% 28,7% 29,1%
28,8% 29,0% 29,4% 29,8% 30,2%
29,9% 30,1% 30,5% 30,9% 31,3%
31,0% 31,2% 31,6% 32,0% 32,3%
32,1% 32,3% 32,7% 33,0% 33,4%
33,2% 33,4% 33,7% 34,1% 34,5%
34,3% 34,4% 34,8% 35,2% 35,5%
34,8% 35,0% 35,3% 35,7% 36,1%
35,3% 35,5% 35,9% 36,2% 36,6%
36,3% 36,5% 36,9% 37,2% 37,6%
36,4% 36,5% 36,9% 37,3% 37,6%
37,1% 37,2% 37,6% 38,0% 38,3%
37,4% 37,6% 37,9% 38,3% 38,7%
37,8% 38,0% 38,4% 38,7% 39,1%
38,4% 38,6% 39,0% 39,3% 39,7%
39,5% 39,6% 40,0% 40,4% 40,7%
40,5% 40,7% 41,0% 41,4% 41,7%
Ak-15%
12750 12600
17,7% 18,1%
18,9% 19,2%
20,1% 20,4%
21,3% 21,6%
22,4% 22,7%
23,6% 23,9%
24,7% 25,0%
25,8% 26,1%
26,9% 27,2%
28,1% 28,3%
29,2% 29,5%
30,3% 30,5%
31,4% 31,6%
32,4% 32,7%
33,5% 33,8%
34,6% 34,8%
35,6% 35,9%
36,2% 36,4%
36,7% 37,0%
37,7% 37,9%
37,7% 38,0%
38,4% 38,7%
38,8% 39,0%
39,2% 39,4%
39,8% 40,0%
40,8% 41,1%
41,8% 42,1%
XXIII
Ak-20%
12000
19,3%
20,4%
21,6%
22,8%
23,9%
25,0%
26,2%
27,3%
28,4%
29,5%
30,6%
31,7%
32,8%
33,8%
34,9%
35,9%
37,0%
37,5%
38,0%
39,0%
39,1%
39,8%
40,1%
40,5%
41,1%
42,1%
43,1%
BC6
C0
B0
A0
A0-10%
A0-15%
A0-20%
Bk
4000
3880
3760
3640
3520
3400
3280
3160
3040
3000
2920
2800
2680
2600
2560
2440
2340
2320
2210
2200
2080
1960
1840
1720
1600
1480
1360
18000
0,0%
1,2%
2,4%
3,6%
4,8%
5,9%
7,0%
8,1%
9,2%
9,5%
10,2%
11,2%
12,2%
12,9%
13,2%
14,1%
14,9%
15,0%
15,9%
15,9%
16,8%
17,7%
18,5%
19,3%
20,1%
20,9%
21,6%
Ak
17900
0,2%
1,4%
2,6%
3,8%
4,9%
6,1%
7,2%
8,2%
9,3%
9,7%
10,3%
11,4%
12,3%
13,0%
13,3%
14,3%
15,0%
15,2%
16,0%
16,1%
16,9%
17,8%
18,6%
19,4%
20,2%
21,0%
21,7%
17800
0,4%
1,6%
2,8%
3,9%
5,1%
6,2%
7,3%
8,4%
9,5%
9,8%
10,5%
11,5%
12,5%
13,1%
13,4%
14,4%
15,2%
15,3%
16,1%
16,2%
17,1%
17,9%
18,7%
19,5%
20,3%
21,1%
21,8%
17700
0,5%
1,8%
2,9%
4,1%
5,3%
6,4%
7,5%
8,6%
9,6%
10,0%
10,6%
11,6%
12,6%
13,3%
13,6%
14,5%
15,3%
15,4%
16,3%
16,3%
17,2%
18,0%
18,9%
19,7%
20,4%
21,2%
21,9%
17600
0,7%
1,9%
3,1%
4,3%
5,4%
6,5%
7,6%
8,7%
9,8%
10,1%
10,8%
11,8%
12,8%
13,4%
13,7%
14,7%
15,4%
15,6%
16,4%
16,5%
17,3%
18,2%
19,0%
19,8%
20,5%
21,3%
22,0%
17500
0,9%
2,1%
3,3%
4,4%
5,6%
6,7%
7,8%
8,9%
9,9%
10,3%
10,9%
11,9%
12,9%
13,5%
13,9%
14,8%
15,5%
15,7%
16,5%
16,6%
17,4%
18,3%
19,1%
19,9%
20,6%
21,4%
22,1%
17400
1,1%
2,3%
3,5%
4,6%
5,7%
6,9%
7,9%
9,0%
10,1%
10,4%
11,1%
12,1%
13,0%
13,7%
14,0%
14,9%
15,7%
15,8%
16,6%
16,7%
17,6%
18,4%
19,2%
20,0%
20,8%
21,5%
22,2%
17300
1,2%
2,4%
3,6%
4,8%
5,9%
7,0%
8,1%
9,2%
10,2%
10,5%
11,2%
12,2%
13,2%
13,8%
14,1%
15,1%
15,8%
16,0%
16,8%
16,8%
17,7%
18,5%
19,3%
20,1%
20,9%
21,6%
22,3%
17200
1,4%
2,6%
3,8%
4,9%
6,1%
7,2%
8,3%
9,3%
10,4%
10,7%
11,4%
12,4%
13,3%
14,0%
14,3%
15,2%
15,9%
16,1%
16,9%
17,0%
17,8%
18,6%
19,4%
20,2%
21,0%
21,7%
22,4%
17100
1,6%
2,8%
4,0%
5,1%
6,2%
7,3%
8,4%
9,5%
10,5%
10,8%
11,5%
12,5%
13,5%
14,1%
14,4%
15,3%
16,1%
16,2%
17,0%
17,1%
17,9%
18,7%
19,5%
20,3%
21,1%
21,8%
22,5%
17000
1,8%
3,0%
4,1%
5,3%
6,4%
7,5%
8,6%
9,6%
10,7%
11,0%
11,7%
12,6%
13,6%
14,2%
14,5%
15,4%
16,2%
16,3%
17,1%
17,2%
18,0%
18,9%
19,7%
20,4%
21,2%
21,9%
22,6%
16900
1,9%
3,1%
4,3%
5,4%
6,6%
7,7%
8,7%
9,8%
10,8%
11,1%
11,8%
12,8%
13,7%
14,4%
14,7%
15,6%
16,3%
16,5%
17,3%
17,3%
18,2%
19,0%
19,8%
20,5%
21,3%
