Table S1
Summary of Reviewed Studies
Study
Participants
Curiosity definition and
coding category
Curiosity measure
Findings
Boscolo,
Ariasi, Del
Favero, &
Ballarin, 2011
N=247 11th-12th
graders
“Feeling the need
for more
information” (p.
470)
NK
Rated curiosity
experienced when
reading paragraphs
Interest in text topic significantly predicted
curiosity for paragraphs; curiosity differed
across different types of texts.
Bowler, 2010
N=10 students
(8 female) ages
16-18
“Curiosity is an
intellectual need, a
desire to know” (p.
1332)
NK
Coding of interviews
and journal or audio
entries for
“metacognitive
knowledge” during a
school-based research
project
Positive & negative feelings often felt
simultaneously when experiencing
curiosity; students recognized need to
regulate curiosity in order to complete task.
Byman, 2005
N=529 5th
graders
--
--
Test of intrinsic
motivation
(combined from other
tests such as OTIM)
Curiosity and sensation seeking emerged as
separate factors that were not strongly
related; evidence of a method effect of
teacher ratings.
OTIM-diversive
exploration subscale
Broad c-trait scale
SSS-V
Teacher ratings
Čavojová &
Sollár, 2007
N=88
undergrads
th
N= 157 4 &
5th graders
Chak, 2007
N=195
preschool
teachers
“Desire for
information in the
absence of any
external reward
(Loewenstein,
1994) and it is the
key motive of
human behavior”
(p. 89). “Positive
emotionalmotivational system
associated with the
recognition, pursuit,
and self-regulation
of novelty and
challenge” (p. 90)
NK
“Quest for
knowledge” (p.
142)
--
CEI (translated to
Slovak)
Data supported two-factor model with
exploration and absorption as separate but
positively related factors for both college
students and school children.
NK
Questionnaire about
conceptions of
curiosity
Teachers rated child characteristics as more
indicative of curiosity than did parents;
39% believed curiosity would decrease
over time, 59% believed it would stay the
same.
--
CEI-II
Curiosity did not moderate the relation
between goal relevance and interest.
CV
ExB
EmA
N=126 parents
of preschoolers
Connelly,
2011
N=65
undergraduates
Dickey, 2011
N= 20
undergrads,
self-identified
as digital game
players
--
--
Data collected from
chat logs and
observations while
playing an
educational computer
game; questionnaire
& interviews about
the game
Several participants noted curiosity about
specific pieces of evidence; 20% of
participants noted general curiosity to
“explore the environment” rather than
curiosity about a piece of evidence.
Engel &
Randall, 2009
N=31 teachers
“The need to
explain the
unexpected” or “the
need to resolve
uncertainty” (p.
184)
CV
Students during
experiment served as
confederates asked to
deviate from task and
ask inquiry/curiosity
questions
When teachers were given instructions to
help students learn more (rather than
instructions to help students complete a
worksheet), they were more likely to
support students’ deviations and questions.
Gilmore &
Cuskelly,
2011
N= 33 children
ages 3-8 with
Downs
Syndrome
--
--
Task: given doors
with either picture of
what is inside or
blank and invited to
open one or other to
look at picture behind
door
Curiosity not significantly different for
Downs Syndrome vs. typically dev kids;
curiosity positively related to social
persistence & creativity curiosity.
N=33 typically
developing
children ages 38
Kang et al.,
2009
Exp 1: N=19
undergrads
Exp 2: N=16
undergrads
Exp 3: N=30
undergrads
Kashdan et al., Exp 1: N=311
2009
undergrads
Exp 2: N=150
undergrads
Exp 3: N=119
undergrads
Kashdan,
Rose, &
Fincham,
2004
Multiple
samples of
undergrads, n=
214, 103, 97, &
100 in USA;
213 in multiple
countries
“desire for learning
and knowledge” (p.
963). “Curiosity is
the complex feeling
and cognition
accompanying the
desires to learn
what is unknown”
(p. 963)
NK
“Recognizing,
embracing, and
seeking out
knowledge and new
experiences” (p.
988)
EmA
Rate curiosity on 1-7
scale following each
of 40 trivia questions
Curiosity was highest for questions where
participants felt 45-55% confident of
answer; curiosity positively related to pupil
dilation, memory for answers, and
spending resources when learning new
information.
ExB
CEI-II
Creation of 10-item trait curiosity scale
with stretching and embracing uncertainty
factors that were positively related.
