LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT OF NEWSPRINT PRODUCTION AT A BOARD AND
PAPER PRODUCTION COMPANY IN ZIMBABWE
1
CHARLES MBOHWA, LIVISON MASHOKO
University of Johannesburg, Faculty of Engineering and the Built
Environment, Department of Quality and Operations
Management, APB Campus, P. O. Box 524, Auckland Park 2006,
Johannesburg, South Africa.
cmbohwa@uj.ac.za. Telephone: +27/11/5591202: Fax: +27/11/559/1347
ABSTRACT
The pulp and paper industry is one of the main contributors to greenhouse gas emission and
environmental pollution. This paper therefore discusses the Life Cycle Assessment of newsprint
paper in Zimbabwe with a view to contributing to decision making, taking and implementation about
the sector in developing a path towards sustainability. The study identifies options for improving
environmental performance of producing writing and printing paper in Zimbabwe, improving
material and energy consumption and promoting environmental awareness and sustainability. The
international standards ISO 14040 – 14044 (2006) guidelines were used. The product system
considered covers the production of raw materials, the pre-combustion effects of coal and electricity
production. The data from the production of newsprint at a Board and Paper Mills company, the
largest paper mill in Zimbabwe, was used. Data were collected by reviewing company documents,
observation, during study visits and industrial attachments, interviews with the company’s
employees, use of questionnaires, from literature and from existing databases used by SIMAPRO.
The functional unit for this study was taken as 53gsm newsprint paper produced in Zimbabwe from
the pulping of pinewood. Data collected were on energy consumption, water emissions and air
emissions to develop life cycle inventories. These were used for mid-point impact assessment using
SIMAPRO software. Environmental impacts were assessed under the following impact categories:
global warming, acidification, human toxicity, eutrophication, ozone depletion, eco-toxicity and
cumulative energy demand. Main air emissions are from the burning of fossil fuel for the production
of steam and from electricity production.
Keywords: Energy use, life cycle assessment, pulp and paper environmental impacts
1. INTRODUCTION
The Zimbabwean pulp and paper industry is one of the most important economic activities in
Zimbabwe. It is also adopting the concept of environmentally sustainable development. This is
shown by several improvements and investments that have been undertaken by the pulp and paper
industry in order to improve its environmental performance. (Britt, 1984) The concept of sustainable
development involves life cycle assessment (LCA) of products, efficient resource utilization, energy
conservation, limitation of wastes from households and industries. (ISO 14041, 2006; UNEP IE/
PAC., 1993)
1.1 Background to the study
According to the Inter- governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) mean surface temperature
has increased by 0.3ºc to 0.6ºc over the last 100 years. They also predict that the global temperature
is likely to increase by about 1ºc by 2025 and by 3 ºc by the end of the century. (IPCC, 2007) This is
due to the greenhouse effect as a result of the gases emitted from industries. These gases include
carbon dioxide, CFCs, and N2O. It is against the background of such global crisis that the
Zimbabwean industry is no exception and hence the need to study the contribution of the pulp and
paper industry in Zimbabwe. Energy in all of its forms is essential for any one country that is electric
power, and fossil fuels. In Zimbabwe there is limited capacity for electricity generation. ZESA
generates 1440MW of total national power requirements. Kariba Power Station generates 750MW,
and Hwange Thermal Power Station generates 590MW and Harare thermal power 100MW. All this
amounts to 68% of the national power demand. The remaining 32%, that is 650MW are accounted
for through imports [2]. Zimbabwe imports 300MW from Eskom, 250MW from Hydroelectrica de
Cabora Bassa, and 100MW from Société National d'Electricitie of the Democratic Republic of
Congo. (Mbohwa, 2002) Given the scarcity of the foreign currency to import the power there is need
to try and reduce the power consumption of the Pulp and paper industry to optimum levels. Scope to
produce power from wood waste is another option.