22,0%
22,7%
16800
2,1%
3,3%
4,5%
5,6%
6,7%
7,8%
8,9%
9,9%
10,9%
11,3%
11,9%
12,9%
13,9%
14,5%
14,8%
15,7%
16,4%
16,6%
17,4%
17,4%
18,3%
19,1%
19,9%
20,7%
21,4%
22,1%
22,8%
16700
2,3%
3,5%
4,6%
5,8%
6,9%
8,0%
9,0%
10,1%
11,1%
11,4%
12,1%
13,1%
14,0%
14,6%
14,9%
15,8%
16,6%
16,7%
17,5%
17,6%
18,4%
19,2%
20,0%
20,8%
21,5%
22,2%
22,9%
16600
2,5%
3,6%
4,8%
5,9%
7,0%
8,1%
9,2%
10,2%
11,2%
11,6%
12,2%
13,2%
14,1%
14,8%
15,1%
16,0%
16,7%
16,8%
17,6%
17,7%
18,5%
19,3%
20,1%
20,9%
21,6%
22,3%
23,0%
16500
2,6%
3,8%
5,0%
6,1%
7,2%
8,3%
9,3%
10,4%
11,4%
11,7%
12,4%
13,3%
14,3%
14,9%
15,2%
16,1%
16,8%
17,0%
17,7%
17,8%
18,6%
19,4%
20,2%
21,0%
21,7%
22,4%
23,1%
16400
2,8%
4,0%
5,1%
6,2%
7,4%
8,4%
9,5%
10,5%
11,5%
11,9%
12,5%
13,5%
14,4%
15,0%
15,3%
16,2%
16,9%
17,1%
17,9%
17,9%
18,8%
19,6%
20,3%
21,1%
21,8%
22,5%
23,2%
16300
3,0%
4,1%
5,3%
6,4%
7,5%
8,6%
9,6%
10,7%
11,7%
12,0%
12,7%
13,6%
14,5%
15,2%
15,5%
16,3%
17,1%
17,2%
18,0%
18,1%
18,9%
19,7%
20,4%
21,2%
21,9%
22,6%
23,3%
16200
3,1%
4,3%
5,5%
6,6%
7,7%
8,7%
9,8%
10,8%
11,8%
12,1%
12,8%
13,7%
14,7%
15,3%
15,6%
16,5%
17,2%
17,3%
18,1%
18,2%
19,0%
19,8%
20,6%
21,3%
22,0%
22,7%
23,4%
16100
3,3%
4,5%
5,6%
6,7%
7,8%
8,9%
9,9%
11,0%
12,0%
12,3%
12,9%
13,9%
14,8%
15,4%
15,7%
16,6%
17,3%
17,5%
18,2%
18,3%
19,1%
19,9%
20,7%
21,4%
22,1%
22,8%
23,5%
16000
3,5%
4,6%
5,8%
6,9%
8,0%
9,0%
10,1%
11,1%
12,1%
12,4%
13,1%
14,0%
14,9%
15,5%
15,8%
16,7%
17,4%
17,6%
18,3%
18,4%
19,2%
20,0%
20,8%
21,5%
22,2%
22,9%
23,6%
Ak-10%
15900
3,7%
4,8%
5,9%
7,0%
8,1%
9,2%
10,2%
11,2%
12,2%
12,6%
13,2%
14,2%
15,1%
15,7%
16,0%
16,9%
17,6%
17,7%
18,5%
18,5%
19,3%
20,1%
20,9%
21,6%
22,3%
23,0%
23,7%
15800
3,8%
5,0%
6,1%
7,2%
8,3%
9,3%
10,4%
11,4%
12,4%
12,7%
13,3%
14,3%
15,2%
15,8%
16,1%
17,0%
17,7%
17,8%
18,6%
18,7%
19,5%
20,2%
21,0%
21,7%
22,4%
23,1%
23,8%
15700
4,0%
5,1%
6,3%
7,4%
8,4%
9,5%
10,5%
11,5%
12,5%
12,8%
13,5%
14,4%
15,3%
15,9%
16,2%
17,1%
17,8%
17,9%
18,7%
18,8%
19,6%
20,3%
21,1%
21,8%
22,5%
23,2%
23,9%
15600
4,2%
5,3%
6,4%
7,5%
8,6%
9,6%
10,7%
11,7%
12,7%
13,0%
13,6%
14,6%
15,5%
16,1%
16,4%
17,2%
17,9%
18,1%
18,8%
18,9%
19,7%
20,5%
21,2%
21,9%
22,6%
23,3%
24,0%
15500
4,3%
5,5%
6,6%
7,7%
8,8%
9,8%
10,8%
11,8%
12,8%
13,1%
13,8%
14,7%
15,6%
16,2%
16,5%
17,3%
18,0%
18,2%
18,9%
19,0%
19,8%
20,6%
21,3%
22,0%
22,7%
23,4%
24,1%
15400
4,5%
5,6%
6,7%
7,8%
8,9%
9,9%
11,0%
12,0%
12,9%
13,3%
13,9%
14,8%
15,7%
16,3%
16,6%
17,5%
18,2%
18,3%
19,1%
19,1%
19,9%
20,7%
21,4%
22,1%
22,8%
23,5%
24,2%
15300
4,7%
5,8%
6,9%
8,0%
9,1%
10,1%
11,1%
12,1%
13,1%
13,4%
14,0%
15,0%
15,9%
16,4%
16,7%
17,6%
18,3%
18,4%
19,2%
19,2%
20,0%
20,8%
21,5%
22,2%
22,9%
23,6%
24,2%
15200
4,8%
6,0%
7,1%
8,1%
9,2%
10,2%
11,3%
12,3%
13,2%
13,5%
14,2%
15,1%
16,0%
16,6%
16,9%
17,7%
18,4%
18,5%
19,3%
19,3%
20,1%
20,9%
21,6%
22,3%
23,0%
23,7%
24,3%
15100
5,0%
6,1%
7,2%
8,3%
9,4%
10,4%
11,4%
12,4%
13,4%
13,7%
14,3%
15,2%
16,1%
16,7%
17,0%
17,8%
18,5%
18,7%
19,4%
19,5%
20,2%
21,0%
21,7%
22,4%
23,1%
23,8%
24,4%
15000
5,2%
6,3%
7,4%
8,5%
9,5%
10,5%
11,6%
12,5%
13,5%
13,8%
14,4%
15,4%
16,2%
16,8%
17,1%
18,0%
18,6%
18,8%
19,5%
19,6%
20,4%
21,1%
21,8%
22,5%
23,2%
23,9%
24,5%