CEI
Factor analysis of CEI provided evidence
of exploration and absorption components;
absorption and exploration scales most
highly related to other curiosity scales but
also related to most other scales such as
NFC and Openness to Experience; stability
of response to CEI over 1-month
timeframe.
“a positive
CV
emotionalmotivational system ExB
associated with the
EmA
recognition, pursuit,
and self-regulation
of novel and
challenging
opportunities” (p.
291)
STPI
MCI
SSS-V
Kashdan &
Yuen, 2007
N=484 high
school students
“Feelings of
CV
curiosity can be
ExB
defined as the
recognition, pursuit,
and intense desire
to investigate novel,
challenging, or
puzzling
phenomena” (p.
260)
CEI
Perceived school challenge moderated the
relation between curiosity and standardized
test scores; students with higher curiosity
performed better when they perceived
school to be a challenging environment.
Knobloch,
Patzig,
Mende, &
Hastall, 2004
Exp. 1: N=95
undergrad &
other
--
Scale developed to
measure curiosity
induced by texts,
several questions
about how curious
felt while reading
Ratings of curiosity higher for narratives
presented in a reverse order format than a
linear or inverted format.
Exp. 2: N=83
undergrads
Exp. 3: N=133
general public
(mostly HS
students)
--
Koo & Choi,
2010
Lin, Wong, &
McBridgeChang, 2012
N=225
undergrads
(51%) and
others
N=104 5th
graders
“An intrinsic desire
for new information
to stimulate interest
and/or remove
uncertainty, which
is aroused by novel,
complex, or
ambiguous stimuli,
and motivates
exploratory
behavior (Litman,
Collins, &
Spielberger, 2005)”
(p. 14). “the desire
that motivates
individuals to learn
new ideas,
eliminate
information gaps,
and solve
intellectual
problems (Litman,
2008)” (p. 14)
NK
CFI scale
CV
CFD scale
“The desire to learn
about a topic of
interest via
reading” (p. 720)
NK
ExB
EmA
Curiosity subscale of
the Motivation for
Reading
Questionnaire (MRQ)
I-type and D-type curiosity moderated the
relation between perceived ease of use,
perceived enjoyment, and perceived
usefulness of Internet search, with a
stronger relation for those with high
curiosity.
Curiosity significantly related to reading
comprehension for Chinese, but not
English in a Hong Kong sample; curiosity
significantly related to additional
motivational subscales.
Litman, 2008
4 experiments:
Undergrads
N1=725
N2=658
N3=762
N4=515
Litman, 2010
Exp 1: N=372
undergrads
Exp 2: N=158
undergrads
Litman,
Exp 1: N=263
Crowson, &
community
Kolinski, 2010 members (nonstudents), ave.
age=35.35
Exp 2: N=202
employed
adults, ave.
age=48.58
“EC is the desire
NK
for knowledge that
ExB
motivates
individuals to learn
new ideas,
eliminate
information-gaps,
and solve
intellectual
problems” (p. 1586)
EC scale
“intrinsic desire to
seek out and
acquire new
information” (p.
397)
NK
EC scale
ExB
CFD scale
“EC is the desire to
obtain new
knowledge
expected to
stimulate positive
feelings of
intellectual interest
or reduce
undesirable states
of informational
deprivation” (p.
531)
NK
EC scale
EmA
CFD scale
CFD scale
Evidence of two factor model of EC with Itype & D-type curiosity; EC discursive
curiosity positively loaded on I-type factor,
and CFD-persistence positively loaded on
D-type factor; D-type positively related to
performance approach and avoidance and
mastery goal orientation; I-type strongly
positively related to mastery goal
orientation.
Positive relation between I & D-type
curiosity. I-type positively related and Dtype negatively related to ambiguity
tolerance. Anger, anxiety, & depression
positively related to D-type and negatively
related to I-type curiosity. Need for closure
negatively related to I-type curiosity.
Support for 2-factor I/D model in nonstudents; I-type EC positively associated
with educational level, intrinsic motivation,
& challenge, but negatively related to
external motivation-outward; D-type EC
positively associated with intrinsic
motivation and intrinsic motivationenjoyment, extrinsic motivation and
extrinsic motivation-outward.
Litman,
Hutchins &
Russon, 2005
Litman &
Jimerson,
2004
N=265
undergrads
N=321
undergrads
“desire for new
information that
motivates
exploratory
behaviour and
knowledge
acquisition” (p.