Air pollution has also been attributed to an increase in cases of respiratory diseases though this
subject to some debate. In developed countries there has been a remarkable improvement in the
health and life expectancy of these populations since the inception of pollution control measures and
legislation. (Taylor, 1994) Clean air is a basic human need and therefore manufacturing industries
must try as much as is possible to minimise the air emissions where possible and also to treat these
emissions to insignificant levels of toxicity. (Barrow, 1995) It is also a fact that resources are finite.
The amount of raw materials that go into the pulp and paper industry need to be looked into and
ways designed to reduce their intake and also to find alternatives in order to protect the environment
from which these resources are derived. This justifies the need for environmental impact assessment
of production systems. Hence the use of life cycle assessment (LCA), a tool that is essential for
assessing the environmental effects associated with the pulp and paper industry in Zimbabwe,
because it assesses a product throughout its life cycle that is from extraction of the raw materials
through to processing, transport, use, reuse, recycling or disposal. (UNEP IE/ PAC., 1993)
1.2 Objectives of the study
The main purpose of carrying out the study was the identification and assessment of the
environmental impacts that are a result of the production of newsprint in Zimbabwe. The objectives
were:
 Identification of the most efficient and cost effective options for increasing the
environmental performance of the production of writing and printing paper in Zimbabwe.
 Assessment of the pulp and paper processes in order to identify opportunities for efficiency
improvements, such as waste treatment fewer raw material use and energy saving. That is
identifying processes and materials that cause high resource consumption.
 Promotion of green design and manufacturing in the Zimbabwean pulp and paper industry.
The LCA methodology was applied to the production of newsprint in Zimbabwe and this paper
presents the major findings.
2. METHODOLOGY
The study was performed using the international organization for standardisation (ISO)
methodological framework based on the requirements of the ISO standards 14040 and 14044 (2006).
The goal refers to the intended application and audience and the reasons for conducting the study,
specifically stating the purpose of the study. In this study the main purpose was to identify unit
processes in the whole life cycle of the production of paper that offers opportunities for
improvement in environmental performance and optimisation of energy and resource use. The
results of the study will enable the industry to focus on the main stages contributing to the
environmental impact. The results of the paper will be communicated to the pulp and paper industry
and will be used to stimulate interest in LCA to other industries which experience more or less the
same upstream and downstream activities like power generation and coal mining. The scope
definition catered for: description of the system, the functional unit, system boundaries, impact
assessment methodologies, data quality requirements and assumptions. The product used for the
study is newsprint paper produced in Zimbabwe. The newsprint is produced in the Eastern
Highlands where the temperate climate is ideal for the growing of exotic pine trees that provide the
basic raw materials for the paper-making. The newsprint is produced using the available pulping
technology in Zimbabwe. The system studied produces newsprint paper through mechanical pulping
of virgin pinewood. The pulp produced is mixed with imported chemical pulp. The system boundary
included the extraction of fossil fuels, production of electricity, transportation, pulping and papermaking. The process flow is shown in Figure 1.