14900
5,3%
6,4%
7,5%
8,6%
9,7%
10,7%
11,7%
12,7%
13,6%
13,9%
14,6%
15,5%
16,4%
16,9%
17,2%
18,1%
18,8%
18,9%
19,6%
19,7%
20,5%
21,2%
21,9%
22,6%
23,3%
24,0%
24,6%
14800
5,5%
6,6%
7,7%
8,8%
9,8%
10,8%
11,8%
12,8%
13,8%
14,1%
14,7%
15,6%
16,5%
17,1%
17,4%
18,2%
18,9%
19,0%
19,7%
19,8%
20,6%
21,3%
22,0%
22,7%
23,4%
24,1%
24,7%
14700
5,6%
6,8%
7,8%
8,9%
10,0%
11,0%
12,0%
13,0%
13,9%
14,2%
14,8%
15,7%
16,6%
17,2%
17,5%
18,3%
19,0%
19,1%
19,9%
19,9%
20,7%
21,4%
22,1%
22,8%
23,5%
24,2%
24,8%
14600
5,8%
6,9%
8,0%
9,1%
10,1%
11,1%
12,1%
13,1%
14,0%
14,4%
15,0%
15,9%
16,7%
17,3%
17,6%
18,4%
19,1%
19,2%
20,0%
20,0%
20,8%
21,5%
22,2%
22,9%
23,6%
24,3%
24,9%
14500
6,0%
7,1%
8,2%
9,2%
10,3%
11,3%
12,3%
13,2%
14,2%
14,5%
15,1%
16,0%
16,9%
17,4%
17,7%
18,6%
19,2%
19,4%
20,1%
20,1%
20,9%
21,6%
22,3%
23,0%
23,7%
24,3%
25,0%
14400
6,1%
7,2%
8,3%
9,4%
10,4%
11,4%
12,4%
13,4%
14,3%
14,6%
15,2%
16,1%
17,0%
17,6%
17,8%
18,7%
19,3%
19,5%
20,2%
20,3%
21,0%
21,7%
22,4%
23,1%
23,8%
24,4%
25,1%
Ak-15% Ak-20%
14300
6,3%
7,4%
8,5%
9,5%
10,6%
11,6%
12,5%
13,5%
14,4%
14,8%
15,4%
16,3%
17,1%
17,7%
18,0%
18,8%
19,5%
19,6%
20,3%
20,4%
21,1%
21,8%
22,5%
23,2%
23,9%
24,5%
25,1%
14200
6,5%
7,5%
8,6%
9,7%
10,7%
11,7%
12,7%
13,6%
14,6%
14,9%
15,5%
16,4%
17,2%
17,8%
18,1%
18,9%
19,6%
19,7%
20,4%
20,5%
21,2%
21,9%
22,6%
23,3%
24,0%
24,6%
25,2%
14100
6,6%
7,7%
8,8%
9,8%
10,8%
11,9%
12,8%
13,8%
14,7%
15,0%
15,6%
16,5%
17,4%
17,9%
18,2%
19,0%
19,7%
19,8%
20,5%
20,6%
21,3%
22,1%
22,7%
23,4%
24,1%
24,7%
25,3%
14000
6,8%
7,9%
8,9%
10,0%
11,0%
12,0%
13,0%
13,9%
14,8%
15,2%
15,8%
16,6%
17,5%
18,1%
18,3%
19,1%
19,8%
19,9%
20,6%
20,7%
21,4%
22,2%
22,8%
23,5%
24,2%
24,8%
25,4%
13900
6,9%
8,0%
9,1%
10,1%
11,1%
12,1%
13,1%
14,1%
15,0%
15,3%
15,9%
16,8%
17,6%
18,2%
18,4%
19,3%
19,9%
20,0%
20,7%
20,8%
21,5%
22,3%
22,9%
23,6%
24,3%
24,9%
25,5%
13800
7,1%
8,2%
9,2%
10,3%
11,3%
12,3%
13,2%
14,2%
15,1%
15,4%
16,0%
16,9%
17,7%
18,3%
18,6%
19,4%
20,0%
20,2%
20,8%
20,9%
21,6%
22,4%
23,0%
23,7%
24,4%
25,0%
25,6%
XXIV
13600
7,4%
8,5%
9,5%
10,6%
11,6%
12,6%
13,5%
14,5%
15,4%
15,7%
16,3%
17,1%
18,0%
18,5%
18,8%
19,6%
20,2%
20,4%
21,1%
21,1%
21,9%
22,6%
23,2%
23,9%
24,5%
25,1%
25,7%
12800
8,7%
9,7%
10,7%
11,7%
12,7%
13,7%
14,6%
15,5%
16,4%
16,7%
17,3%
18,1%
18,9%
19,5%
19,7%
20,5%
21,1%
21,2%
21,9%
22,0%
22,7%
23,3%
24,0%
24,6%
25,2%
25,8%
26,4%
BC7
110
107,5
105
102,5
100
97,5
95
92,5
90
87,5
85
82,5
80
77,5
75
72,5
70
67,5
65
62,5
60
57,5
55
750
0%
0%
1%
1%
2%
2%
2%
3%
3%
4%
4%
4%
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
740
0%
1%
1%
2%
2%
2%
3%
3%
3%
4%
4%
5%
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
730
1%
1%
1%
2%
2%
3%
3%
3%
4%
4%
4%
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
720
1%
1%
2%
2%
2%
3%
3%
4%
4%
4%
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
710
1%
2%
2%
2%
3%
3%
3%
4%
4%
5%
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
700
1%
2%
2%
3%
3%
3%
4%
4%
4%
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
690
2%
2%
2%
3%
3%
4%
4%
4%
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
680
2%
2%
3%
3%
3%
4%
4%
5%