559)
NK
ExB
After knowledge
questions, rated
curiosity on 1-4 scale
EC scale
CFD scale
“a desire for new
NK
information aroused
by novel, complex, CV
or ambiguous
EmA
stimuli” (p. 147)
CFD
T-cur scale
(Spielberger et al.,
1976)
PC scale
EC scale
Litman &
Silvia, 2006
N=355
undergrads
“the desire for new
knowledge or
experience” (p.
318)
NK
C/IW scale
CEI
EC scale
PC scale
CFD scale
Feeling-of-knowing related to state EC,
with most curiosity when knowledge was
on the “tip of the tongue” (TOT) and least
curiosity when answer was known; EC
more highly related to “don’t know” and
CFD more highly related to “TOT;” EC &
CFD highly related.
Creation of 18-item CFD scale with three
factors: intolerance of situations where
information was inaccessible, need for
competence to reduce feelings of
ignorance, and problem-solving motivated
by feelings of tension or urgency; positive
relation between CFI and CFD subscales;
EC highly correlated with CFD.
Evidence for a two factor model of
curiosity, with CDF on one factor and all
other scales on other factor, and ECspecific exploration loading on both
factors; I-factor and D-factor highly
correlated.
Litman &
Spielberger,
2003
N=739
undergrads
“Desire for
acquiring new
knowledge and new
sensory experience
that motivates
exploratory
behavior” (p. 75)
NK
PC scale
ExB
EC scale
STPI
NES
Evidence for curiosity as unitary construct
with multiple dimensions; EC divided into
two factors: specific curiosity and diversive
curiosity; EC correlated with PC and other
measures of curiosity, but not measures of
sensation seeking.
SSS
Mascherek &
Zimprich,
2012
N=233
-members of the
Zurich
Longitudinal
Study on
Cognitive
Aging, ave. age
at T1= 72.99
years, at
T3=77.9 years
Mussel, 2010
N1=395
undergrads,
N2=191
undergrads
“desire for
knowledge that
motivates
individuals to learn
new ideas,
eliminate
information-gaps,
and solve
intellectual
problems” (p. 506)
--
Intellectual curiosity
factor of the Typical
Intellectual
Engagement (TIE)
Inventory
Decrease in intellectual curiosity across 5
years; intellectual curiosity positively
related to TIE factors of abstract thinking,
problem solving, and reading; positive
relation between the rate of change of
problem solving and rate of change of
intellectual curiosity across five years.
NK
EC scale
ExB
CFD scale
Curiosity measures, NFC, openness to
experience, and typical intellectual
engagement were all highly correlated, and
all loaded onto one factor; evidence only of
convergent, not discriminant validity.
CEI
Neblett,
Philip,
Cogburn, &
Sellers, 2006
N=548 African
American
adolescents
Reio,
N=369
Petrosko,
undergrads
Wiswell, &
Thongsukmag,
2006
Richter &
Schmid, 2010
N=124
undergrads
Curiosity subscale of
Wellborn’s scale of
behavioral
engagement
Curiosity significantly positively related to
academic persistence, self-worth, and
egalitarian messages, and negatively
related to racial discrimination, racial pride,
and negative messages.
“Curiosity can be
NK
broadly defined as a
ExB
desire to acquire
new [information
and] knowledge
and new sensory
experience that
motivates
exploratory
behavior” (p. 118)
MCI
Identification of three factors: cognitive
curiosity, physical thrill seeking, and social
thrill seeking; physical thrill seeking
positively related to cognitive curiosity and
social thrill seeking; cognitive curiosity
negatively related to social thrill seeking.
“Specific epistemic
curiosity is a
motivational state
that is aroused by
questions and
reduced by
knowledge
acquisition” (p. 51)
15-item scale devised
for this study
--
--
ExB
EmA
STPI
SSS
NES
ACS
Curiosity mediated the relation between
beliefs about uncertainty of knowledge and
consistency checking while reading a text.
Extrinsic motivation significantly
moderated the relation between uncertainty
beliefs and curiosity; significant relation
for individuals with low, but not high
extrinsic motivation.
Silvia, 2005
Exp 1: N=76
undergrads
--
--
Curiosity as part of a
question in interest
scale (exp 2)
Exp 2: N=32
undergrads
Exp 3: N=77
undergrads
Silvia, 2008
Exp 1: N=83
undergrads
Exp 2: N=122
undergrads
CEI (exp 1)
Interest, but not trait curiosity predicted
selection of complexity, enjoyment, and
interest in polygons; controlling for
curiosity did not effect the relation between
interest and ability perceptions.