INPUT
Raw materials: wood, water, and chemicals
Energy: coal, diesel, and electricity
Raw material and
energy acquisition
Wood, energy, water,
chemicals
Manufacturing,
processing: pulping,
papermaking, and
packaging
Distribution,
transportation
Use, reuse,
maintenance
Recover,
recycle
OUTPUT
Usable products

Newsprint paper

Bi- products: paper for
butcheries, wood for domestic
purposes
Environmental impacts

Airborne emissions: CO2, SO2,
NOX, etc

Water effluents: BOD, COD,
metals

Solid wastes: bark, sludge, paper,
etc

Other environmental releases
Figure 1: Process flow diagram for newsprint production
The fuel production subsystem comprises of the pre-combustion of the consumed fuels. The fuels
include diesel, petrol and coal. Inventory data were obtained from company records. The electric
energy production sub-system purchases power from the country’s only supplier, the Zimbabwe
Electricity Supply Agency. There is no co generation of electricity in the pulp and paper mills in
Zimbabwe at the moment. The system boundary excluded the maintenance of goods and machinery,
chemical production, and the paper utilisation phase to make the study manageable and avoid nonvalue adding complexity. The maintenance of goods and machinery was excluded due to the
complexity of modelling the maintenance scenarios. Production and transportation of chemicals was
not included because environmental effects from production and transportation of chemicals are
never more than 10% of the total environmental burden. The range is usually 2-4%. The use of
products was omitted because the research becomes complicated when the different user markets
and patterns are considered. Also the environmental effects from user phase are minor. The
functional unit for this study is 53gsm newsprint paper produced in Zimbabwe from the pulping of
pinewood. The impact categories that were considered in the study are: acidification, eutrophication,
eco-toxicity, human toxicity, global warming using the International Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) global warming potentials for 100 years, non-renewable resource depletion and ozone
depletion. All these impact categories were assessed using the Eco-indicator 99 (H), Version 2.03 of
the SimaPro software version 7.0. Non-renewable resource depletion (NRRD) was determined using
the Cumulative Energy Demand, Version 1.03 of the SimaPro software. Eco indicator 99 was chosen
because it includes land use, fossil fuel depletion and fine particle matter in the impact assessment.
The other methods like CML 92 do not include noise, land use and fine particle matter. Eco indicator
95 does not include noise, land use and fossil fuel depletion. Therefore Eco indicator 99 was chosen
even though it does not include noise because the contribution of noise in the environmental impacts
in the pulp and paper industry is very small.
Inventory analysis involved data collection and calculation procedures to quantify relevant inputs
and outputs of product system (Use of resources and emissions to air). Allocation procedures were
used to deal with the system. Unit process divisions were used in some instances to avoid allocation,
but in cases where this was not possible allocation was done in accordance with ISO standards.
Allocation was also avoided by the use of system expansion to include the additional functions
related to co-products from the system. The ISO standards suggest the allocation of environmental
load based on physical causality, such as mass, socio economic value based allocation based on
value can also be used as last resort. (ISO 14040, 2006) In this study allocation was done between
the production of newsprint and the other types of paper because some of the equipment is shared.
So there was need for allocation for such things as electricity consumption and coal consumption.
Calculation of energy flows included the different fuels and electricity sources used, the efficiency
of conversion and distribution of energy flow as well as the inputs associated with the generation and
use of that energy flow. Inventory data collection was done for the processes that are relevant to the
chosen LCA boundary. This data were made available by the pulp and paper industry in Zimbabwe.
Some of the data were collected through the use of questionnaires, from literature and from
databases. Two types of data were used in the study and these are primary data and secondary data.
Primary data were obtained from the production plants and the companies involved. Secondary data
were obtained from literature and databases.
Table 1: Data quality sources and reliability
Data
Description
Newsprint
production
Electricity
production
Coal
production
steam
production
Chemical pulp
production
Transportation
materials, energy
and emissions
materials, energy
and emissions
materials, energy
and emissions
materials, energy
and emissions
materials, energy
and emissions
materials, energy
and emissions
Source
Type
Primary
Geographical
Representation
Zimbabwe
Reliability and completeness
Secondary
Zimbabwe
Primary
Zimbabwe
Reliable and incomplete since the data were not
reflective of the current situation
Reliable and complete
Primary
Zimbabwe
Reliable and complete
Secondary
Europe
Reliable and complete
Secondary
Zimbabwe
Reliable and complete
Reliable and complete
Most of the data were obtained from company records using questionnaires and forms. Data on
chemical pulp was obtained from the Eco invent data base available on the SimaPro software. The
system starts with pine tree production, which mainly involves forest installation, forest growth and
wood harvesting. Only data for wood harvesting was included in this study. Wood harvesting
involves felling, cutting and truck loading. Data were collected for the transportation of the
pinewood to the pulp mills. Transportation of raw materials such as coal was also considered in the
study. Energy use data were also collected. The pulp and paper industry in Zimbabwe purchases
electricity from the national grid and data were collected for the production of electricity from coal,
which is the main fossil fuel, used for the production of electricity in Zimbabwe. The precombustion effects of the fuels used in the other paper life cycle stages were explored. The main fuel
used is coal. Data were collected from the relevant bodies that are involved in fuel production.