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
670
2%
3%
3%
3%
4%
4%
4%
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
660
2%
3%
3%
4%
4%
4%
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
650
3%
3%
3%
4%
4%
5%
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
640
3%
3%
4%
4%
4%
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
630
3%
4%
4%
4%
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
620
3%
4%
4%
5%
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
610
4%
4%
4%
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
600
4%
4%
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
590
4%
5%
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
580
4%
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
9%
570
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
8%
560
5%
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
8%
8%
550
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
9%
8%
8%
540
5%
6%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
530
5%
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
520
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
510
6%
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
500
6%
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
490
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
480
6%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
470
7%
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
460
7%
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
7%
450
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
7%
7%
440
7%
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
7%
7%
430
7%
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
7%
7%
7%
420
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
7%
7%
7%
6%
410
7%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
7%
7%
7%
6%
400
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
7%
7%
7%
6%
6%
390
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
7%
7%
7%
6%
6%
6%
380
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
7%
7%
7%
6%
6%
5%
370
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
7%
7%
7%
6%
6%
5%
5%
360
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
7%
7%
7%
6%
6%
6%
5%
4%
350
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
7%
7%
7%
6%
6%
5%
5%
4%
340
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
7%
7%
7%
6%
6%
5%
5%
4%
4%
XXV
330
8%
8%
8%
8%
9%
9%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
8%
7%
7%
7%
6%
6%
6%
5%
4%
4%
3%
ANNEX 7: Environmental Impacts (VITO & BIOIS, 2011)
The transformer use phase is by far the most impacting stage of the life cycle in terms of
energy consumption, water consumption, greenhouse gases emissions and acidification.
The production phase has a significant contribution to the following impacts: generation
of non-hazardous waste, Volatile Organic Compounds, Persistent Organic Pollutants, Polycyclic
Aromatic Hydrocarbons emissions and eutrophication.
Finally, the end-of-life phase is significant for the generation of hazardous waste, the
particulate matter emissions and the eutrophication, either due to mineral oil or resin.