Curiosity subscale of
the Values in Action
Inventory
“the emotion trait
associated with
feelings of interest”
(p. 95)
EmA
Exp 1:
C/IW scale
PC scale
Exp 2:
C/IW scale
C/IW, PCS, & openness to experience
scale loaded on one factor. C/IW, CEI, &
CFD loaded on second factor. Appraised
ability to understand (but not appraised
complexity) mediated the relation between
curiosity and interest in poems & art.
CEI
CFD scale
Silvia,
N=191
Henson, &
undergrads
Templin, 2009
--
--
PC scale
Individuals for whom interest in art was
more dependent upon appraisals of
novelty-complexity were higher in
curiosity than individuals for whom
novelty-complexity was not as predictive
of interest.
Academic curiosity
scale adapted from
Skinner & Belmont,
1993
Curiosity was positively related to grades
and academic persistence, and negatively
related to having a lower academic identity
and negative school behaviors.
C/IW scale
CEI
EC scale
Smalls, White, N=390 7th-10th
Chavous, &
graders
Sellers, 2007
--
--
Villiger,
Niggli,
Wandeler, &
Kutzelmann,
2012
N=793 4th
graders
von Strumm
N=569
& Deary, 2011 members of the
Lothian Birth
Cohort of 1921
Wavo, 2004
N=901 7th
graders
Curiosity subscale of
the Motivation for
Reading
Questionnaire
Curiosity for reading was significantly
impacted by a school/home intervention.
“the tendency to
ExB
seek out, engage in,
EmA
enjoy, and
continuously pursue
opportunities for
effortful cognitive
activity (von
Stumm, 2010)” (p.
5).
Intellectual curiosity
factor of the Typical
Intellectual
Engagement (TIE)
Inventory
IQ positively predicted intellectual
curiosity; intellectual curiosity mediated
the relation between IQ and verbal fluency.
“Curiosity behavior
is a behavior
characterized by
exploring or
stimulus-seeking
responses to either
novel or complex
stimuli” (p. 181)
Curiosity subscale of
the Battery of
Affective Outcomes
of Schooling Scales
(Engelhard, 1985)
Curiosity was positively related to
performance on a district examination.
--
--
CV
ExB
WoodsGroves,
Eaves, &
Williams,
2009
3 samples:
N=40, N=374
teachers rating
the children in
their class,
N=586 nonteachers
(typically
family
members)
rating schoolage children
--
--
Human Behavior
Rating Scale (HBR
scale; curiosity is one
of 5 factors)
completed by
teachers
High reliability and consistency of the
HBR scale.
Yang & Lay,
2011
N=508
undergrads
“having desire to
understand or
access information
on the Internet” (p.
342).
ExB
Scale adapted from
previous scales by
Pierce et al. (2005)
and Kashdan et al.
(2009)
Curiosity for accessing the Internet was
negatively related to reported use of the
Internet for non-homework-related tasks
while completing homework, and was
positively related to Internet efficacy.
Zhao, Lu,
Wang, &
Huang, 2011
N=3475 junior
high and senior
high school
students
“the desire to
acquire and
investigate new
knowledge and new
sensory experience
(Litman &
Spielberger, 2003)”
(p. 347).
NK
Scale adapted from
Huang (2003)
Internet self-efficacy, parental support, and
peer influence positively predicted
curiosity; curiosity positively predicted
exploratory behavior directly and indirectly
by increasing flow.
ExB
Zisimopoulos
& Galanaki,
2009
N=940 typically -developing
children
N=40 learning
disabled 5th &
6th graders
--
Curiosity/Interest
subscale of the Scale
of Intrinsic versus
Extrinsic Orientation
in the Classroom
No significant difference in
curiosity/interest for children with and
without learning disabilities (LD);
significant relation between
curiosity/interest and perceived academic
competence for non-LD students; no
significant relation for LD students.
Note: NK = Need for knowledge or information; CV = Association with collative variables; ExB = Exploratory behavior; EmA =
Emotions or arousal; I-type = interest type curiosity; D-type = deprivation type; STPI = State Trait Personality Inventory; NES =
Novelty Experience Scale; SSS-V = Sensation Seeking Scale V; CEI = Curiosity and Exploration Inventory; C/IW scale =
Curiosity/Interest in the World Scale; ACS = Academic Curiosity Scale; MCI = Melbourne Curiosity Inventory; OTIM = Ontario Test
of Intrinsic Motivation; NFC = Need for Cognition; EC scale = Epistemic Curiosity Scale; CFD scale= Curiosity as a Feeling-ofDeprivation Scale; PC scale = Perceptual Curiosity Scale