Mechanical pulp is produced from the pinewood. The data on the production of pulp was acquired
from the pulp mills in Zimbabwe. In some instances assumptions and estimates were made here data
were not readily available. The data also included the energy that is consumed in terms of both coal
and electricity. The coal is used for the production of process steam.
3. RESULTS OF THE INVENTORY STAGE
A first interpretation of the results at the inventory level can be done based on individual parameters
The following parameters discussed from an environmental point of view are analysed: nonrenewable and renewable energy consumption, carbon dioxide (C02), sulphur dioxide (SO2),
nitrogen oxides (NOX), and chemical oxygen demand (COD). The carbon dioxide originated from
non-renewable fuels was considered because it is assumed that the carbon dioxide produced from
renewable sources is balanced by carbon dioxide in the forest. In the figures and results, pulp and
paper mills refer to the production of pulp and paper at the pulp mills, Hwange colliery coal
represents the extraction of coal in Zimbabwe, ZESA power represents production of electricity
according to Zimbabwean conditions, Cellulose sulphate represents production of imported chemical
pulp. The chemical pulp is imported from Europe and only its transportation by road to the pulp
mills was included. Truck 28t B250 represents the transportation systems in the life cycle.
3.1 Energy consumption: The pulping processes and the paper making process at the mills are the
most important consumer of non-renewable energy in the form of coal. This is followed by the
production of electricity that is used in the production of the paper. The production of chemical pulp
also consumes a significant amount of energy even though this is not derived Zimbabwe because the
chemical pulp is imported. Transportation also accounts for a significant amount energy consumed
in the life cycle
3.2 Water emissions: The pulping processes at the pulp mill are the most important contributor as
far as the chemical oxygen demand is concerned. The generation of electricity and the extraction of
coal are also significant contributors to the emissions to water systems.
3.3 Air emissions: The major source of carbon dioxide is onsite energy use at the pulp mills where
pulping and papermaking is carried out. Transportation generates most of the NOX during the
transportation of wood from the forest to the pulp mill and also transportation of coal to the pulp and
paper mills. Wood harvesting is also an important contributor to air emissions and the pulp mill also
contributes significantly to air emissions. Sulphur dioxide is mainly produced during production
processes at the pulp mills. The production of the electricity that is used at the mills is also an
important contributor to air emissions.
4 IMPACT ASSESSMENT RESULTS
4.1 Global warming: The results presented in Figure 2 show that the pulping and paper making
process has about 72% contribution to the global warming potentials for 100 years. The extraction of
coal accounts for close to 10% contribution to this impact category. Transportation and generation of
electricity from coal have almost equal contributions of about 5% each to global warming. The
results for global warming are the same as that for climatic change because they mainly result from
the same source.
120
115
110
105
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
%
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
IPCC GWP 100a
MBPM paper
T ruck 28t B250
wood harvesting
ZESA POWER
hwange colliery coal
Cellulose sulphate BCC
Analysing 1 kg material 'MBPM paper'; Method: IPCC 2001 GWP 100a V1.02 / characterisation
Fig 2 IPCC global warming potentials for 100 years
4.2 Acidification: In the present scenario the production of pulp and the paper making at the factory
is the greatest contributor to acidification with a contribution of about 42% and this is mainly a result
of the sulphur dioxide that is emitted into the atmosphere during the combustion of coal for steam
production. Transportation is the second in contribution at about 35%, due to the release of NOX
from transportation of wood and coal to the pulp mills. The production of chemical pulp at 22% is
also an important contributor, but this pulp is imported. The different contribution levels are shown
in Figure 3. The extraction of coal has a very low contribution to this impact category at about 2 %.