Life Cycle Environmental Impacts
Base-case 1: Distribution transformer
The total energy consumption for the whole life cycle of the distribution transformer
base-case is 3.41 TJ, of which 3.32 TJ (i.e. 316 MWh19) electricity. In the next graph we can see
the contribution of each life cycle phase to each impact.
19
The MEEuP specifies a value of 10.5 MJ/kWhe, for electricity from the public grid.
XXIII
Figure 36 - Distribution of environmental impacts of BC 1 per life cycle phase (LOT 2 – Preparatory study, VITO, 2011).
Within the production phase, the impacts due to the manufacturing processes are very
low (maximum of 2 % for eutrophication). However, the extraction and production of raw
material significantly contributes to some emissions, such as volatile organic compounds (VOC)
(24%), persistent organic pollutants (POP) (43%) eutrophication (50%) or polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) (52%), as well as to the generation of non-hazardous waste because of the
high steel and copper content (53%). Core steel is the main material responsible for POP
emissions. Aluminium and oil induce high PAHs impacts.
The use phase accounts for 97% of the energy consumption over the whole life cycle,
more than 99.5% of the electricity use and 96.7% of the greenhouse gases emissions. These
impacts are almost exclusively due to the electricity losses during the use phase, with
maintenance and spare parts impacts being negligible.
The distribution phase is negligible for all impacts except for Particulate Matter (PM) for
which it accounts for around 13% of the emissions because of the transformer transportation.
Finally, the end-of-life accounts for 78% of the hazardous waste generated, 42% of PM
emissions to the air, 22% of the eutrophication impacts and 7% of heavy metals emissions. For
all other impacts, it has a negligible influence. The incineration of oil is the main reason for the
XXIV
high contributions to hazardous waste, PM and eutrophication, even if it also reduces slightly
the energy consumption over the whole life cycle because of the energy recovery process.
Base-case 2: Industry oil transformer
The total energy consumption for the whole life cycle of this transformer base-case is
7.34 TJ, of which 7.16 TJ (i.e. 682 MWh) electricity. In the next graph we can see the
contribution of each life cycle phase to each impact.
Figure 37 - Distribution of environmental impacts of BC 2 per life cycle phase (LOT 2 – Preparatory study, VITO, 2011).
Within the production phase, the impacts due to the manufacturing processes are very
low (maximum of 2% for eutrophication). However, the extraction and production of raw
material significantly contributes to some emissions, such as VOC (22%), POP (40%) or PAHs
(52%), as well as to the generation of non-hazardous waste because of the high steel and copper
content (53%). Core steel is the main material responsible for POP emissions while aluminium
and oil induce high PAHs impacts. Eutrophication level is due to coatings, paper, core steel and
copper wire.
The use phase accounts for 97.1% of the energy consumption over the whole life cycle,
99.6% of the electricity use and 97% of the greenhouse gases emissions. These impacts are
XXV
almost exclusively due to the electricity losses during the use phase, the maintenance and spare
parts impacts being negligible.
The distribution phase is negligible for all impacts except for Particulate Matter (PM) for
which it accounts for around 10% of the emissions because of the transformer transportation.
Finally, the end-of-life accounts for 75% of the hazardous waste generated, 42% of PM
emissions to the air, 23% of the eutrophication impacts and 6% of heavy metals emissions. For
all other impacts, it has a negligible influence. The incineration of oil is the main reason for the
contributions to hazardous waste, PM and HM, even if it also reduces slightly the energy
consumption over the whole life cycle because of the energy recovery process.
Base-case 3: Industry dry transformer
The total energy consumption for the whole life cycle of the dry-type transformer basecase is 12.83 TJ, of which 12.58 TJ (i.e. 1.2 GWh) electricity. In the next graph we can see the
contribution of each life cycle phase to each impact.
Figure 38 - Distribution of environmental impacts of BC 3 per life cycle phase (LOT 2 – Preparatory study, VITO, 2011).
XXVI
Within the production phase, the manufacturing impacts are very small and the material
extraction and production are responsible for the important contribution of this phase to the
quantity of landfilled waste (32%) because of the high metal content. Also, core steel highly
contributes to the important percentage of this phase in terms of POP emissions (38%) and
eutrophication (76%) while aluminium results in high PAHs emissions (58%).
As expected, the use phase is the main contributor with over 97% of all the following
impacts: total energy (98%) and electricity consumption (99.7%), water for processing,
greenhouse gases emissions and acidification. The smallest contributions occur for
eutrophication (20%) and PAHs (42%). The electricity losses are the only reason for these
impacts as the contribution of maintenance, spare parts or kilometres over product life are
negligible in comparison.
The distribution is negligible for all impacts except for Particulate Matter (PM) for which
it accounts for around 8% of the emissions because of the transformer transportation.
The end-of-life is only significant for the hazardous and incinerated waste impact (36%)
because of the incineration of epoxy resign and other plastics materials during the end-of-life
management. Both incineration and disposal of waste are responsible for the contribution of
this phase to PM (16%) and eutrophication impacts (4%).
Base-case 4: Power transformer
The total energy consumption for the whole life cycle of the power transformer basecase is 172.9 TJ, of which 164.8 TJ (i.e. 15.7 GWh) electricity. In the next graph we can see the
contribution of each life cycle phase to each impact.
XXVII
Figure 39 - Distribution of environmental impacts of BC 4 per life cycle phase (LOT 2 – Preparatory study, VITO, 2011).
Within the production phase, the impacts due to the manufacturing processes are very
low (maximum of 3% for eutrophication). However, the extraction and production of raw
material significantly contributes to some emissions, such as VOC (38%), POP (53%) or PAHs
(66%), as well as to the generation of non-hazardous waste because of the high steel and copper
content (69%). Core steel is the main material responsible for POP emissions while mineral oil
results in high levels of VOC and PAHs.
The use phase is overwhelming for energy (95%) and electricity (99.3%) consumption,
which is again only due the electricity losses during the lifetime and not to maintenance or spare
parts. In terms of emissions, its contribution varies between 22% for PM and 94% for GWP, and
also represents around 46% of POP and 61% of HM emissions.
The distribution phase is negligible for all impacts except for PM for which it accounts
for around 15% of the emissions because of the transformer transportation.
Finally, the end-of-life accounts for 88% of the hazardous waste generated, 57% of PM
emissions to the air, 33% of the eutrophication impacts and 11% of heavy metals emissions. For
all other impacts, it has a negligible influence. The incineration of oil is the main reason for the
XXVIII
high contributions to hazardous waste, PM and HM, even if it also reduces slightly the energy
consumption over the whole life cycle because of the energy recovery process.
Base-case 5: DER oil transformer
The total energy consumption for the whole life cycle of the oil-immersed DER
transformer base-case is 15.9 TJ, of which 15.6 TJ (i.e. 1.5 GWh) electricity. In the next graph we
can see the contribution of each life cycle phase to each impact.
Figure 40 - Distribution of environmental impacts of BC 5 per life cycle phase (LOT 2 – Preparatory study, VITO, 2011).
Within the production phase, the impacts due to the manufacturing processes are very
low (maximum of 2% for eutrophication). However, the extraction and production of raw
material significantly contributes to some emissions, such as VOC (18%), POP (38%) or PAHs
(53%), as well as to the generation of non-hazardous waste because of the high steel and copper
content (48%). Core steel is the main material responsible for POP emissions while mineral oil
and aluminium induce high PAHs impacts.