4.3 Human toxicity: The main contributors to this impact category are carcinogens that cause
cancer, respiratory organic and respiratory inorganic substances. The production of the pulp and the
paper at the pulp mills account for more than 50% contribution to this impact category. Pulp and
paper mills production has a significant contribution to all the three components of this impact
category that is carcinogens, respiratory in-organics and respiratory organics. Transportation is also
an important contributor to due to the emission of gases such as carbon monoxide as a result of
incomplete combustion.
120
115
110
105
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
%
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Carcinoge
ns
Resp. orga
nics
Resp. inor
ganics
MBPM paper
T ruck 28t B250
Climate
change
Radiation
wood harvesting
ZESA POWER
Ozone
layer
Ecotoxicit
y
Acidificati
on/ Eutro
Land use
hwange colliery coal
Minerals
Fossil fuels
Cellulose sulphate BCC
Analysing 1 kg material 'MBPM paper'; Method: Eco-indicator 99 (H) V2.03 / Europe EI 99 H/A / characterisation
Fig 3 Results of characterisation and damage assessment
4.4 Eutrophication: The largest contribution to eutrophication is from the pulp and paper mill as
shown in Figure 3. This has a contribution of 42 % followed by transportation, which accounts for
about 35% contribution. The reason for such a scenario is mainly due to the release of nitrates into
the water from the mechanical pulping that takes place at the pulp mills.
4.4.6 Ozone depletion This impact category is mainly a result of transportation because it is the
process that produces much of carbon monoxide that is responsible for depleting the ozone.
Transportation accounts for approximately 50% contribution to this impact category. The chemical
pulp, which is imported and mixed with mechanical pulp for the manufacture of newsprint, is the
second largest contributor after transportation. Chemical pulp contributes about 23% to this impact
category. The production of electricity has a very low contribution, see Figure 3.
4.7 Eco-toxicity: The pulping and paper making processes (pulp and paper mills) are responsible for
contributing much to the toxicity of the ecosystem. This is mainly due to the chemicals that are used
during the production of pulp and these include defoamers, biocides and dyes. This stage accounts
for slightly above 65% contribution to this impact category. Chemical pulp also contributes
significantly to this impact category followed by transportation, which has a relatively low
contribution to this impact category about 7%.
4.8 Cumulative energy demand: The pulp and paper processes, as shown in Figure 4, are
responsible for the highest consumption of non-renewable fossil energy at about 35%. The
production of electricity is also a significant consumer of non-renewable fossil energy and this is due
to the coal that is used for the production of 70% of the electricity in Zimbabwe. This has a 22%
contribution to this impact category. Non-renewable nuclear is only attributable to chemical pulp
(cellulose sulphate BCC) because it is imported and it is produced in those countries where nuclear
energy is in use. As for renewable energy from water the greatest contributor is chemical pulp and
the pulping and paper making processes also have a significant contribution of close to 15%. The
production of electricity (ZESA power) also has a relatively low contribution to this impact category
120
115
110
105
100
95
90
85
80
75
70
%
65
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Non renewable, fossil
MBPM paper
T ruck 28t B250
Non-renewable
, nuclear
Renewable, biomass
wood harvesting
ZESA POWER
Renewable, wind
, solar, geothe
hwange colliery coal
Renewable, water
Cellulose sulphate BCC
Analysing 1 kg material 'MBPM paper'; Method: Cumulative Energy Demand V1.03 / Cumulative energy demand / characterisation
Fig 4 Results for cumulative energy demand
5. Conclusion
The following conclusions can be drawn based on the inventory and impact assessment results.
 The greatest contributor to carbon dioxide emission is the pulping and paper making
processes due to the combustion of coal in the boilers. This results in a major contribution to
the overall global warming potential. The pulping and papermaking are also the most
significant contributors to the acidification impact category. It is also the main consumer of
non-renewable energy and, as result; it is responsible for the most important share of the
global system potential concerning non-renewable resource depletion.