XXIX
The use phase accounts for 97.5% of the energy consumption over the whole life cycle,
99.7% of the electricity use and 97% of the greenhouse gases emissions. These impacts are
almost exclusively due to the electricity losses during the use phase.
The distribution phase is negligible for all impacts except for PM for which it accounts
for around 7% of the emissions because of the transformer transportation.
Finally, the end-of-life accounts for 70% of the hazardous waste generated, 38% of PM
emissions to the air, 20% of the eutrophication impacts and 5% of heavy metals emissions. For
all other impacts, it has a negligible influence. The incineration of oil is the main reason for the
contributions to hazardous waste, PM and HM, even if it also reduces slightly the energy
consumption over the whole life cycle because of the energy recovery process.
Base-case 6: DER dry transformer
The total energy consumption for the whole life cycle of the dry-type DER transformer
base-case is 16.9 TJ, of which 16.4 TJ (i.e. 1.56 GWh) electricity. In the next graph we can see the
contribution of each life cycle phase to each impact.
XXX
Figure 41 - Distribution of environmental impacts of BC 6 per life cycle phase (LOT 2 – Preparatory study, VITO, 2011).
Within the production phase, the manufacturing impacts are very small: the maximum
contribution is 2% in HM emissions, because of the sheet metal scrap generated during the
manufacturing. The material extraction and production are responsible for the important
contribution of this phase to the quantity of landfilled waste (33%) because of the high
aluminium and core steel content. Also, core steel highly contributes to the important
percentage of this phase in terms of POP emissions (48%) and eutrophication (67%) while
aluminium results in high PAHs emissions (71%).
Also, the VOC emissions (around 9%
contribution of the production phase) are mainly the consequence of the production of
ceramics.
As expected, the use phase is the main contributor to the following impacts: total
energy (97%) and electricity consumption (99.6%), water for processing, greenhouse gases
emissions (96.5%) and acidification (97.4%). The smallest contributions occur for eutrophication
and PAHs (25% and 29%). The electricity losses are the only reason for these impacts as the
contribution of maintenance, spare parts or kilometres over product life are negligible in
comparison.
XXXI
The distribution is negligible for all impacts except for PM for which it accounts for
around 8% of the emissions because of the transformer transportation. It also represents 1% of
the VOC emissions.
The end-of-life is only significant for the hazardous and incinerated waste impact (31%)
because of the incineration of epoxy resin and other plastics materials during the end-of-life
management. Both incineration and disposal of waste are responsible for the contribution of
this phase to PM (20%) and eutrophication impacts (6%).
Base-case 7: Separation/isolation transformer
The total energy consumption for the whole life cycle of the separation/isolation
transformer base-case is 63.1 GJ, of which 53.6 GJ (i.e. 5.1 MWh) electricity. In the next graph
we can see the contribution of each life cycle phase to each impact.
XXXII
Figure 42 - Distribution of environmental impacts of BC 7 per life cycle phase (LOT 2 –
Preparatory study, VITO, 2011).
Within the production phase, the manufacturing impacts are very small: the maximum
contribution is 3% in eutrophication, because of the sheet metal scrap generated during the
manufacturing. The material extraction and production are responsible for the important
contribution of this phase to the quantity of landfilled waste (91%) and eutrophication potential
(79%) because of the aluminium and core steel content. Also, core steel highly contributes to
the important percentage of this phase in terms of POP emissions (78%) while PAHs (35%), HM
(63%) and acidification (44%) impacts are mainly due to the copper.
As expected, the use phase is the main contributor to the following impacts: total
energy (86%) and electricity consumption (98.9%), water for processing (99.8%), greenhouse
gases emissions (84%) and particulate matter (91%). The smallest contributions occur for
eutrophication (16%), POPs emissions (20%) and generation of non-hazardous waste (8%). The
electricity losses are the main reason for these impacts.
The distribution is negligible for all impacts except for PM for which it accounts for
around 2.8% of the emissions because of the transformer transportation. It also represents 1.9%
of the VOC emissions.
XXXIII
The end-of-life is also negligible for all impacts except for eutrophication (2.5%) and PM
(1.5%). As only metal components are present in the BOM, no material is incinerated (like resin
or oil for the other base-cases). Besides, the disposal percentage is low (assumed to be 1%)
which explains the low impacts of this life cycle phase.