 The pulping processes assume a predominant role in global warming impact category as a
result of carbon dioxide emissions. The pulping processes assume a predominant role in
global warming impact category as a result of carbon dioxide emissions.


Transportation is the main contributor to the eutrophication and contributes significantly to
the acidification impact categories.
The contribution of the disposal stage of the life cycle of the paper to environmental impacts
needs to be explored. In this case it was not included mainly due to lack of data to describe
the disposal processes.
This study found out that the pulp and paper industry in Zimbabwe is making some effort to
optimise the use of energy in order to reduce their operating costs and also to reduce the amount
consumed in line with protecting the environment. Coal and electricity are the main sources of
energy that are used in the Zimbabwean pulp and paper industry. The industry is also improving its
environmental performance through improved waste treatment systems. Life Cycle Assessment
(LCA) is thus an appropriate method to get a global overview of the pulp and paper industry in
Zimbabwe and therefore be able to identify opportunities for raw material and energy optimisation
as well as improving the efficiency of waste treatments systems.
6 DISCUSSIONS AND RECOMMNDATIONS
One of the objectives for carrying out the study was to identify stages in the life cycle of newsprint
paper where we can optimise resource and energy use and at the same time reduce impact to the
environment. The following are the findings that satisfy this objective:
 The pulp and paper mills are responsible for consuming the largest quantities of coal and at
the same time electricity. The problem at MBPM is that there are no stand-alone meters for
the pulping section and the paper section especially when it comes to electricity. This makes
it very difficult to really specify as to which of the two processes is responsible for
consuming the bulk of the energy. Therefore efforts to reduce energy consumption should
mainly be directed to this stage of the product life cycle
 The pulping processes are also responsible for the emission of sulphur dioxide and carbon
dioxide. This therefore implies that efforts should be made to reduce these emissions to air
when coal is combusted at the pulp mills.
 Transportation is the greatest contribution to the emission of NOx to the atmosphere.
Therefore efforts to reduce these emissions should focus on the transportation aspects of the
raw materials and the coal that is used at the pulp mills.
 There is also need to have a thorough look at the production of electricity and transportation
of raw materials with a view to reduce non-renewable fossil energy consumption.
6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
The following are the recommendations that are necessary to reduce the environmental impacts of
the pulp and paper industry in Zimbabwe. It should be noted that though some of these
recommendations are directed to the case study that was used these recommendations are also
applicable to other players in the pulp and paper industry in Zimbabwe
 Improvement of boiler efficiencies and reducing steam leaks: The results of the study
show that a lot of energy is consumed at the pulp and paper mills. This energy is mainly
supplied as coal. Improvement of the efficiency of the boilers at pulp and paper mills is
imperative so as to increase the amount of useful energy that is produced. Currently the
boilers at MBPM have an average boiler efficiency of 67%. There is also need to alleviate
the problem of malfunctioning steam traps and steam leaks at MBPM. According to a
previous project carried out at MBPM it was shown that close 6000 tonnes of coal per year
are used to generate steam that is lost through steam leakages. An improvement in steam
circulation systems will therefore optimize coal consumption at MBPM and at the same time




reduce the emissions that are a result of the combustion of coal that produces energy, which
will in turn be lost to the environment
Metering: There is also need to improve the metering system at MBPM with a view to make
informed decisions instead of estimations and approximations. At the present moment very
few meters are functioning properly. Proper metering will ensure that systems efficiency and
performance are monitored. This also helps in the identification of energy ‘hot spots’ even in
terms of electricity consumption.
Wood / bark fired boiler: There is need to carry out a feasibility assessment for the
company to invest in a wood or bark fired boilers. This is because close to 23 tonnes of bark
and off-cuts are produced daily and these can be used to produce steam. However there is
need to carry out feasibility study and determine if the development is viable in terms of
financial savings and also its environmental performance and implications. This development
can significantly reduce the amount of coal consumed that is a non-renewable resource but
the wood is renewable, though there is also need to take note of the impact of this so called
renewable energy sources. (IEA, 1999) This could also be used to produce electricity.
Transportation systems: The transportation subsystem is responsible for the bulk of the
NOxs that are emitted into the atmosphere. They also consume a significant amount of fossil
energy. There is need to use the railway system where applicable especially for the
transportation of coal from Hwange to Mutare. The railway system has an advantage over 28t
trucks because the train transports a lot of cargo for lesser energy. In fact the cargo to fuel
ratio for a goods train is much greater than that for 28t trucks.
Coal extraction: The extraction of coal is also responsible for the release of methane into the
atmosphere. Therefore ways should be designed to trap this valuable gas and therefore make
use of it rather than let it increase the global warming potential. This can also reduce the
energy consumption since it will substitute some energy that is already in use. However there
is need to note that this can also be done at a cost to the environment, so it is necessary to
assess the feasibility of this development.
6.3 CONCLUSION
LCA requires specific and well-researched information to establish baseline environmental impact
data for even basic raw materials, and is thus extremely resource intensive. The other challenges met
in carrying out the study according to the Zimbabwean context are as follows:




The inherent subjectivity of assessments (e.g. in determining relative weighting for emissions);
The lack of a widely accepted methodology for conducting LCA;
Difficulties on clearly defining the scope of and LCA;
Confidentiality issues that restrict the availability of data. Availability of data is a major problem
because some companies are not cooperative because they are afraid that their environmental
mismanagement practises might be exposed. In some instance this has led to bias in order that
the LCA does not offend the sponsors.
The objectives of the LCA study were met even though there is need to note that the waste scenario
of the industry was not explored due to unavailability of data to quantify the input and output
streams. However there is more that still needs to be done in the industry especially when it comes to
the keeping of records. The issues of confidentiality of data and access to it are also causes for
concern. There is also need for a clearly defined methodology for carrying out the study. The study
is also costly and time consuming. Despite all these setbacks the LCA of the pulp and paper industry
was carried out and the findings were presented and the recommendations necessary made available.
These results reflect the data that was used based on the operations in Zimbabwe. Life cycle
assessments done elsewhere might have similar results, but the percentage contribution to each
impact category would differ, depending on the type of energy used, the electricity mix, the sources
of raw materials and the type of technology used in the pulp and paper industry in a target country of
study. However this work presents findings from an African perspective and demonstrates the use of
SIMAPRO software and Eco-indicator 99 in life cycle assessment.
6. ACKNOWLEGDEMENTS
The study was done with the assistance of African Life Cycle Assessment Network (ALCANET)
and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and PRE Environmental Consultants of
Netherlands provided the software. Special thanks go to the pulp and paper industry in Zimbabwe
for their cooperation.
7. REFERENCES
1. Barrow C. J., 1995, Developing the Environment, Problems and Management, New York:
Longman
2. Britt K. W., 1984, Handbook of pulp and paper technology, New York Van Nostrand Reinhold
3. IEA, 1999, International Energy Agency, Programme on Advanced Energy-Efficient
Technologies for the Pulp and Paper Industry, Final Report, April 1999
4. IPCC, 2007, Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report- An Assessment of the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change, http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/syr/ar4_syr.pdf Last
accessed on 15th May 2013
5. ISO 14040, 2006, International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), Environmental
management- Life cycle assessment- Goal and scope definition and inventory analysis. ISO
Organisation. Geneva, Switzerland
6. Mbohwa C., 2002 “Zimbabwe: Where the Electricity Industry needs to go” The Electricity
Journal, Elsevier Science Ltd, 2002, Vol. 15/7 pp 82-91.
7. McKinney R. W. J., 1995, Technology of Paper Recycling, Blackie Academic and Professional,
Chapman and Hall, London. UK
8. Taylor B., 1994, The Environmental Management Handbook, London: Pitman Publishing
9. UNEP IE/ PAC., 1993; Industry and Environment, Volume 16, No 4, October – December 1993