XXXIV
ANNEX 8: European Distribution Transformer Loss standards
Table 20 - HD428/HD538
Load Losses for Distribution Transformers
RATED
POWER
OIL-FILLED (HD428) UP TO 24kV
No-Load Losses for Distribution Transformers
DRY TYPE
(HD538)
DRY TYPE
(HD538)
OIL-FILLED (HD428) UP TO 24kV
LIST A
LIST B
LIST C
12kV PRIMARY
LIST A’
LIST B’
LIST C’
12kV PRIMARY
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
W
50
1100
1350
875
N/A
190
145
125
N/A
100
1750
2150
1475
2000
320
260
210
440
160
2350
3100
2000
2700
460
375
300
610
250
3250
4200
2750
3500
650
530
425
820
400
4600
6000
3850
4900
930
750
610
1150
630 /4%
6500
8400
5400
7300
1300
1030
860
1500
630 /6%
6750
8700
5600
7600
1200
940
800
1370
1000
10500
13000
9500
10000
1700
1400
1100
2000
1600
17000
20000
14000
14000
2600
2200
1700
2800
2500
26500
32000
22000
21000
3800
3200
2500
2200
kVA
Table 21 - EN 50464-1
No load losses P (W) and sound power level (Lw ) for U≤24 kV.
Rated
power
kVA
E0
D0
C0
B0
Short circuit
impedance
A0
P0
LwA
P0
LwA
P0
LwA
P0
LwA
P0
LwA
W
dB(A)
W
dB(A)
W
dB(A)
W
dB(A)
W
dB(A)
50
190
55
145
50
125
47
110
42
90
39
100
320
59
260
54
210
49
180
44
145
41
160
460
62
375
57
300
52
260
47
210
44
250
650
65
530
60
425
55
360
50
300
47
315
770
67
630
61
520
57
440
52
360
49
400
930
68
750
63
610
58
520
53
430
50
500
1 100
69
880
64
720
59
610
54
510
51
630
1 300
70
1 030
65
860
60
730
55
600
52
630
1 200
70
940
65
800
60
680
55
560
52
800
1 400
71
1 150
66
930
61
800
56
650
53
1 000
1 700
73
1 400
68
1 100
63
940
58
770
55
1 250
2 100
74
1 750
69
1 350
64
1150
59
950
56
%
4
XXXV
1 600
2 600
76
2 200
71
1 700
66
1450
61
1 200
58
2 000
3 100
78
2 700
73
2 100
68
1800
63
1 450
60
2 500
3 500
81
3 200
76
2 500
71
2150
66
1 750
63
6
Table 22 - EN 50464-1
Load losses Pk (W) at 75 °C for Um ≤ 24 kV.
Rated
power
Dk
Ck
Bk
Ak
Short circuit
impedance
KVA
W
W
W
W
%
50
1 350
1 100
875
750
100
2 150
1 750
1 475
1250
160
3 100
2 350
2 000
1 700
250
4 200
3 250
2 750
2 350
315
5 000
3 900
3 250
2800
400
6 000
4 600
3 850
3 250
500
7 200
5 500
4 600
3 900
630
8 400
6 500
5400
4600
630
8 700
6 750
5 600
4 800
800
10 500
8 400
7 000
6 000
1 000
13 000 10 500
9000
7 600
1 250
16 000 13 500 11 000
9 500
1 600
20 000 17 000 14 000 12 000
2 000
26 000 21 000 18 000 15 000
2 500
32 000 26 500 22 000 18 500
4
6
Table 23 - EN 50464-1
Load losses Pk36 (W) at 75 °C for Um = 36 kV.
Rated
power
Ck36
Bk36
Ak36
KVA
W
W
W
50
1 450
1 250
1 050
100
2 350
1 950
1 650
160
3 350
2 550
2 150
250
4 250
3 500
3 000
400
6 200
4 900
4 150
630
8 800
6 500
5500
Short-circuit
impedance
%
4 or 4,5
XXXVI
800
10 500
8 400
7 000
1 000
13 000
10 500
8 900
1 250
16 000
13 500
11500
1 600
19 200
17 000
14 500
2 000
24 000
21000
18 000
2 500
29 400
26 500
22 500
6
Table 24 - EN 50464-1
No load losses P036 (W) and sound power level (Lw (A) ) for Um = 36 kV.
Rated power
kVA
C036
B036
Short-circuit
impedance
A036
P0
LwA
P0
LwA
P0
LwA
W
dB(A)
W
dB(A)
W
dB(A)
50
230
52
190
52
160
50
100
380
56
320
56
270
54
160
520
59
460
59
390
57
250
780
62
650
62
550
60
400
1 120
65
930
65
790
63
630
1 450
67
1 300
67
1 100
65
800
1 700
68
1 500
68
1 300
66
1 000
2000
68
1 700
68
1 450
67
1 250
2 400
70
2 100
70
1 750
68
1 600
2 800
71
2 600
71
2 200
69
2 000
3 400
73
3 150
73
2 700
71
2 500
4 100
76
3 800
76
3 200
73
%
4 or 4,5
6
XXXVII